Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology 
ISSN: 2576-8484 
Vol. 8, No. 6, 4041-4066 
2024 
Publisher: Learning Gate 
DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v8i6.2896 
© 2024 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 

© 2024 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 
* Correspondence:  vebinaresuli@gmail.com 

 
 
 
 
 

Cross-cultural competencies in public management, the concept of training 
and competencies in the public sector, the role of national schools in 
Balkans 

 
Vebina Resuli1*, Dhurata Lamcja2 
1Canadian Institute of Tecnology, Albania; vebinaresuli@gmail.com (V.R.). 
2Albanian University of Albania; lamcjadh@gmail.com (D.L.). 

 

 
Abstract: The increasing cultural and linguistic variety in academic contexts needs higher cultural 
competence on the part of instructors, which necessitates a better knowledge of both teachers' levels of 
cultural competence and the experiences that develop cultural competence. Cross-cultural 
communication is critical for avoiding cross-cultural shocks and cross-cultural interaction, which 
promotes the formation of new elements and forms of cultural activity, as well as the adjustment of 
value orientations, behavioral models, and lifestyle (universal and culturally unique components). Cross-
cultural competencies have become increasingly important in public management due to the rising 
globalization and diversity of societies. In the Balkans region, where different cultures and languages 
exist, the development of cross-cultural competencies is critical for effective public management. 
National schools have been identified as crucial institutions for developing these competencies. The 
method used in this study we have used empirical studies with specific variables in order to find out 
more about the cross-cultural competencies in public management. The literature review method 
involves a systematic and rigorous approach to identifying and analyzing relevant academic sources to 
comprehensively understand a research area. National schools in the Balkans have a critical role to play 
in developing cross-cultural competencies in public management. Teaching and learning must integrate 
global perspective education so that students may become responsible "active" global citizens. 
Global/international education must start with an attempt to comprehend globalization. Furthermore, 
cross-cultural experiences in teacher education may foster cultural competency, cooperation skills, and 
an understanding of global linkages, which can then be transferred to the classroom. Rethinking 
teaching and learning in these ways may give us the chance to gain a deeper knowledge and 
appreciation for people throughout the world, which is crucial to our duties and obligations as global 
citizens. 
Keywords: Balkans, Cross-cultural, Communication, Competencies, Rethinking. 

 
1. Introduction  

The increasing cultural and linguistic variety in academic contexts needs higher cultural 
competence on the part of instructors, which necessitates a better knowledge of both teachers' levels of 
cultural competence and the experiences that develop cultural competence. Cross-cultural communication 
is critical for avoiding cross-cultural shocks and cross-cultural interaction, which promotes the 
formation of new elements and forms of cultural activity, as well as the adjustment of value orientations, 
behavioral models, and lifestyle (universal and culturally unique components). Cross-cultural 
management's major purpose is to aid in the coordination of activities in work and education during 
exchanges in which national cultures as historically established knowledge, values, and experience form 
part of the cooperative multi-cultural activity (Gesteland Richard, 2003). 

Cross-cultural competencies have become increasingly important in public management due to the 
rising globalization and diversity of societies (Lopez-Littleton & Blessett, 2015). In the Balkans region, 



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where different cultures and languages exist, the development of cross-cultural competencies is critical 
for effective public management. National schools have been identified as crucial institutions for 
developing these competencies. This paper aims to review the literature on the role of national schools in 
the Balkans in developing cross-cultural competencies in public management. National schools in the 
Balkans have a critical role to play in developing cross- cultural competencies in public management. 
The studies reviewed in this paper suggest that the training programs offered by these schools promote 
cultural awareness, understanding, and communication skills, which are essential for effective public 
management in a diverse society. Therefore, policymakers and public managers should prioritize 
investing in national schools to enhance cross-cultural competencies in public management in the 
Balkans. 
 
