




































Economy 
ISSN: 2313-8181 
Vol. 1, No. 3, 89-94, 2014 
www.asianonlinejournals.com/index.php/Economy 

 

 

* Corresponding Author 

 

 

89 

 

Examining the Economic Impact of the Migration of Skilled 

Labour from the Northern Parts of Ghana into the Ashanti 

Region of Ghana 
 

Williams Kwasi Boachie
1*

 
 

1
Department of Accounting Education, University of Education, Winneba, Kumasi Campus, Kumasi, Ghana 

 

ABSTRACT 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License 

Asian Online Journal Publishing Group 

 

Contents 
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 90 

2. A Brief Review of Literature ............................................................................................................................................... 90 

3. Research Questions .............................................................................................................................................................. 90 

4. Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................................................................ 90 

5. Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 91 

6. Data Analysis and Presentation........................................................................................................................................... 91 

7. Discussion of the Findings from the Study.......................................................................................................................... 93 

8. Conclusion and Recommendations ..................................................................................................................................... 94 

References ................................................................................................................................................................................ 94 

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................................ 95 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In many developing countries like Ghana, rural urban migration is a major issue facing governments 

and other stakeholders. In fulfillment of personal and other interests, people usually move from one 

place to another in search of satisfactory living conditions. The difference between the wages of rural 

and urban centers has been seen as one of the main factors affecting the migration. Iversen (2006) 

argued that in India, the wage parameter was influenced by social networks which facilitated the 

relocation of rural active population into the urban industrial enclaves to work as low paid personnel in 

the factories. This paper is focused on the socio-economic analysis on skilled labour migration from 

the northern parts of Ghana into the Ashanti Region of Ghana and its impact on the region. In order to 

achieve this goal, the researcher came up with research design that assisted him to identify the impact 

as well as the solutions to the migration process. In this study, the analysis was done on the primary 

data derived from the samples of the skilled personnel who move from the northern parts of the 

country into the Ashanti region of Ghana. It was revealed from the study that skilled  labour migration 

have positive impacts in the socio-economic development of the northern part of Ghana in terms of 

remittances, human capital, entrepreneurship, improved welfare, among others.  
 

      Keywords: Human capital, Migration, Geographical locations, Skilled labour, Jobs acquisition, Population. 

 

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/


Economy, 2014, 1 (3): 89-94 

 

 

 

 

90 

 

1. Introduction 
The movement of people from one geographical location to another is termed as migration. This usually involves 

either temporal or permanent settlement. The area where the people leave is the „source region‟ and the one into 

which people migrate is known as the „destination region‟. One remarkable feature of migration is the fact that it 

usually involves the movement of people from one rural area into an urban centre. Of late, this movement of people 

has become so alarming that the urban areas usually experience high population growth rates whilst the rural areas 

also experience decreasing population growth rates. In view of this, Todaro (1997) pointed out that  “the major 

contributing factor to the ubiquitous phenomenon of urban surplus labour and as a force which continues to 

exacerbate already serious urban unemployment problems” in the last few decades, population growth in the urban 

centers has increased and because of this, the United Nations has noted that 40% of the total least developed 

country‟s population lived in urban areas in 2000, compared to 26.1% in 1975. More specifically, 34% of the 2000 

Sub-Saharan African population was urban – a jump of more than 62% over the 15 years. 

 

2. A Brief Review of Literature 
Classical economists, like Fei and Ranis (1964), claimed the existence of surplus labour, i.e. the presence of 

hidden unemployment in rural areas, especially at an early stage of a country‟s development. Huang (1971), Hanson 

(1971), and Ranis (1997), proved empirically that a larger proportion (from 50 to 80 percent) of the labour force in 

some developing countries is located in the traditional agricultural sector during the first phase of industrialization. It 

has been shown by, amongst others, Ranis (1997) and Nayyar (1998) that the process of industrialization and 

development is associated with the transfer of labour from the agricultural sector to the industrial sector where 

labour‟s unit productivity is relatively higher, which in turn means higher income. Ranis (1997) further argues that 

when assuming that the reallocation rate exceeds the population growth, and more labour is relocated from the 

agricultural to the industrial sector, the level of hidden unemployment will shrink and the contribution of labour to 

economic output will grow. It is therefore not surprising that many development economists, amongst them, Todaro 

