Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9, 1268-1287 2025 Publisher: Learning Gate DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate History: Received: 24 July 2025; Revised: 1 August 2025; Accepted: 6 August 2025; Published: 22 September 2025 * Correspondence: alaarashad@yahoo.com From Egyptian stone to sustainable binder: The impact of basalt powder on metakaolin geopolymer cement Alaa M. Rashad1,2*, M. H. El‑Nashar3, Fatima Al Zahraa Refaie1 1Building Materials Research and Quality Control Institute, Housing and Building National Research Center (HBRC), Cairo, Egypt; alaarashad@yahoo.com , rashad@hbrc.edu.eg , a.rashad@su.edu.sa (A.M.R.). 2Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Shaqra University, Al-Dawadmi, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. 3Building Physics and Environmental Research Institute, Housing & Building National Research Center (HBRC), Cairo, Egypt. Abstract: Metakaolin (MK) geopolymers offer a promising avenue for sustainable construction; however, the potential contribution of incorporating natural materials such as basalt powder (BP) remains underexplored. Egypt possesses abundant reserves of both kaolin and basalt, presenting a unique opportunity to develop sustainable construction materials using indigenous resources. This study investigates the feasibility and impact of partially substituting MK with locally sourced BP at incremental levels ranging from 2.5% to 25%. The research aims to comprehensively evaluate the influence of BP integration on specific attributes of MK geopolymer cement. Advanced analytical methods were employed to provide deeper insights into the dataset. The findings indicate that the addition of BP not only improves flowability and shortens setting time but also enhances mechanical strength, reduces drying shrinkage, and improves transport properties. By leveraging indigenous materials and aligning with Egypt’s sustainability goals and global carbon reduction efforts, this research contributes to the development of high-performance, resource-efficient geopolymer binders for sustainable construction. Keywords: Basalt powder, Drying shrinkage, Fresh and hardened properties, Metakaolin geopolymer, Transport properties. 1. Introduction Responding to climate change imperatives and environmental regulations, the construction sector is increasingly adopting sustainable materials, moving away from conventional Portland cement (PC). Cement manufacturing imposes a significant environmental burden, characterized by highly energy- intensive processes that consume nearly 15% of total industrial energy [1]. This heavy energy demand is coupled with a substantial reliance on virgin raw materials, fueling concerns over resource depletion in the coming decades. Additionally, the industry is a recognized source of considerable noise pollution [2]. Cement factories are heavy polluters, releasing massive volumes of greenhouse gases and other air toxins that damage the planet and public health. Key emissions per tonne include ~810 kg of CO2, heavy metals, 1 kg of SO2, hydrogen chloride, 2 kg of NOx, and compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls [3] [4]. This substantial environmental footprint makes the industry a major factor in global warming, responsible for roughly 7% of all human-generated CO2 emissions [5]. Global climate policies targeting 80-90% CO2 emission reductions by 2050 (from 1990 levels [6]) necessitate major shifts in construction materials. Common mitigation strategies include blending cement with materials like slag [7], silica fume (SF) [8], metakaolin (MK) [9], pumice [10], fly ash (FA) [11]. However, replacing cement with geopolymer binders represents a particularly effective approach to meeting these stringent decarbonization goals. Geopolymers represent a class of inorganic polymers synthesized through the chemical reaction and subsequent polymerization of aluminosilicate precursors, a process typically initiated by highly alkaline (or sometimes acidic) solutions. The advantages of geopolymers over PC make them a practical replacement option; these include substantially lower energy input [12] and CO2 generation, remarkable mailto:alaarashad@yahoo.com mailto:rashad@hbrc.edu.eg 1269 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate chemical and thermal durability, advantageous mechanical properties [13], and superior resistance to fire [14]. Commonly, geopolymer synthesis relies on aluminosilicate precursors such as slag [15] MK Rashad [16] and Rashad [17], FA Zhang, et al. [12] and Rashad [18], often supplemented