Economics, Law and Policy ISSN 2576-2060 (Print) ISSN 2576-2052 (Online) Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp 114 Original Paper Regional Judicial Cooperation in Combating Cross-Border Telecommunication Fraud: Research and Countermeasures Junyu Chen 1 , Minna Qiu 2* & Junjie Ruan 1 1 Criminal Law School, East China University of Political Science and Law, Shanghai, China 2 Law School, Shantou University, Guangzhou, China * Minna Qiu, Law School, Shantou University, Guangzhou, China Received: August 11, 2024 Accepted: August 26, 2024 Online Published: August 29, 2024 doi:10.22158/elp.v7n2p114 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/elp.v7n2p114 Abstract In recent years, cross-border telecommunication fraud has become an increasingly serious global issue that demands urgent resolution. This paper aims to investigate the role of regional judicial cooperation in combating cross-border telecommunication fraud and propose corresponding countermeasures. Firstly, it provides an overview of the definitions, characteristics, and main methods of cross-border telecommunication fraud, analyzing its development trends and data performance. The paper then explores the theoretical foundation of regional judicial cooperation, including its concepts, legal frameworks, and a comparison between international and regional cooperation. By examining the current status and challenges of various regional judicial cooperation mechanisms, it reveals successful cases and existing problems. This paper further proposes specific countermeasures for combating cross-border telecommunication fraud, including the improvement of legal regulations, formulation of effective policies, and utilization of technological means, and offers suggestions for enhancing the efficiency of regional judicial cooperation. Through case analysis, the role and experiences of regional judicial cooperation in handling actual cases are discussed. Finally, the paper looks forward to future research directions and identifies new challenges and opportunities that may arise in the context of cross-border telecommunication fraud and regional judicial cooperation. The research provides valuable references and suggestions for improving measures against cross-border telecommunication fraud. Keywords Cross-border telecommunication fraud, regional judicial cooperation, legal countermeasures, policy measures www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 115 Published by SCHOLINK INC. 1. Introduction In recent years, cross-border telecommunication fraud has surged rapidly, becoming a significant global security challenge. Due to the rapid development of information technology and the advancement of globalization, the methods of cross-border telecommunication fraud have become increasingly complex, involving a broader range of regions and countries. This type of crime not only poses a severe threat to the financial security of victims but also impacts international trust and cooperation in cyber security. To effectively address this issue, regional judicial cooperation is particularly crucial. Regional judicial cooperation enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of combating cross-border telecommunication fraud through multi-national collaboration, information sharing, and resource integration. This paper aims to explore the role of regional judicial cooperation in combating cross-border telecommunication fraud, analyze existing cooperation mechanisms and practices, identify major challenges, and propose practical countermeasures. Through this research, it is hoped to provide theoretical support and practical guidance for countries working together to combat cross-border telecommunication fraud and to promote international cooperation and consensus in the field of cyber security. 2. Overview of Cross-Border Telecommunication Fraud 2.1 Definition and Characteristics of Cross-Border Telecommunication Fraud Cross-border telecommunication fraud refers to fraudulent criminal activities involving multiple countries or regions, utilizing telecommunication technologies. Its main characteristics include: Firstly, cross-border telecommunication fraud often involves transnational criminal organizations that conduct fraudulent activities through cross-border networks, exploiting legal and enforcement differences between countries to conceal their crimes. Secondly, the methods used in these frauds are diverse, including fraudulent phone calls, phishing messages, and online scams, which deceive victims into providing personal information or transferring funds by masquerading as legitimate commercial activities or personal contacts. Furthermore, victims of cross-border telecommunication fraud are spread globally and are often difficult to trace or hold accountable, as criminals typically use technological means to hide their true identities and locations. Lastly, with the continuous advancement of information technology and communication tools, fraudulent methods are constantly evolving, and the sophistication of criminals’ disguises increases, making prevention and enforcement more challenging. Therefore, cross-border telecommunication fraud not only directly causes economic losses to victims but also poses a serious threat to national financial security and social stability (Sitompul, 2020, pp. 1-322). 