(1969) and Norton and Alwang (1993), regard rural-urban migration as a natural reflection of the economic 

transformation from agriculture to industry that occurs during the development process. Some economists and social 

scientist also presented (Docquier and Rapoport, 2004; Ratha, 2005; Humberto et al., 2007; Singh and Hari, 2011) 

the economical benefits, called as remittances, through these migrants. This study is, therefore concerned with an 

investigation into how the skilled professionals contribute to the development of other parts of Ghana. It is the hope 

of the researcher that knowledge gained from this study would provide policy insights both for source as well as host 

regions of Ghana. 

 

2.1. Main Determinants of Migration in Ghana 
Over the years, the greater part of urban population results from the migration of people from the rural areas and 

this reduces the population of the rural labour force and hence, this reduces the ability of the rural sectors to produce 

more goods and services to support their economies (Twumasi-Ankrah, 1995). There are many factors ranging from 

communities and individual interests that explain the dynamics of the migration problem (Anarfi et al., 2003). About 

30 years ago, Ghana has seen a rapid population growth rate and this has the effect of increasing the labour supply in 

Ghana.  In many areas where there is limited availability of agricultural lands for farming usually see a lot of 

pressure on farmlands. This is normally seen in the northern part of Ghana where per capita access to fertile lands is 

very small, thereby resulting in the movement of the people into the other areas of the country, especially, the 

southern part of Ghana.  

 

2.2. Pattern of Migration in Ghana 
According to Ackah and Medvedev (2010), over 80% of the people who migrate usually stay within the country. 

Out of this number, more than 70% of the migrants end up locating in the urban centers of the country such as Accra, 

Tema, Takoradi, Kumasi, Obuasi, and other places. Many studies have shown that those who migrate usually have 

come from relatively endowed regions such as the Northern Region, Upper East and Upper West Regions where 

many natural resources abound. Ackah and Medvedev (2010) also indicated that those who are uneducated are the 

ones who form a greater percentage of those who migrate.  

 

3. Research Questions 
a.  What are factors that influence migration of people to the urban centers? 

b. What are the main effects of migration on the migrants and their families? 

c. What are interventions that can transform the local economy to mitigate rural–urban 

            migration?   

 

4. Purpose of the Study 
The aim of this study is to examine the socio-economic impact of migration of skilled workers from the northern 

parts of the country into the Ashanti region of Ghana. Specifically, the study seeks to 

1. Determine the reasons that influence people to migrate from the rural areas into the urban centers. 

2. Analyze the socio-economic impact of such movements on the people who migrate and their communities. 

3. To suggest possible recommendations to the government and other stakeholders to formulate policy to 

address the problem of migrants in Ghana. 



Economy, 2014, 1 (3): 89-94 

 

 

 

 

91 

 

 

5. Materials and Methods 
Considering the problem under investigation, questionnaires was prepared and distributed through simple and 

stratified random sampling techniques. The data for this study was collected between May and August 2014 and the 

population characteristics, resources and time available, as well as the size and types of data analysis played a greater 

part in determining the size of the sample for the study. In order to reach many of the respondents (who are usually 

identified by their friends and relatives), the researcher employed simple and stratified random sampling techniques 

and personally distributes the questionnaire. Since a large sample size alone does not guarantee a representative 

sample, the researcher determined the accuracy of the sample by making an assumption about the population such as 

the degree of variation and confidence level that is acceptable. Sudman (1976) explained that most of the researchers 

do not use statistical equations for calculating the sample size because of the information required for applying them 

is not available. The author further stated that a second, more frequently used method is a rule of thumb, a 

conventional or commonly accepted size. Researchers have used it to apply sample sizes close to those of the 

statistical method. As pointed out by Sudman (1976), an increase in sample size from 50 to 100 would reduce errors 

from 7.1% to 2,1% but an increase from 1000 to 2000 would only decrease errors from 1.6% to 1.1%. Keeping in 

view this theory, in present study a sample of 107 respondents is taken for the analysis. 

 

6. Data Analysis and Presentation 
In this study, the data which was collected through the questionnaire was analyzed with the application of 

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 14.0 version) to determine simple frequency tables. Chi-square tests, 

Gamma tests Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression techniques were also employed to process the data. 