with SF acting as a beneficial additive [19]. The variable nature of slag and FA, stemming from their industrial byproduct origins, complicates their use due to inconsistent chemical/mineral profiles. Coupled with availability limitations relative to the vast scale of cement production, these factors create a clear need and opportunity for MK and other natural materials, such as basalt powder (BP), to be more widely adopted as a geopolymer precursor.MK, derived from the calcination of kaolinite-rich clays, has gained considerable attention due to its high purity, reactivity, and widespread availability Rashad [16] and Jiang, et al. [20]. The geopolymers composed of MK demonstrated satisfactory strength, alongside exceptional durability [21], heightened resistance to heat [22], excellent insulation and electrical properties Bai, et al. [13]; Rashad, et al. [23]; Song, et al. [24] and Rashad [25]. In light of these benefits, scholars have extensively explored ways [26] [27] [28] [29] to enhance the properties of MK through the incorporation of additional natural materials. As illustrated by Nana, et al. [30] the mechanical strength of MK geopolymer was elevated, whilst water absorption decreased when blended with 10-30% volcanic ash. Incorporation of ≤ 30% limestone powder improved MK geopolymer compressive strength [31]. MK geopolymer with natural calcium sources like 10% and 15% CaO or Ca(OH)2 demonstrated a positive influence on compressive strength [32]. Integrating quartz powder, at a maximum of 30%, effectively boosted both workability and compressive strength [33], whilst levels up to 40% increased resilience against harsh marine conditions [34]. Basalt, a widely distributed rock, forms a significant portion of the Earth's crust, accounting for approximately 70% of its composition. It possesses a high silica content [35]. Historically, it has been a staple material for producing tiles. Due to its high abrasion resistance, cast basalt is widely utilized in applications requiring durability, such as street pipe liners in harsh industrial conditions [36]. This versatile rock can be processed into aggregate Boğa and Şenol [37] and Seleem, et al. [38] a binding matrix for PC, or fibers Yang, et al. [39] and Ali, et al. [40]. With its high silica and fitting alumina content, BP shows potential for utilization as a geopolymer precursor, either alone or as part of a blend. Critically, a verification study has confirmed that curing conditions play a major role in the BP geopolymer performance [41]. The sensitivity of geopolymer properties to formulation and processing was further understood by findings related to BP. For instance, both NaOH molarity and applied curing regime pointedly influence pastes combining BP with glass powder. The choice of activator type and its concentration has been proven to pointedly affect the rheology and mechanical performance of 1: 1 BP- slag geopolymer pastes [42]. Additionally, the choice of precursor material is critical, as BP pastes showed lower compressive strength than equal parts BP and slag, as well as 100% slag [43]. High temperatures (up to 900 ℃) severely compromised the compressive strength of alkali-activated slag (AAS) mortars, regardless of whether they contained 20% waster BP [44]. In a recent observation concerning FA geopolymer pastes, incorporating up to 20% BP diminished transport properties while simultaneously improving compressive strength [37]. The integration of natural materials in MK geopolymers presents an opportunity to advance sustainable construction practices, yet the contribution of BP remains underexplored. Egypt, endowed with extensive kaolin reserves across regions like the Sinai Peninsula. Red Sea region, Aswan region (Kalabsha), and the Eastern Desert Rashad [9]; Abdel-Khalek [45] and Rashad [46] is particularly well- suited for the production of MK-based geopolymer cement using indigenous resources. Complementing this kaolin wealth is Egypt’s rich basalt deposits, found extensively in the west of Cairo, the neighborhood of the Giza Pyramids [47] Eastern Desert [48] Red Sea Hills Moghazi [49] and Bosworth [50] and volcanic terrains across the nation [51]. Ground basalt yields fine BP with notable pozzolanic properties. Incorporating BP into MK geopolymers offers a compelling pathway to sustainability. Locally sourcing BP reduces dependence on imports, curtails the carbon footprint associated with cement production, and aligns with Egypt’s national strategies for sustainable construction, resource efficiency, and industrial carbon emission reduction. Beyond