2.2 Types and Methods of Cross-Border Telecommunication Fraud Cross-border telecommunication fraud encompasses a broad spectrum of deceptive practices that are constantly evolving, leveraging advancements in technology and communication to exploit victims worldwide. Among the most prevalent types are false prize fraud, identity theft and account fraud, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 116 Published by SCHOLINK INC. impersonation of customer service fraud, false investment and financial fraud, fraudulent websites and e-commerce scams, romance scams, and fake job and part-time frauds. False Prize Fraud is one of the most widespread and recognizable forms of telecommunication fraud. In this scam, perpetrators notify victims via phone calls, text messages, or emails that they have won a prize, such as a lottery, a travel package, or cash rewards. To claim their winnings, victims are often required to pay processing fees, taxes, or other charges upfront. In reality, the prizes do not exist, and the scammer’s goal is to trick the victim into providing personal information or making payments under false pretenses. Identity Theft and Account Fraud involve obtaining sensitive personal information through phishing, malware, or data breaches. Once the fraudsters have access to this information, they can commit various types of economic fraud, such as stealing money from bank accounts, making unauthorized purchases, or committing further financial crimes. The stolen data is often used to open new accounts in the victim’s name, incur debt, or transfer funds illicitly. Impersonation of Customer Service Fraud typically involves scammers pretending to be representatives from well-known companies. These fraudsters contact victims under the guise of addressing issues with their accounts or performing necessary maintenance. They may request sensitive account information or remote access to the victim’s computer. By exploiting the victim’s trust in a familiar brand, the scammers gain access to confidential information and potentially compromise the victim’s financial security. False Investment and Financial Fraud schemes attract victims with promises of high returns on fictitious financial products, such as virtual currencies, stocks, or real estate investments. The scammers create elaborate schemes that seem credible, often using professional-looking websites and marketing materials. Once victims invest their money, it is diverted to the fraudsters, leaving the victims with substantial financial losses and no recourse to recover their funds. Fraudulent Websites and E-Commerce Scams involve creating fake online shopping platforms that appear legitimate. Victims are enticed to make purchases for non-existent goods or services. After making payments, the victims may find that the products never arrive and may also face additional risks, such as personal information theft or further financial exploitation. Romance Scams exploit emotional connections formed on dating sites or social media platforms. Scammers build fake romantic relationships with their victims, gradually manipulating them into providing financial support under various pretenses, such as medical emergencies or travel expenses. Fake Job and Part-Time Frauds involve posting false job advertisements or part-time opportunities to attract job seekers. Scammers may ask for personal information or upfront fees for training materials or job placement services. Once the victim provides this information or makes a payment, the scammer disappears, leaving the victim with neither a job nor the promised services. These fraudulent methods exploit the pervasive use of modern communication technology and the global network environment. The ability of fraudsters to use sophisticated disguises and false identities makes detection and enforcement challenging, as their activities often span across multiple jurisdictions, complicating efforts to track and prosecute them (Chu & Deng, 2022, pp. 37-46). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 117 Published by SCHOLINK INC. 2.3 Current Trends and Data Analysis of Cross-Border Telecommunication Fraud Current trends in cross-border telecommunication fraud indicate that these criminal activities are becoming increasingly complex and covert. Firstly, rapid advancements in technology have led to the evolution of fraudulent methods. Fraudsters use artificial intelligence, big data analysis, and deepfake technology to make their scams more realistic and harder to detect. For example, artificial intelligence can generate highly realistic voices and videos, allowing scammers to impersonate real individuals or institutions, significantly increasing the difficulty for victims to identify fraud. Secondly, the diversification of fraud methods is becoming more apparent. In addition to traditional phone and email scams, new fraud methods such as social media scams, cryptocurrency scams, and online gaming scams are becoming mainstream. These new forms of fraud often employ principles of social engineering, manipulating victims’ psychology to extract funds or information. Moreover, the trend of transnational criminal organizations is becoming more prominent. Increasingly, cross-border telecommunication fraud cases involve criminal networks across multiple countries, often with efficient technical support and financial resources, operating across borders to evade legal penalties. Data shows that in recent years, the incidence rate and financial losses of cross-border telecommunication fraud cases have risen significantly, with increasing complexity and covert nature of fraudulent methods. The global range of victims has also expanded, with individuals and corporate executives alike falling prey to such fraud. Data analysis highlights not only the globalization of cross-border telecommunication fraud but also the complexity and urgency of combating this crime. Countries and international organizations need to respond collectively by enhancing cooperation and information sharing, and upgrading technological measures to effectively curb the spread of cross-border telecommunication fraud (Zhang, Shao & Zhang, 2023, pp. 1-22). 