The study consisted of a sample size of 107 who were 20% females and 80% males, and who reside in, Kumasi, 

being the capital city of the Ashanti region of Ghana. The age of respondents varied from below 30 to 60 years. The 

average age of respondents was 37.41 years. Most respondents were clustered in the range 31-40 years. About 90% 

of the respondents were married and many had 2 children. Most of the respondents exhibited a high level of 

competence as far as their job level in education was concerned. Many of them were also university graduates but 

there were differences in the level of education attained at the areas where they were obtained. In the education 

sector, there was about 71% of those sampled were working in the education sector before the migration and also 

75.5% of them were working in the education sector after the migration. This shows that most of the migrant workers 

joined the education sector after the migration and it also indicates that more job opportunities abound for skilled 

migrant workers in the education sector in Kumasi.  

In this study, skilled labour was the type of labour from the northern part of Ghana who migrates to the southern 

part of Ghana where the Ashanti Region can be found. Since there were many educational institutions in Kumasi 

(both public and private), we can see that a greater percentage of skilled workers who migrated to Kumasi found jobs 

in the educational sector. Since a stay period of almost 45% of the respondents was between 7 to 10 years, followed 

by 43% who completed less than 6 years in Kumasi, it is an indication that most of the migrants moved to Kumasi 

between 2001 and 2004. The study also revealed that about 5.5% of the migrants spent more than 10 years, with 

about 6.5% who spent 15 years. Again, the reason behind this information is due to the fact that job opportunities in 

Kumasi in educational sector have increased during last decade. The study also showed that after spending more than 

10 years, most of the respondents usually came back to their respective towns and villages for several reasons. In 

terms of remittances, about 98% of the respondents stated that  they usually send money back home, however, the 

size and the amount of money that are usually sent home vary in relation to the income of the respondents.  

Referring to the data on table 1, about 58% of respondents stated that they send 10 to 20% of their income back 

home to their families. About 32.7% of respondents replied that they send less than 10% of their income. Those 

respondents who sent 20 to 30% or 30 to 40% are only 7.5% and 1% respectively. In the response of the question 

„Are you an entrepreneur‟? Almost 96% of the respondents said „No‟ while around 5% respondents said „Yes‟.  This 

shows that a greater number of the skilled migrants are working in Kumasi but a smaller percentage of them are in 

entrepreneurship. It also shows a good sign about the impact of migration on the socio-economic circumstances of 

the respondents and their families since it is very easy and convenient to for respondents to switch the job to their 

villages and towns as against shifting the complete the business back home in the north. Table 1 shows a Cross-

tabulation data between occupation of migrants after migration and change in the financial status of their family back 

home. 
 

Table-1. Cross- tabulation data of respondents 

 Changes in families financial position Total 

Considerabl

y improved 

Improved Almost 

Unchanged 

Difficult 

to say 

Occupation 

after 

migration 

education Count 17 37 3 24 81 

  Expected 

count 

23.5 31.8 3.8 22.0 81 

  % within 

occupation 

after 

migration 

21.0% 45.7% 3.7% 29.6% 100% 

 R&D Count      

       

Continue 

 

 



Economy, 2014, 1 (3): 89-94 

 

 

 

 

92 

 

  Expected 

count 

0 1 1 0 2 

  % within 

occupation 

after 

migration  

.6 

 

 

.0% 

.8 

 

 

50% 

.1 

 

 

50% 

.5 

 

 

0% 

2 

 

 

100% 

 Academics Count 9 4 0 4 17 

  Expected 

count 

4.9 6.7 0.8 4.6 17.0 

  %within 

occupation 

after 

migration 

52.9% 23.5% 0.0% 23.5% 100% 

 Trade & 

Business 

Count 5 0 1 1 7 

  Expected 

count 

2.0 2.7 0.3 1.9 7 

  % within 

occupation 

after 

migration 

71.4% 0.0% 14.3% 14.3% 100% 

 Total Count 31 42 5 29 107 

  Expected 

count 

     

  % within 

occupation 

after 

migration 

29.0% 39.3% 4.7% 27% 100% 

 

 Value df Asymp. Sig. (2 sided) 

Pearson Chi- square 27.190(a) 9 0.001 

Likelihood ratio 23.972 9 0.004 

Linear by linear 

Association 

4.193 1 0.041 

No of valid cases 107   

 

From table 1, the chi-square test indicates that the Pearson chi-square is 0.001 which is less than 0.05 and this 

shows that there is a strong relation between the Chi-square test and the Pearson Chi-square. In addition to this, the 

study revealed that the financial status of the migrants who worked in the educational sector had also improved 

tremendously.  