environmental benefits, this approach leverages Egypt’s natural 1270 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate wealth to develop durable, eco-friendly, and high-performance geopolymer-based construction materials, thereby enhancing the technical properties of geopolymers while fostering global material innovation. Driven by the abundant availability of BP and kaolin and guided by Egypt’s commitment to sustainable industrial practices, this research explores the feasibility of integrating BP into MK geopolymer cement. It seeks to unlock new potential for Egypt’s construction industry and contribute meaningfully to global sustainable construction endeavors. Building on the stated rationale, MK geopolymer was adopted as a reference. Subsequently, MK was partially substituted with BP at incremental levels ranging from 2.5% to 25%. The study aimed to comprehensively assess the influence of BP on flowability, setting time, mechanical performance, transport properties, and drying shrinkage. To ensure robust conclusions, the experimental results were thoroughly analyzed using a suite of scientific. 2. Experimental Details 2.1. Materials This study primarily utilized powdered kaolin sourced from Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula. Kaolinite and quartz are identified as the principal crystalline phases in Figure 1a. The formation of MK was achieved through 2 h calcination process at 750 ℃, based on the methodology reported in Rashad [9]; Rashad, et al. [52] and Rashad, et al. [53]. The XRD pattern in Figure 1b reveals that calcination leads to the loss of kaolinite peaks, confirming its transformation into MK, whilst quartz persists as the main crystalline phase. Physical characterization determined the MK powder’s specific gravity to be 2.51 and its fineness to be 800 m2/kg. Powdered natural basalt was obtained from a local cement manufacturing facility. The crystalline phases observed in the BP pattern include augite, plagioclase (anorthite/albite), labradorite, and diopside (Figure 2). Physical schematization determined the BP’s specific gravity to be 2.8 and its fineness to be 400 m2/kg. Table 1 details the chemical analysis of MK and BP. Compared to MK, BP shows a higher calcium ratio and a lower alumina ratio. However, both materials display relatively similar silica ratios. As seen in Figure 3a, the SEM micrograph reveals that MK particles have irregular shapes, with a subset displaying platy or flaky morphologies. Meanwhile, Figure 3b shows the rough, angular, and highly irregular grains of BP, which is a typical feature of particles derived from the grinding of a hard, crystalline rock, suggesting significant mechanical processing. Both NaOH pellets and sodium silicate were sourced locally, with properties matching those described in [54]. The appearance of each type of powder is generally outlined in Figure 4. (a) 1271 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate (b) Figure 1. XRD pattern of source kaolin (a), and MK (b). Figure 2. XRD pattern of BP. Table 1. Chemical composition of MK and BP. Material Oxide (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O P2O5 Cl- SrO K2O Other L.O.I. MK (%) 52 42 1.49 0.1 0.16 0.15 0.11 0.12 0.04 0 0.12 2.55 1.16 BP (%) 51 15.5 13.3 7.5 4.61 0.14 2.58 0.58 0.01 0.07 1.3 2.39 1.02 1272 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate (a) (b) Figutr 3. SEM images of MK (a), and BP (b). (a) MK (b) BP Figure 4. Appearance of each type of powder. 2.2. Mix Proportion and Methods The reference mixture (0BP) consisted entirely of MK, excluding BP. The MK weight was progressively substituted at five different ratios. These ratios included 2.5% (2.5BP), 5% (5BP), 10% (10BP), 15% (15BP), and 25% (25BP). A uniform activator concentration of 40% was maintained throughout the study to examine the influence of varying BP ratios on the characteristics of MK geopolymer cement. The activator solution was made up of 1: 2 combination of NaOH and sodium silicate [55]. A 10 M solution of NaOH was prepared, and this process was initiated at least one day before casting. To guarantee uniform mixing conditions, an additional water/powder ratio of 10% was employed for all mixtures. The details of the mixtures can be found in Table 2. Table 2. Mixture details. ID 0BP 2.5BP 5BP 10BP 15BP 25B MK 100 97.5 95 90 85 75 PB 0 2.5 5 10 15 25 Extra water/powder 0.1 Activator/powder 0.4 The processes of mixing and casting followed the steps detailed in Boğa and Şenol [37]. Each mixture’s flow rate and setting time were assessed in line with ASTM C230/C230M-23, and ASTM 1273 