2. Method 

The method used in this study we have used empirical studies with specific variables in order to find 
out more about the cross-cultural competencies in public management. The variable used in the 
literature review of the empirical studies used such as (a) Awareness of one's own cultural worldview; (b) 
Attitude toward cultural differences; (c) Knowledge of other cultural practices and worldviews; and (d) 
Cross-cultural Skills. The literature review method involves a systematic and rigorous approach to 
identify and analyze relevant academic sources to comprehensively understand a research area (Rother, 
2007). In this case, the literature review is focused on three concepts that are related to public 
management with cross-cultural competencies, the first section will be used also the empirical studies 
with specific target groups. In the second section, the researcher will focus on the concept of training 
and competencies in the public sector. How is related the training for cross-cultural competencies in 
public management and also how it affects the management? 

And the last section is focused on the role of national schools across the Balkans in developing 
cross-cultural competencies in public management. The researcher will use scholarly databases and 
search engines to identify relevant studies published in scholarly journals, books, and conference 
proceedings. The keywords utilized will be associated with cross-cultural competencies, public 
management, and national schools in the Balkans. The researcher will evaluate the relevance and quality 
of the research based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria will be studies 
that focus on national schools across the Balkans and their role in developing cross-cultural competencies 
in public management. 
 
3. Literature Review 

Several studies have shown that national schools in the Balkans can play a significant role in 

developing cross-cultural competencies in public management. For example, a study by Adamović et al. 
(2019) investigated the role of the Serbian National School of Public Administration (NSPA) in 
developing cross-cultural competencies. The research discovered the NSPA offers a variety of courses 
and programs that promote cross-cultural awareness, understanding, as well as communication abilities. 
The research also revealed that NSPA's training programs had a positive impact on the participants' 
cross-cultural competencies. Similarly, a study by Todorova et al. (2020) examined the role of the 
Bulgarian National School of Public Administration (NSPA) in developing cross-cultural competencies. 
The study discovered that NSPA's training programs offered opportunities for participants to learn 
about cultural differences, communication styles, as well as cross-cultural communication. The study also 
revealed that the NSPA's training programs improved participants' cross-cultural competencies and their 
ability to work effectively in diverse teams. Furthermore, a study by Grubor and Djokic (2020) 
investigated the role of the Montenegrin 

National School of Public Administration (NSPA) in developing cross-cultural competencies. The 
study found that the NSPA's training programs offered a comprehensive approach to cross-cultural 
competencies, including cultural awareness, knowledge and abilities. The study also revealed that the 
NSPA's training programs had a positive impact on the participants' cross-cultural competencies. While 



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the literature review has identified the role of national schools in the Balkans in developing cross-cultural 
competencies in public management, there are several related themes that could be further developed. 
 
3.1. Human Resources 

Human resource management (HRM, or simply HR) is a role in organizations that is meant to 
support the organization's strategic goals. Human resources (HR) are largely concerned with how people 
are handled inside businesses, with an emphasis on rules and processes. Organizational HR departments 
and divisions are often in charge of many operations, such as employee recruiting, training and 
development, performance review, and reward. Human resources are also involved with industrial 
relations or the balance of organizational policies with collective bargaining and governmental 
legislation. Human resources (HR) are a field that focuses on managing the people within an 
organization. It encompasses a wide range of activities related to recruiting, selecting, training, 
developing, compensating, and retaining employees. According to various studies found on Google 
Scholar, human resources play a critical role in organizational success. For example, research has shown 
that effective HR practices can lead to higher employee satisfaction, productivity, and organizational 
performance (Guest, 2017; Huselid, Jackson, & Schuler, 2020). Additionally, studies have found that 
strategic HR practices that align with an organization's goals and culture are more likely to result in 
positive outcomes (Jackson, Schuler, & Jiang, 2014; Wright, McMahan, & McWilliams, 2019). 

HR professionals also play a key role in managing diversity and inclusion within organizations. 
Several studies have revealed that inclusive HR practices can lead to better employee engagement and 
creativity, as well as lower turnover and absenteeism rates (Byrne & Shavelson, 2021; Nishii, 2013). 
Moreover, research has highlighted the significance of HR practices in promoting gender and racial 
diversity in the office (Kulik & Ryan, 2022; Wilson & Altman, 2020). 