Table 2 also illustrates data between savings of migrants who moved to Kumasi and a change in the financial 

status of their families.  

 
Table-2. Cross- tabulation of Savings of respondents in Kumasi and Change in family‟s financial position 

 Changes in families financial position Total 

Considerabl

y improved 

Improved Almost 

Unchanged 

Difficult to 

say 

Savings in 

Kumasi 

Less than 

20% 

Count 0 1 0 0 1 

  Expected 

count 

0.3 0.4 0.0 0.3 1 

  % within 

occupation 

after migration 

0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0

% 

 20-30% Count 8 15 3 14 40 

  Expected 

count 

11.6 15.7 1.9 10.8 40.0 

  % within 

occupation 

after migration  

20.0% 37.5% 7.5% 35.0% 100.0

% 

 30-40% Count 20 21 2 14 57 

  Expected 

count 

16.5 22.4 2.7 15.4 57.0 

  %within 

occupation 

after migration 

35.1% 36.8% 3.5% 24.6% 100.0

% 

 Above 40% Count 3 5 0 1 9 

  Expected 

count 

2.6 3.5 0.4 2.4 9.0 

       

 

Continue 

 

 

 



Economy, 2014, 1 (3): 89-94 

 

 

 

 

93 

 

  % within 

occupation 

after migration 

33.3% 55.6% 0.0% 11.1% 100.0

% 

Total  Count 31 42 5 29 107 

  Expected 

count 

31.0 42.0 5.0 29.0 107.0 

  % within 

occupation 

after migration 

29% 39.3% 4.3% 27.1% 100.0

% 

 

Model Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-Sided) 

Pearson Chi-Square 7.355(a) 9 0.600 

Likelihood Ratio 8.197 9 0.514 

Linear-by-Linear 

Association 

3.470 

 

1 0.062 

N of Valid Cases 107   
              a 10 cells (62.5%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .05. 

                    Source: Output of SPSS 

 

The chi-square test reveals that the Pearson chi-square value is 7.355 and corresponding p-value of 0.600 which 

is greater than 0.05 (p > 0.05), and this reveals that the savings level of migrants in Kumasi was not significant as 

against the change in financial position of their families‟ in back home in the north. 

The information on table 2 shows that the financial position of the families of the migrants whose savings was 

between 30% and 40% of their incomes got improved and this also reveals that migrants who are able to save more 

usually send greater amount of money to their families back home. Table 3 presents the regression analysis between 

Age of the respondents and change in their family‟s financial status. We can see from table 3 that the R value is 

0.234 and this indicates a strong relationship between age and the financial status of the families of the respondents. 

Analysis of variance  indicates a significant regression value of F to be 0.012 which is less than 0.05 and from the 

coefficient table it is clear that p-value is also less than 0.05. This data goes to support the fact that there is a strong 

statistical association between age of the respondents and change in their family‟s financial position. 

  
Table-3. Regression Analysis between Age and change in family‟s‟ financial status Model Summary 

Model R R square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of Estimate 

1 0.243(a) 0.059 0.050 1.12974 
a Predictors: (Constant), Age 

 
ANOVA (b) 

Model  Sum of squares df Mean square F sig 

1 Regression 

Residual 

Total 

8.416 

134.014 

142.430 

1 

105 

106 

8.416 

1.276 

6.594 0.012(a) 

               a Predictors: (Constant), Age 

               b Dependent Variable: Change in families financial position 

 
Coefficient (a) 

Model  Unstandardized 

coefficients 

B                Std error 

Standardized 

coefficients 

Beta                  t 

sig 

1 Constant  

 

  (Age) 

3.112 

 

-0.503 

0.335 

 

0.196 

 

 

-0.243 

9.293 

 

-2.568 

0.000 

 