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate C191-08. The initial curing step involved holding the specimens at 80 ℃ for 24 h [56]. After this period, curing conditions diverged depending on specimen type. For the 40 × 40 × 160 mm prisms and 50 mm cubes, the specimens were then kept at room temperature until the testing date. However, the 25 × 25 × 28.5 mm prisms were stored at a controlled environment of 20 ± 1 ℃ and 50% RH, which was employed to measure drying shrinkage as per ASTM C490, and comparable to the apparatus described in Rashad, et al. [52]; Rashad, et al. [53]; Rashad [57] and Rashad, et al. [58]. In short, A bench comparator (0.001 mm precision) was used to measure specimen length variations. Measurements commenced directly after demolding and continued periodically for 56 days. Both flexural and compressive strength tests were conducted at 7, 28, and 56 days. Once the 50 mm cubes had cured for 28 days, their transport properties (ASTM C948-81) were assessed. Flexural tests used 40 × 40 × 160 mm prisms (ASTM C348-21), whilst compressive tests utilized the resulting broken halves from the flexural procedure (ASTM C349:2018). Mirroring the experimental method presented in Rashad and Essa [59] the selected debris samples were characterized using XRD, TGA/DTG, and SEM. Figure 5 provides a schematic of the experimental apparatus. 1274 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Figure 5. A schematic of the experimental apparatus. 3 Results and Discussions 3.1. Flowability As shown in Figure 6, adjusting BP ratios affects the flowability of the mixtures. Preliminary tests indicate that the 0BP mixture, devoid of BP, has 96 ± 5% flow, surpassing all other mixtures in terms of flow performance. The 0BP’s flow represents an improvement over the outcomes in Rashad, et al. [33]; Rashad and Zeedan [60]; El Abd, et al. [61]; Rashad [62] and Rashad and Ouda [63] however, it still lags behind the performance reported in Jaji, et al. [64]; Duan, et al. [65] and Xie, et al. [66] resulting in an intermediate ranking among these cited results. When BP is introduced, a noticeable improvement in flowability is observed. This trend is consistent across the samples, with higher BP ratios leading to progressively greater flow rates. Although the increase is modest at 2.5% BP (from 96 ± 5% to 102 ± 5%), the enhancement becomes significantly more pronounced at 25% BP, where the flow rate rises from 96 ± 5% to 150 ± 5%. The relatively larger particle size of BP, when compared to MK, is likely a contributing factor to this improvement. An additional factor driving this improvement is the angular, somewhat equant shape of the basalt particles. This shape effectively disrupts the inefficient arrangement of the platy metakaolin particles, promoting better particle packing density and reducing friction between particles, thus further enhancing flow. Another important factor is the increased SiO2/Al2O3 ratio with increasing BP ratio [19]. Based on Rashad and Zeedan [60]; Rashad, et al. [67]; Hamdi, et al. [68]; Mahmoodi, et al. [69]; Yaseri, et al. [70]; Khalil, et al. [71] and Rashad, et al. [72] the rheological characteristics of the geopolymer were significantly affected by the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio. Elevating the silica ratio in the blend resulted in enhanced flowability. Notably, Hamdi, et al. [68] established a positive correlation between workability and the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio, observing an improvement as it increased. Similarly, Al-Duais, et al. [73] demonstrated the impact of composition, noting that 100% natural pozzolan mixture showed better flow than one where 20% of the pozzolan was replaced by red mud. It is essential to highlight that incorporating as much as 15% BP into traditional concrete mixtures resulted in a marginal increase in workability [74]. 1275 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Figure 6. Flow behavior of mixtures with different BP ratios. As shown in Figure 7, adjusting BP ratios somewhat affects the setting time of the mixtures. Unsurprising, the BP-free 0BP mixture shows the longest setting time, reflecting the low calcium ratio and slow reactivity of MK [75]. The behavior of the remaining mixtures is governed by their respective BP ratios. In general, setting time appears to decrease slightly with including a lower BP ratio. The initial and final setting times were decreased slightly by 1.85% and 1.77%, respectively, when BP was at its lowest (2.5%). However, at the highest BP ratio (25%), these decreases are 