The field of human resources is constantly evolving, with new challenges and opportunities arising as 
organizations adapt to changing markets, technologies, and societal trends. As such, ongoing research 
and innovation in HR practices and policies are essential for organizations to remain competitive and 
successful. Human resources (HR) management is a vital aspect of organizational management that 
involves recruitment, selection, training, development, and Employee management inside a company. 
The HR function is essential in ensuring that the organization achieves its objectives by ensuring that it 
has the right people, with the right skills and knowledge, in the right positions. One of the key theories 
that underpin HR management is the theory of human relations. This theory emerged in the 1920s and 
1930s as a response to the classical management theory, which emphasized efficiency and productivity 
at the expense of employee needs and satisfaction (Mayo, 1933). The philosophy of human connections 
posits employees are driven by factors other than money rewards but also via social needs, such as the 
need for recognition and belongingness. Therefore, organizations should create a supportive and 
participatory work environment that addresses the social needs of employees. 

Another key theory in HR management is the equity hypothesis, which proposes that workers 
compare their inputs (effort, time, skills) and outcomes (salary, benefits, recognition) to those of the 
organization's additional workers (Adams, 1965). If employees perceive they may believe they are being 
treated unfairly experience job dissatisfaction and reduced motivation. Therefore, organizations should 
ensure that employees perceive fairness in their treatment and compensation. In addition, the contingency 
theory suggests that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to HR management, as well as the 
effectiveness HR procedures are determined by the specific context of the organization (Fiedler, 1967). 
Therefore, organizations should adopt HR practices that are aligned with their specific goals, culture, 
and external environment. HR management is a critical function of organizational management that 
involves the recruitment, selection, training, development, and management of employees. The theories 
of human relations, equity, and contingency are essential in guiding HR practices and ensuring that staff 
are inspired, satisfied, and productive. 

HR originated from the early twentieth-century human relations movement, when academics began 
documenting methods of increasing commercial value via strategic personnel management. Initially 



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dominated by transactional duties like as payroll and benefits administration, human resources 
today focuses on strategic initiatives such as mergers and acquisitions, talent management, succession 
planning, industrial and labor relations, and diversity are all areas of expertise and inclusion 
globalization, corporate consolidation, technological innovation, and additional research (Kramar, 2014). 
 
3.1.1. Human Resources in the Public Sector 

The term "human resources" is defined in the workforce and is listed among the four main factors of 
production: land, labor, capital, and costs. This treatment of employees as a source, of financial or physical 
resources, has roots in employee policies during the Industrial Revolution. Human resources 
management was because organizations asked employees to work and produce more than rewarded 
(Appelbaum & Bailey, 2000). Human resources began to be seen as flexible and dynamic resources, so 
organizations began to seek different ways in order to "motivate them and to increase performance this led to 
increased research in the field of human resources and recently taken information sciences and psychology, economics, 
and political economy” (Fisher, 1989: 55). 

Human resource management is part of the management process focused on human relations and 
ensuring their welfare, that they give the maximum contribution at work. Institute of Personnel 
Management in the UK gives such a definition for this function: “Personnel Management is part of the 
management of trouble for people to work and their relationships within an organization. Its aim is to unite and 
develop employees that comprise it and is concerned on the welfare of each individual and work team to push them to 
give the maximum contribution to the success of the organization” (Mullins, 1993:12). 

Great importance was given to finding the right employee and his training, for the task. Although 
scientific management was created as a result of inefficiency and loss of time that spread much during 
the industrial period, the impact that it had on employees was harmful (Taylor, 2004). This management 
began with employees, considered as machinery and expected that appropriate training to give staff, 
they give their optimum performance. Employees were considered essential in the production process, 
but they were treated as machinery. Human resource management focused purely on employee training 
and motivation were the only way bonuses depended on the quantity produced. Employees and their 
satisfaction are not taken into account. There was an ‘inhuman’, throughout the work environment 
(Conway, 2004). The best way to understand this is through a departure from the following statement: 
"Scientific organization of work consists mainly of a certain number of general principles applicable to all, in a 
fully specified theoretical conception that can be applied in different ways" (Taylor, 2004: 112; Conway, 2004: 
64) 

The improvement of human resource management functions and procedures in the public sector is a 
continual and growing process. Citizens and society expect competent work from public authorities in 
providing public services to the populace. In comparison to the private sector, the public sector is still 
less efficient across the world. The effectiveness of state and municipal governments is determined by 
factors other than public officials' education, skill, and talents. It is also crucial to note that the human 
resource motivation system has a considerable influence on institutional efficiency. There is now an 
issue with institutional performance efficacy, the effectiveness of public officials, and the conditions 
required to disclose their talents and untapped potential. To improve the efficiency of institutional 
performance, we must strengthen the human resource motivating system. 