0.012 
               a. Dependent Variable: Change in families financial position 

 

7. Discussion of the Findings from the Study 
The research reveals that over 50% of those who migrated to Kumasi were due to professional development. In 

addition, majority of the respondents presented a high level of educational standards and hence, many of them work 

in the educational sector in Kumasi. Also, about 50% of them were working in Kumasi between the last 7 to 10 

years. After the migration, the study also showed that about 50% of the migrants had 200% more income. In addition 

to this, half of the migrants also stated that they have planned to go back their towns and villages in the near future 

and these are those respondents who were in the age groups between 30 to 40 years.  The data also indicated that 

there is a positive statistical relationship between the occupation of the respondents after migration and a change in 

the financial position of their families in other northern Ghana. It also came to light that from the study that the 

skilled people who migrated to Kumasi due to professional development had their families‟ financial status 

improving considerably. To a very large extent, the jobs of the migrants remained the same before and after the 

migration and the migrants who were university graduates earned a lot of incomes as against the other migrants. 

The study also showed that migrants who worked in the education sector had purchased properties, bonds and 

other household items. The study also showed that migration of skilled labour have got a positive impact on the 

regions or the districts from which the respondents migrated from; and that, Kumasi, being the host destination, also 

had its direct effect as well. Among other things, technology transfer to the areas of origin was also one of the 

positive effects of the skilled migration.  Since about 5% of the migrants working in Kumasi had planned to go back 



Economy, 2014, 1 (3): 89-94 

 

 

 

 

94 

 

to their areas of origin in future, they would impact transfer of technology to their localities in the northern part of 

Ghana because there is a possibility that these migrants, through research and development, could impact innovations 

and inventions that can improve the socio-economic development of their source areas. This is one of the main 

contributions of skilled labour migration on the source areas because when the migrants return to their areas of origin 

in the northern parts of Ghana, many of them could find jobs in factories and other companies where they could 

impact the experience gained on these areas. 

Apart from the transfer of technology, another important impact of skilled labour migration is on remittance of 

monies to their families back home. The data indicated that about 50% of the migrants usually remit large amounts of 

monies to their families back home. Hence, this is an indication of a positive effect of skilled labour migration. The 

research also indicated that skilled labour migration had a significant impact on the economy as a whole because of 

the fact that more that 95% of the respondents remit money to their relatives through bank transfers, and Mobile 

telecommunications network (MTN) money transfers and this has a significant impact the local economy at the 

macro level. Apart from economic activities that are contributed by the skilled migrants to their source areas, the 

migrants also contributed immensely to both social and political activities and these also have considerable impact on 

the Ghanaian economy as a whole. Other contributions by skilled migrants include social networking and 

philanthropy because some of the respondents organize charitable businesses that engage in donations, health issues, 

educational programmes as well as other public work projects in their home towns or villages. Many Ghanaian who 

are very wealthy had some private charities and through social networking, these migrants were able to bring such 

social and economic activities to bear on their source areas. The study also showed that the main reasons behind 

skilled labour migration to Kumasi was for professional development, followed by „earning more money‟, 

unemployment in the source areas and social networking. Apart from these factors, the study also indicated that a lot 

of other motivational factors such as lack of „social and other economic amenities‟  were factors that are responsible 

for skilled labour migration to Kumasi from the northern areas of Ghana. 

 

8. Conclusion and Recommendations 
The study revealed that skilled labour migration has a significant effect on the socio-economic development of 

the source areas. Some of these include remittances, philanthropy, technology transfer and social networking. In 

order to improve upon the significant effect of migration in reducing poverty in the source areas, it is important that 

the government, district assemblies and other stakeholders  

 Focus more on issues and other affecting migration in Ghana by identifying the factors that make people to 

migrate to the other areas of the country and make provision for these factors accordingly. 

 To invest more in agriculture by making it more attractive to the people in the northern part of Ghana. 

 Provide incentives to entrepreneurs and other industrialists that would be willing to invest and establish 

businesses in the northern part of Ghana. 

 In view of the fact that skilled labour migration has got a considerable impact on their families in terms of 

remittances and other social issues, this paper strongly advocates that policy makers should consider reducing the 

cost of sending monies back home as much as possible to enable the migrants to conveniently remit monies to their 

families. 