19.2% and 17.2%. These findings could be associated with the higher calcium ratio in BP (7.5%) compared to that in MK (0.1%), since calcium can accelerate the geopolymerization process Rashad [28] and Rashad [29]. The combination of BP and MK introduces a dual source of silica and alumina, promoting greater overall reactivity. The surfaces of the BP particles, along with the localized presence of dissolved calcium ions, act as powerful nucleation sites, promoting the rapid precipitation and growth of the geopolymer gel, much faster than in a pure MK system. Additionally, the calcium ions are not just part of a separate gel phase. Rather, they become chemically embedded within the primary aluminosilicate framework, transforming the binder from a simple N-A-S-H gel into a fast-reaching C-N-A-S-H hybrid gel (see Section 3.6 later). This hybrid structure, with Ca2+ ions reinforcing the ionic cross-links, accelerates the precipitation process and leads to a much quicker solidification compared to a pure sodium-based N-A-S- H gel. 1276 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Figure 7. Setting time behavior of mixtures with different BP ratios. 3.2. Mechanical Strength As shown in Figure 8, adjusting BP ratios affects the compressive strength of the specimens. Compressive strength is influenced in a patterned way by both curing time and BP ratio. The effect of curing time is consistently positive, leading to enhanced strength. Proper heat curing enables 0BP specimens to develop adequate compressive strength, particularly at an early age. When compared to previous work, the 28 days compressive strength of the mentioned specimens is adhered to the boundaries established in the works cited in Rashad, et al. [33]; Rashad, et al. [34]; Rashad and Ouda [63]; Ruviaro, et al. [76]; Moraes, et al. [77]; Liang, et al. [78]; Ren, et al. [79]; Miao, et al. [80]; Kaya, et al. [81] and Yang, et al. [82]. The behavior of the remaining mixtures is governed by their respective BP ratios. In general, compressive strength appears to increase slightly with including a lower BP ratio. The average compressive strength was increased slightly by 6.64% when BP was at its lowest (2.5%). However, at the highest BP ratio (25%), this increase is 21.61%. Incorporating BP contributes to enhanced strength for several reasons. Although MK is finer in texture, combining it with the coarser particles of BP results in a more optimized particle size distribution. This improved distribution facilitates better particle packing, reducing overall porosity and increasing the final density, and consequently strengthening the material’s overall structural integrity. Additionally, raising the BP ratio in the matrix led to a higher SiO2/Al2O3 ratio. Studies confirmed that as the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio rose, up to a specific point, so did the material’s compressive strength Rashad [19]; Boğa and Şenol [37]; Rashad and Zeedan [60]; Dehghani, et al. [83]; Lahoti, et al. [84]; Riahi, et al. [85]; Duxson, et al. [86]; Mahfoud, et al. [87] and Marvila, et al. [88]. The higher calcium content in BP compared to MK may contribute to the enhanced strength due to the introduction of calcium into N-A-S-H gel, producing C-N-A-S-H gel (see Section 3.6 later), which is known to form denser, more cross-linked, and less permeable microstructure than pure N-A-S-H gel Ren, et al. [79] and Perez-Cortes and Escalante-Garcia [89]. It has been established that the hybrid C-N-A- S-H gel formed within geopolymer structures plays an essential role in developing compressive strength [90]. The rigid, non-shrinkage BP particles act as internal restraint, physically holding the matrix together and reducing the overall magnitude of shrinkage (see Section 3.4 later). Less shrinkage results in fewer internal defects and a stronger, more durable final product. Fig. 9 provides evidence that adjusting BP ratios affects flexural strength. Incorporating 2.5% BP (2.5BP) results in a marginal increase in flexural strength. As the BP ratio increases, the flexural strength continues to rise, culminating in a peak value of 25% BP. This progression is remarkably similar to the behavior observed for compressive 1277 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate strength. Other studies Rashad, et al. [52]; Rashad, et al. [58]; Rashad and Abdu [91]; Rashad, et al. [92]; Mohamed, et al. [93]; Zhu, et al. [94]; Kabirova, et al. [95] and Tammam, et al. [96] revealed a like tendency in flexural strength outcomes as was found for compressive strength. Figure 8. Compressive strength behavior of specimens with different BP ratios. Figure 9. Flexural strength behavior of specimens with different BP ratios. 