It has been determined that in order to achieve purposeful work results for human resource 
administration offices, it is necessary to analyze not only the existing functions and procedures, 
structure them, and look for ways and methods that could form the appropriate background, which helps 
to increase the effectiveness of human resource management, but also to identify the means of motivating 
human resources. The goal of this article is to conduct a human resource motivation factor analysis in 
order to improve the efficacy of existing administrative functions and processes. A methodological 
triangulation is used to achieve the intended purpose: an examination of scientific literature, 
comparative and systematic analysis, synthesis and qualitative research methodologies, and document 
analysis. 



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3.1.3. Human Resource Management Characteristics and the Significance for Encouragement in the Public Sector 

The significance of human resource management was assessed toward the end of the past century; 
nevertheless, the specificity of human resource management in the public sector receives less attention 
than scientific works for organizations in the private sector. States, municipal authorities, and institutions 
all play important roles in maintaining successful state administration and meeting citizens' demands. 
The administrative departments of state and local authorities under study are distinguished by activity 
and legal regulatory specificities that govern the details of human resource management and indicate 
the issue areas. One of them is the necessity to strategically value and regulate human resources. The 
challenges might be created as a result of the need to build a flexible, creative, inventive, and active 
approach to executing the process of strategic planning while not violating the legal restrictions of 
public-sector organizations. The government sector plays a vital role in the state in relation to the size 
and quantity of operations. Work and career prospects, and moreover social security, are well-known 
benefits of working in the government. Eventually, the public sector adopted various private-sector 
management principles, resulting in important changes in labor legislation, employment reform, the 
designation of employees' roles, and other areas. The new public administration area is typically 
associated with a new approach in public sector management that is concentrated on the ideals of 
improved efficiency (effectiveness), responsibility (transparency), and the need for quality. 

These tendencies are observed when analyzing the expansion of the public sector (Chlivickas & 
Melnikas, 2011): a growing focus on efficiency (the examination of the essential points organizations in 
government settings is required, as is the analysis of structures ensuring that existing goals are retained 
and new goals are realized), the alteration of leadership (education of leaders, support for employees, 
indicating the significance of leadership and its influence on the corporation; the education of 
individuals, and the perception of skills needed in their activities ensuring that the work of the effective 
team is more useful to the leaders and organizations). Payment system reform (making of a payment 
system in relation to the organization's goals, the state's strategy, and employee motivation); the 
requirement to conduct research on the efficiency of employee performance; and the promotion of 
collaboration between the public and private sectors. 

The value of human resources may be judged by the qualities of these resources. However, the 
worth of human resources is frequently only nominally assessed, and little expenditures are made in 
proper procedures and systems that teach people’s talents, experiences, and success. In order to achieve a 
goal, institutions develop an organizational structure; they create departments, decide their 
subordination, and get work equipment, office equipment, and other items. However, the institutions are 
essentially the individuals who work there, who endeavor to define a goal and complete the duties. The 
human resource potential and their degree of motivation determines how well state and local entities 
achieve their objectives. The finest initiatives may be unreached if public officials lack the necessary 
skills and credentials while also being under-motivated. One of the issues that may be solved is the 
competency of individuals working in institutions, the effective compatibility of personal characteristics 
and motivation, and their aiming at the accomplishment of strategic goals and plans (Chlivickas & 
Raudelinien, 2007). The human resources management system includes the following components: 
management strategy and structure, personnel policies, management techniques and tools, and employee 
motivation. It is critical to consider how these principles are implemented in a particular institution, in 
addition to the fact that all areas of human resource administration are interconnected and impact one 
another. Legislation and administrative law principles govern the formal human resource management 
component of state and local entities. However, management styles and methods used in institutions 
frequently vary and are dependent not only on the formal part of management or personnel 
management techniques, but also on the institution's culture and philosophy, the people who work there, 
and the employees' skills in the human resources department. Informal processes inside the institution, 
on the other hand, have an influence on the formal portion of administration and method of management 
of human resources (Njuiri, 2021). 