 Provide more social and economic amenities and other job opportunities to the people in the study area to 

minimize the exodus of the people to the other centers. 

 

References 
Ackah, C. and D. Medvedev, 2010. Internal migration in Ghana: Determinants and welfare impacts. The World Bank Africa Region, West 

Africa Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit. Policy Research Working Paper No. 5273. 

Anarfi, J., S. Kwankye, A. Ofosu-Mensah and R. Tiemoko, 2003. Migration from and to Ghana. Working paper C4. Issued by the development 

research centre on migration, globalization and poverty.Legon: University Press, University of Ghana 
Docquier, F. and H. Rapoport, 2004. Skilled and unskilled migration: The perspective of developing countries. Policy Research Working Paper 

Series No. 3382. Washington, DC: World Bank. 

Fei, J.C.H. and G. Ranis, 1964. A theory of economic development. American Economic Review, 51(4): 533–565. 

Hanson, J., 1971. Employment and rural wages in Egypt: A re-interpretation. American Economic Review, 61(3): 492-499. 

Huang, C., 1971. Tenancy patterns, productivity, and rentals in Malaysia. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 23(1): 703-718. 
Humberto, L., F. Pablo and A.A. Pablo, 2007. The impact of remittances on poverty and human capital: Evidence from Latin American 

household surveys. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4247. 

Iversen, V., 2006. Segmentation, network multipliers and spillovers: A theory of rural urban migration for a traditional economy. University of 

East Anglia, Working Paper No. T9. 
Nayyar, D., 1998. Structural change and the migration process. In: Emigration pressures and structural change: Case study of Indonesia. 

International Migration Papers, No. 20, ISBN 92-2-110768-X, 1997, Chapter 6. International Labour Organization [I. L. O]: Geneva, 

Switzerland. 

Norton, G.W. and J. Alwang, 1993. Economics of agricultural development. New York: McGraw-Hill. 
Ranis, G., 1997. The micro-economics of surplus labour. Discussion Paper No. 772. Yale University. 

Ratha, D., 2005. Workers‟ remittances: An important and stable source of external development finance. In S. M. Maimbo & D. Ratha (Eds.). 

Remittances: Development impact and future prospects. Washington, DC: World Bank. pp: 19–53. 

Singh, S.K. and K.S. Hari, 2011. International migration, remittances and its macroeconomic impact on other parts of Ghana economy. IIM 
Ahemdabad: Research and Publication. 

Sudman, S., 1976. Applied sampling. New York: Academic Press. 

Todaro, M.P., 1969. A model of labour migration and urban unemployment in less developed countries. American Economic Review, 1(59): 

138–148. 
Todaro, M.P., 1997. Urbanization, unemployment and migration in Africa: Theory and policy. Paper Prepared for Reviewing Social and 

Economic Progress in Africa No 104. Macmillan. 

Twumasi-Ankrah, K., 1995. Rural urban migration and socio-economic development in Ghana: Some discussions. Journal of Social 

Development in Africa, 7, 20, April: 339-356. 
 



Economy, 2014, 1 (3): 89-94 

 

 

 

 

95 

 

Bibliography 
Beine, D.M. and H. Rapoport, 2002. Brain drain and LDCs‟ growth: Winners and losers. Institute for Study of Labour (IZA) DP, No. 819, 

October 2002. 

Kapur, D. and J. McHale, 2005. Give us your best and brightest: The global hunt for talent and its impact on the developing world. Washington 

DC: Centre for Global Development/Brookings Institution Press. 

Khadria, B., 1999. The migration of knowledge workers: Second-generation effects of other parts of Ghana's brain drain. New Delhi: Sage 
Publications. 

Lowell, L.B. and A.M. Findlay, 2002. Migration of highly skilled and unskilled persons from developing countries: Impact and policy 

responses-synthesis Report. International Migration Papers No. 44, International Labour Office, Geneva. 

McCormick, B. and J. Wahba, 2000. Return migration and entrepreneurship in Egypt. Southampton: University of Southampton. pp: 1-32. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Views and opinions expressed in this article are the views and opinions of the authors, Economy shall not be responsible or answerable for any loss, 

damage or liability etc. caused in relation to/arising out of the use of the content. 

 