3. Theoretical Basis of Regional Judicial Cooperation 3.1 Concept and Importance of Regional Judicial Cooperation Regional judicial cooperation refers to the collaborative efforts undertaken by neighboring countries or regions within a specific geographical or political area to jointly combat crime and maintain legal order. This form of cooperation typically includes information sharing, cross-border investigations, joint actions, and legal assistance. The core of regional judicial cooperation is to enhance the effectiveness of combating cross-border crime by integrating resources and coordinating actions, which is particularly crucial when addressing complex crimes such as cross-border telecom fraud. Since telecom fraud often involves legal and judicial systems of multiple countries, handling it independently may not achieve optimal results. Through regional judicial cooperation, countries can share crime information, coordinate investigative actions, and implement joint efforts, thereby forming an effective cooperation mechanism and enhancing their ability to sanction criminal behavior. Additionally, regional judicial cooperation helps reduce legal conflicts, unify legal standards, and improve law enforcement efficiency, thereby promoting regional security and stability. With the acceleration of globalization and the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 118 Published by SCHOLINK INC. increase in cross-border crime, regional judicial cooperation plays an increasingly important role in the global governance system and is a key means of effectively combating cross-border crime and maintaining legal order (Corcoran, 2020, p. 1). 3.2 Legal Framework and Mechanisms of Regional Judicial Cooperation The legal frameworks and mechanisms of regional judicial cooperation provide the legal basis and operational norms for cross-border cooperation among countries. Typically, these frameworks and mechanisms include bilateral or multilateral treaties, cooperation agreements, and relevant regulations established by international organizations. These legal documents institutionalize regional judicial cooperation, ensuring the legality and effectiveness of cooperative activities. For example, the European Arrest Warrant among EU member states is a successful regional judicial cooperation mechanism. It simplifies the extradition process between member states, allowing for rapid extradition across different countries after the arrest of a criminal suspect, thereby expediting case handling. The European Arrest Warrant not only improves judicial efficiency but also reduces legal obstacles in the extradition process, facilitating smooth cross-border cooperation. In ASEAN, member states have strengthened their efforts against cross-border crime through the ASEAN Criminal Justice Cooperation Framework. This framework includes information sharing, legal assistance, and joint actions, aiming to enhance cooperation capabilities among member states in criminal justice. Cross-border cooperation conducted by ASEAN countries under this framework has achieved significant results in combating crimes such as telecom fraud within the region. International organizations such as the United Nations and Interpol also support regional judicial cooperation. The UN promotes global legal cooperation through the formulation of multilateral treaties and international cooperation mechanisms. Interpol, through its global network, provides support for cross-border crime intelligence sharing and joint actions, assisting countries in addressing complex cross-border crimes. Additionally, regions may establish dedicated cooperation agencies or committees responsible for coordinating and advancing judicial cooperation within the region. For example, EU judicial cooperation bodies such as Eurojust and the European Public Prosecutor’s Office play important roles in the investigation and prosecution of cross-border cases. These agencies facilitate cooperation and information exchange among member states by providing legal and technical support. In summary, the legal frameworks and mechanisms of regional judicial cooperation provide effective institutional support for combating cross-border crime by offering clear legal bases, operational norms, and support agencies. Legal cooperation mechanisms within and among countries and regions play a crucial role in enhancing cross-border cooperation, improving judicial efficiency, and maintaining regional security (Luo, 2022, p. 344). 3.3 Comparison of International and Regional Judicial Cooperation International and regional judicial cooperation exhibit significant differences in form and content, reflecting their distinct strategies and challenges in addressing cross-border crime at the global and regional levels. International judicial cooperation generally involves global coordination through international treaties, organizations, and meetings to promote legal collaboration between countries. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 119 Published by SCHOLINK INC. For example, the UN provides a global framework through the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime to enhance cooperation among countries in combating cross-border crime. Interpol supports multinational crime intelligence sharing and joint actions through its global network. The advantages of international judicial cooperation lie in its broad coverage and global coordination capabilities, but it also faces challenges related to complex coordination and significant legal and policy differences. In contrast, regional judicial cooperation focuses more on the specific needs within a geographical or political region, typically achieved through regional treaties and agreements. For example, EU member states use mechanisms such as the European Arrest Warrant and Eurojust to efficiently collaborate on cross-border crime within the region. ASEAN countries address regional crime issues like telecom fraud through the ASEAN Criminal Justice Cooperation Framework. This regional cooperation model better adapts to the specific needs and legal environments of member states, enabling more precise and efficient collaboration. The advantages of regional judicial cooperation include its ability to adjust to the actual situation within a specific region and provide targeted solutions. However, regional cooperation may also face issues related to legal differences and political sensitivities among member states, which can impact the effectiveness and depth of cooperation. In terms of content, international judicial cooperation often covers broader areas, including extradition, international criminal investigations, and transnational intelligence sharing, aimed at solving global issues. Regional judicial cooperation, on the other hand, is more focused on specific regional issues, such as cross-border telecom fraud and particular forms of regional crime, addressing practical challenges within a specific area. Overall, international and regional judicial cooperation each have unique advantages and challenges in addressing cross-border crime. International cooperation provides broad support through global frameworks and organizations, while regional cooperation enhances specificity and effectiveness through mechanisms and agreements that are closer to practical realities. The effective combination of both can offer more comprehensive solutions to cross-border crime at both global and regional levels (Han, Emma & Liu, 2023, pp. 60-83). 4. Current Situation of Regional Judicial Cooperation in Combating Cross-Border Telecom Fraud 4.1 Current Status and Challenges of Regional Judicial Cooperation Mechanisms Regional judicial cooperation mechanisms have made some progress in combating cross-border telecom fraud, but they also face various challenges. These mechanisms enhance the ability to combat cross-border telecom fraud through information sharing, joint investigations, and cross-border actions. However, due to differences in laws, cultures, and technologies within regions, these mechanisms often encounter difficulties in practical implementation. In the EU, regional judicial cooperation mechanisms such as the European Arrest Warrant and Eurojust have played important roles in handling cross-border telecom fraud cases. The European Arrest Warrant has streamlined the extradition process between member states, enabling rapid transfer of suspects across different countries and speeding up case www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 120 Published by SCHOLINK INC. resolution. Additionally, Eurojust, as the EU’s judicial cooperation agency, coordinates investigations and prosecutions among member states. Despite these achievements in efficiency, challenges persist in enforcement coordination and information sharing. Legal and procedural differences between member states, as well as language barriers, often lead to delays in information transmission and action execution. In ASEAN, member states have strengthened their efforts against cross-border crime, including telecom fraud, through the ASEAN Criminal Justice Cooperation Framework. This framework provides a legal and practical cooperation platform that facilitates information exchange and joint actions among member states. However, significant differences in legal systems and judicial capacities among ASEAN countries have created difficulties in handling specific cases. Inconsistent legal standards and uneven resource distribution impact the effectiveness of cooperation. Additionally, cultural differences and language barriers within ASEAN pose challenges for cross-border cooperation. In other regions such as Latin America and Africa, regional judicial cooperation mechanisms are also evolving but face more complex challenges. These regions often lack unified legal frameworks and coordination mechanisms, and the varying judicial capacities and technological levels among countries lead to lower efficiency in handling cross-border telecom fraud cases. Political and economic instability within regions may also affect the smooth execution of cooperation. Overall, while regional judicial cooperation mechanisms have achieved some success in combating cross-border telecom fraud, numerous challenges remain in practical implementation. Addressing these issues requires strengthening legal coordination and standardization within regions, improving technical support and resource sharing, enhancing information transmission mechanisms, and overcoming language and cultural differences. By continuously optimizing and improving regional judicial cooperation mechanisms, the effectiveness of combating increasingly complex cross-border telecom fraud can be enhanced. 