3.3. Transport Properties As shown in Figure 10, adjusting BP ratios affects the transport properties of the specimens. Based on the information, the BP ratio is essential in influencing these properties. The baseline specimens (0BP), devoid of BP, show ~16% water absorption. This result adheres to the boundaries established in the works cited in Bikoko and Bayiha [97]; Borçato, et al. [98]; Djobo and Stephan [99]; Kamseu, et al. [100]. The identical specimens (0BP) exhibit 26% apparent porosity. This finding adheres to the boundaries established in the works cited in Nana, et al. [30]; Eliche-Quesada, et al. [101] and Coelho, et al. [102]. The behavior of the remaining mixtures is governed by their respective BP ratios. In general, transport 1278 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate properties appear to decrease slightly with including a lower BP ratio. The water absorption decreased slightly from 16% to 15.4%, whilst apparent porosity decreased slightly from 26% to 24.8%, when BP was at its lowest (2.5%). However, at the highest BP ratio (25%), these decreases reach 13.1% (water absorption) and 20.9% (porosity). The factors that contribute to the enhancement of compressive strength, as discussed earlier, also play a key role in reducing transport properties. Figure 10. Transport properties behavior of specimens with different BP ratios. 3.4. Drying Shrinkage As shown in Figure 11, adjusting BP ratios affects the drying shrinkage of the specimens. The fast reduction of surface moisture in the specimens triggers drying shrinkage, a phenomenon that is most evident during the first few days, a pattern supported by the scientific literature Rashad, et al. [52]; Rashad, et al. [53]; Hasnaoui, et al. [103] and Celerier, et al. [104]. A primary and well-established disadvantage of MK geopolymer is its tendency towards significant drying shrinkage [105]. The highest shrinkage occurs in 0BP specimens, which lack the stabilizing effects of BP. The shrinkage problem is effectively reduced by introducing BP, likely through its role in enhancing the C-N-A-S-H hybrid gel formation. BP’s rigid internal skeleton effect creates physical restraint by providing a non-shrinking framework made of larger particles that prevent the fine MK gel from shrinking as it loses water, acting similarly to pebbles in a shrinking sponge. Additionally, by replacing part of the MK with BP, the total volume of the shrinkable geopolymer gel is reduced, thus minimizing shrinkage. BP’s coarser particles also reduce the water demand of the mix, leading to less water available for evaporation, which directly decreases the drying shrinkage. These combined benefits make BP a highly effective additive for reducing drying shrinkage in MK-based geopolymers. Thus, with the gradual increase of BP content up to 25%, drying shrinkage progressively declines. Across all specimens, an accelerated shrinkage rate was detected over the initial 16 days, which then transitioned into a slower rate. However, other studies highlighted that this accelerated shrinkage ended within 14 days Huang, et al. [106] and Xu, et al. [107]. 1279 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Figure 11. Drying shrinkage behavior of specimens with different BP ratios. 3.5. Crystalline Phases Figure 12 provides the XRD patterns for 0BP, 10BP, and 25BP samples. Quartz constitutes the majority of the 0BP sample, which is devoid of BP Rashad, et al. [33]; Rashad, et al. [34]; Rashad, et al. [52] and Rashad and Zeedan [60] while a trace amount of calcite, likely due to carbonation during preparation, can also be detected. The crystalline phase composition of the BP-containing samples (2.5BP, 10BP, and 25BP) is dominated by quartz and albite, with trace levels of calcite, diopside, and augite. A progressive increase in BP content leads to a noticeable enhancement in the albite phase, accompanied by a reduction in quartz content. Figure 12. XRD patterns of 0BP, 10BP, and 25BP samples. 