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A unique individual resources policy and management idea is determined by employees' abilities, 
competency, leadership authority, and motivation. Management of human resources is a specialized field 
dynamic process that is influenced by exterior as well as internal elements. Its goal is to align the goals 
of institutions with the talents and interests of the people who work there, as well as to appropriately 
motivate and successfully pursue the objectives. The propensity to individualize human resource 
management is acknowledged in reviews produced by international organizations. It is most visible in 
selection procedures, setting the deadline for appointment to the service, training, and so on. Recognizing 
that the demands of each public official varied, different management and incentive methods should be 
used for them, taking into account the institution's objectives and goals. It should be recognized, 
however, that the individualization of human resource administration may harm public officials' ethics. 
Another area in which a kind of human resource administration change is implemented is the delegation 
of human resource management activities. Although the strength and volume of this tendency vary by 
country, there is a trend toward decentralization of human resource management, with some duties of 
central authority delegated to outside organizations. This trend is especially noticeable when the 
leadership role grows and the tasks of the central authority in charge of state council administration 
alter (Varmeeren, 2017). 
 
3.2. Public Management 

Public management structures fluctuate greatly from country to country, but also regionally and 
locally, in an international setting. One cause for these disparities might be cultural distinctions, which 
result in diverse perspectives on the state and its institutions. This may seem little, but it becomes 
critical when paradigms of public management reform are used presented, and moved from one nation 
to another, as was (and continues to be) the case with the new public administration. Scholars and 
practitioners in public administration should be mindful of the influence of culture on the potential and 
idea limitations transfers between jurisdictions. Having said that, a deeper knowledge of culture itself is 
a prerequisite for better treatment of cultural factors in public management changes. Cultural theory 
has received a lot of interest in the public management community. Other notions for the examination 
on the other hand, of cultural facts, may be of relevance to the topic as well. 

A review of public administration literature demonstrates that the relevance and effect of culture in 
public management structures are often discussed and referenced - mainly using the phrase ''culture'' as 
a shorthand for ''organizational culture''. Treatises on public administration emphasize the influence of 
previous events and settings on the particular operation and creation of organizations, norms, and 
perceptions have a significant influence on the reception and operation of public management 
mechanisms (Schroter, 2000; Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2004). Otherwise, corporate culture - or, more 
correctly, its evolution - is attributed to public management initiatives. (Ridley, 2000; Schedler & 
Proeller, 2000). The interconnection between culture and governance exists, but is not methodically and 
clearly included by referring to the appropriate theory. Although cultural theory has received a lot of 
attention (Hood, 1998), there are still some additional approaches for analyzing facts about culture could 
be appealing to the topic. As the debate over public administration and management gains worldwide 
traction, experts in public management and globally active practitioners have become conscious of the 
effect of social culture on the range of alternatives a country has for the design of public administration. A 
greater understanding of culture is one prerequisite for better consideration of cultural factors in public 
management reforms. 
 
3.2.1. The New and the Traditional Public Management 

Although public administration has been practiced since the birth of human civilization, it is still in 
its infancy as an academic topic. It is the government apparatus and is responsible for implementing 
policies developed in response to public aspirations and demands. Government success is thus more 
dependent on how successfully and efficiently public administration meets the changing needs of society. 
The emergence of public administration as a field of scientific inquiry began with the seminal article of 



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Woodrow Wilson titled, “the study of Administration”. He argued that it is difficult to run modern 
complex governments without a thorough knowledge and strongly advocated the politics-
administration dichotomy. Wilson was followed by scholars such as F.W. Taylor, Max Weber, Luther 
Gulick, Herbert Simon, Buchanan, Williamson, and others who shed light on different aspects of public 
management. The complete gamut of management theories might be placed on a continuum. On the one 
hand, there are philosophies, exemplified by bureaucracy, that encourage hierarchical organization and 
centralization, rigorous adherence to regulations and procedures, uniformity, and paternalism. On the 
other end of the spectrum are supporters of flexible structures and decentralization, outcome-based 
controls, and customization (Rosenbloom et al., 2022). 