4.2 Successful Cases and Experience Analysis In the fight against cross-border telecom fraud, several regional judicial cooperation mechanisms have achieved notable success. These cases not only demonstrate effective cooperation models but also provide valuable experience for future cooperation. A typical successful case is the “EU/US Joint Action” conducted within the EU. This operation, initiated by Europol and the FBI, aimed to combat cross-border telecom fraud networks. Through this operation, law enforcement agencies coordinated actions across multiple countries, successfully dismantling an international fraud syndicate. During the operation, participating countries shared extensive intelligence, conducted cross-border investigations and searches, ultimately apprehending numerous suspects and freezing fraud proceeds. This case highlights how close international cooperation and information sharing can efficiently combat complex cross-border crime networks. Another successful case is the “ASEAN Anti-Fraud Operation”, where ASEAN member states collaborated to address cross-border fraud. Coordinated by the ASEAN Secretariat, this operation involved law enforcement agencies from member states working together. Through a unified information-sharing platform, countries could exchange real-time information and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 121 Published by SCHOLINK INC. evidence related to fraud cases. This operation effectively targeted several cross-border telecom fraud gangs and promoted legal and technical cooperation among ASEAN member states. Notably, the operation achieved breakthroughs in information technology support and legal coordination, enhancing the region’s ability to combat telecom fraud. In Latin America, the “LATAM Anti-Fraud Operation” is also a successful case. Conducted through regional cooperation mechanisms, this operation involved Latin American countries sharing intelligence about fraud groups, coordinating cross-border investigations, and successfully dismantling several fraud networks. This case demonstrates that even with limited resources, effective regional cooperation and coordination can yield positive results. The experience analysis of these successful cases shows that effective regional judicial cooperation relies on several key factors. Firstly, the mechanism for information sharing is crucial, requiring participating countries to establish efficient platforms for real-time intelligence exchange. Secondly, cross-border coordination ability is essential, with law enforcement agencies needing to achieve tight coordination to ensure the unity and efficiency of actions. Additionally, technical support, including data analysis, monitoring technologies, and legal tools, is vital. These experiences not only showcase the practical effectiveness of regional cooperation in combating cross-border telecom fraud but also provide operational insights and references for future actions. In summary, the analysis of successful cases indicates that the effectiveness of regional judicial cooperation in combating cross-border telecom fraud largely depends on information sharing, cross-border coordination, and technical support. These successful experiences offer practical guidance for further optimizing regional cooperation mechanisms and enhancing the efficiency of cross-border crime fighting. 5. Legal and Policy Measures Against Cross-Border Telecom Fraud Combating cross-border telecom fraud requires a comprehensive approach involving both legal and policy measures to establish a systematic and effective prevention and control system. Firstly, countries should focus on improving their legal frameworks by clearly defining telecom fraud, specifying criminal responsibilities, and establishing penalty standards to create a comprehensive legal system. Specifically, it is recommended to draft and amend dedicated laws against telecom fraud and actively integrate international legal documents, such as the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, to enhance international legal coordination and cooperation. This measure can improve the responsiveness and effectiveness of legal systems against telecom fraud and overcome barriers in legal applicability. Secondly, information sharing is a core aspect of tackling cross-border telecom fraud. Countries should establish and optimize cross-border information-sharing platforms to facilitate real-time data exchange and evidence sharing among law enforcement agencies. Such platforms can help countries obtain timely information about fraud cases, improving their ability to identify and combat fraud networks. Moreover, strengthening cooperation with international organizations like Interpol and Europol, leveraging their global and regional network resources, will further enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of cross-border cooperation. Technical support and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 122 Published by SCHOLINK INC. training are also crucial. Countries should increase investment in advanced technological tools, such as data analysis, network monitoring, and electronic evidence collection technologies, which can significantly enhance investigative and preventive capabilities against telecom fraud. Additionally, enhancing the professional training of law enforcement personnel to improve their skills and knowledge in cybersecurity and telecom fraud