1280 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 3.6. FTIR Spectrum Figure 13 provides the FTIR spectra of 0BP, 10BP, and 25BP samples. The 0BP sample shows peaks around ~460 cm-1 and 695 cm-1 correspond to the bending vibrations of Si-O-Al and Si-O-Si bands, respectively, confirming the formation of aluminosilicate tetrahedral formwork. A band at ~1648 cm-1 corresponds to the H-O-H bending (scissoring) vibration. It is a definitive signature of the presence of molecular water within the geopolymer structure, confirming its hydrated nature. A broad and intense band at ~3445 cm-1 is associated with O–H stretching vibrations, indicative of hydroxyl functionalities. These arise from physically adsorbed water and from silanol (Si–OH) groups located at the chain ends or defects within the aluminosilicate framework. A dominant band at ~1010 cm-1 can be noted, which is due to the asymmetric stretching vibration of Si-O-T bonds (where T is Si or Al). Its position is a characteristic fingerprint of a pure N-A-S-H gel network, the primary binding phase in this sample. A shoulder at ~1400 cm-1 indicates the presence of carbonate groups, likely from the reaction of atmospheric CO2 with the sodium-based activator. The samples containing BP (10BP and 25BP) show similar bands to the control, but the main Si-O-T band has shifted to a lower wavenumber of ~1000 cm-1 for the 10BP sample and ~995 cm-1 for the 25BP sample. The observed progressive peak shift represents a key finding, providing conclusive evidence that basalt is chemically reactive rather than inert. Calcium ions released from the basalt are actively integrated into the geopolymer network, promoting a transition from a pure N–A–S– H gel to a more complex C–N–A–S–H-type gel. As the basalt content increases, greater calcium incorporation occurs, driving the spectral shift toward regions characteristic of calcium-rich aluminosilicate binders. In cementitious chemistry, C-N-A-S-H gel is known to form a denser, more cross- linked, and less permeable microstructure than pure N-A-S-H gel. This superior microstructure leads to superior mechanical strength. Figure 13. FTIR spectra of 0BP, 10BP, and 25BP samples. 3.7. Microstructure Analysis Figure 14 presents SEM micrographs of the 0BP, 10BP, and 25BP samples at varying magnifications. In the absence of BP, the baseline sample (0BP) reveals a heterogeneous structure, marked by a high level of pores and the presence of both undissolved and partially dissolved particles (Fig. 14a). This suggests that some MK particles were either incompletely activated or underwent limited activation during polymerization. The identified features help explain the inferior mechanical performance of the 0BP 1281 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate specimen in comparison to the others. However, the presence of 10% BP (10BP) results in an obvious change in the microstructure compared to the 0BP sample. The microstructure of the 10BP sample reveals a somewhat homogenous matrix, with fewer pores and undissolved particles (Figure 14b). The improved mechanical strength in 10BP specimens relative to 0BP specimens correlates with the presence of these features. The incorporation of 25% BP (25BP) leads to optimal microstructural enhancement. The 25BP sample exhibits a well-densified structure with improved particle consolidation and a markedly reduced pore count (Fig. 14c), which collectively contribute to its superior mechanical strength compared to other specimens. (a) 0BP sample (b) 10BP sample (c) 25BP sample Figure 14. SEM images of 0BP, 10BP, and 25 BP samples. 1282 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 9: 1268-1287, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i9.10127 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 4. Conclusions Leveraging Egypt's abundant kaolin and basalt reserves, this research successfully investigated the development of a sustainable geopolymer binder through the incorporation of basalt powder into metakaolin. The principal conclusions are: 1. The presence of BP caused an increase in the mixtures’ flowability, primarily due to its lower surface area and increased silica ratio. 2. The presence of BP accelerated the setting time, primarily due to the introduction of calcium ions. 3. The mechanical strength increased with higher BP ratios, peaking at 25%. On average, the compressive strength improved by 21.61% at this optimum ratio. 4. The transport properties were progressively reduced as the BP ratio increased up to 25%. At this optimal level, water absorption decreased to 13.1% and apparent porosity to 20.9%, compared to 16% and 26% in specimens without BP, respectively. 5. Drying shrinkage was mitigated with increasing BP content, achieving the most notable reduction at a BP ratio of 25%. 6. The beneficial effect of BP can be attributed to its role in promoting the formation of C-N-A-S-H hybrid gel, increasing the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio, and enhancing the particle size distribution. 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