is essential for addressing complex cross-border fraud cases. In terms of international and regional cooperation, promoting cooperation mechanisms at both international and regional levels can improve the effectiveness of combating telecom fraud. Regional organizations such as ASEAN and the EU should formulate and implement regional legal frameworks and cooperation agreements to promote coordination and collaboration among member states. Simultaneously, it is advisable to drive global cooperation and standardization through international organizations like the UN to form a united international effort against telecom fraud. Furthermore, public awareness and education are key to preventing telecom fraud. Governments and relevant agencies should conduct extensive public awareness campaigns to enhance the public’s understanding and prevention capabilities regarding telecom fraud. Through multi-channel promotion and education, spreading knowledge about common fraud techniques and preventive measures can reduce the occurrence of fraud cases from the source. Improving cross-border legal assistance mechanisms is also necessary. Countries should establish efficient cross-border legal assistance mechanisms, simplify extradition procedures, and strengthen cross-border judicial assistance and legal aid agreements to accelerate case processing and enhance the efficiency of handling international cases. Such mechanisms will aid in quickly obtaining evidence and conducting judicial proceedings, thereby improving the effectiveness of combating telecom fraud. Finally, international coordination of laws and policies is crucial. In the context of globalization, countries should strengthen dialogue and negotiation to promote the development of unified international standards and policies against telecom fraud to enhance legal and policy consistency. This will help reduce legal conflicts and improve the overall effectiveness of international cooperation. In summary, combating cross-border telecom fraud requires action on multiple fronts, including legal frameworks, information sharing, technical support, international and regional cooperation, public awareness, legal assistance, and international coordination. Through these comprehensive legal and policy measures, the ability to combat telecom fraud can be significantly improved, protecting public rights and maintaining international security and stability. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elp Economics, Law and Policy Vol. 7, No. 2, 2024 123 Published by SCHOLINK INC. 6. Conclusion Cross-border telecom fraud, as a growing international crime, not only causes serious economic damage but also threatens global social stability. This study clearly demonstrates that addressing cross-border telecom fraud requires comprehensive and systematic regional judicial cooperation. Firstly, understanding the definition, characteristics, types, and methods of cross-border telecom fraud is the foundation for developing effective measures. The evolving nature of fraud techniques and the complexity of cross-border crimes require deep cooperation among countries in legal frameworks, technical support, and information sharing. Current trends show that fraud gangs are becoming more covert and specialized, necessitating continuous innovation and improvement in anti-fraud measures. Regional judicial cooperation plays a crucial role in combating cross-border telecom fraud. Through theoretical analysis, we recognize that establishing robust regional judicial cooperation mechanisms can not only enhance the efficiency of handling cross-border cases but also improve the effectiveness of combating fraud through information sharing and coordinated actions. However, existing cooperation mechanisms still face many challenges, such as legal and institutional differences, poor information communication, and insufficient technical support, which affect the smoothness and effectiveness of cooperation. Addressing these challenges requires improving legal frameworks, strengthening information sharing, enhancing technical support, promoting international and regional cooperation, raising public awareness, and optimizing legal assistance mechanisms. Implementing these measures can effectively tackle the complex issues posed by cross-border telecom fraud and improve overall anti-fraud effectiveness. Additionally, international and regional legal and policy coordination will be a key focus for future efforts, with countries needing to strengthen cooperation and communication in the context of globalization. Overall, combating cross-border telecom fraud is a long-term and challenging task that requires joint efforts from countries, regions, and international organizations. Only through systematic legal measures and policy actions, and by establishing effective cooperation mechanisms, can a strong prevention and control network be formed globally to protect public interests and maintain social order. Future work should continue to address existing problems, optimize cooperation methods, and adapt to the evolving nature and development of telecom fraud crimes. References Chu, Y., & Deng, Y. C. (2022). Study on the Risk Prevention Measures of China’s Network Payment from the Perspective of Regulators. Law and Economy, 1(5), 37-46. https://doi.org/10.56397/LE.2022.12.05 Corcoran, B. (2020). A Comparative Study of Domestic Laws Constraining Private Sector Active Defense Measures in Cyberspace. Harv. Nat’l Sec. 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