With the advent of globalization, budgetary limits, and increased social expectations, public 
administration is confronted with several quandaries. In addition to greater public demands for services, 
modern administration must cope with technological complexity, new technology, transient 
professionals who move in and out of public institutions with ease, public-private partnerships, and 
power meshing. The most significant of these changes is the overlapping of authorities. More 
particularly, the idea of separation of powers has increasingly degraded into a domain in which the 
borders of state institutions - the legislative, executive, and judiciary - appear to be blurred. This is 
especially true when it comes to issues like combatting terrorism and safeguarding the environment. To 
get a better knowledge of public administration, a new strategy is required that integrates the ideals of 
conventional public administration with those promoted by the New Public Management (NPM). 
Although the three techniques (managerial, legal, and political) that Rosenbloom has combined into one 
framework appear inadequate for tackling present problems to public administration. Using 
Rosebloom's theory (Rosenbloom, 1983) as a structure and ideas borrowed from NPM, future research 
may be devoted to establishing a new philosophy of public administration that reconciles competing 
values of probity, efficiency, effectiveness, equity, and innovation on the one hand and reconciles 
discrepancies in public policy and administration on the other. To put it another way, in addition to 
embracing a few examples of objectives of New Public Management, a synthesis of management, legal, 
and political approaches to public administration is necessary (Osborne et al., 2013). 

Petrescu et al. (2010) conducted an investigation into public administration, comparing the new and 
classic models. The study's conclusion is that, while the new public administration was implemented in 
developed countries as well as should be considered in emerging countries as a reform government 
administration, this new model has flaws that prevent it from always producing the desired results. The 
evolution of public administration, like any "living organism," entails change and progress. Over the 
years, there has been an increase in growing awareness of the need to move away from the old paradigm 
of government administration, which has been characterized as bureaucratic and over-regulated, and 
toward one that is more in tune with the specifications of the beneficiaries. The use of human resource 
management ideas in the public sector has supplanted the old paradigm of personnel administration. 
HRM was said to have been implemented in the public sector as the sector transitioned from a 'rule-
bound' culture to a 'performance-based' one (Shim, 2001). The application of HRM coincided with the 
significant managerial reorganization and reform program in the government. Managerial goals of 
increased efficiency are considered to be attained through efficient human resource practices provided by 
HRM principles (Kramar, 1986). Following New Public Management Implementation (NPM), 
managers may have had the opportunity to acquire or create advanced HRM practices. Thus, NPM 
principles enable a more adaptable and responsive strategy for public sector personnel Recruitment, 
selection, retention, training, and development are all aspects of the job. Over time, the public sector 
evolved a distinct approach to human resource management that included several innovations that 
provided considerable rights and benefits to employees. The public sector has been regarded as a "model 
employer," with working conditions at the forefront of employment reform and innovation. The model 
employer notion encapsulated best practices and it was disputed to set an example to the private sector 
in terms of treating employees fairly and providing good working conditions, such as high levels of job 
security, superior leave entitlements, and generous pensions (Black & Upchurch, 1999). A bureaucratic 



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employment strategy mirrored the functioning of Weberian methods and principles of rule-governed 
rational conduct in the conventional public sector paradigm. The administrative system was 
bureaucratized in order to guarantee that decisions and actions were uniform, codified, and 
methodically addressed activities via the application of pre- defined rules and processes. A rational-
legal bureaucracy that cared about personnel, as well as their administration, emphasized established 
norms to prevent specialization through functional responsibility arbitrary dismissal, reliance on 
organizational position to confer authority, merit selection, and, in general, a career service orientation 
(Schroeder, 1992). The employment system in this scenario was quite concentrated and administered by 
powerful central government agencies in charge of every hiring decision, determining and establishing 
numbers, and developing regulations for employment, education, and advancement (Alford, 1993). 
Employment The notion of "career service" was created in the public sector which included tenure 
security and lifelong employment and was characterized by the functioning of an internal labor market. 
(Gardner & Palmer, 1997). Employees were hired for the public sector at the lowest levels of 
departments, and advancement to higher-level jobs was limited to internal public sector candidates 
unless the role was highly specialized. The public sector had service-wide wages and conditions, 
therefore there was no fluctuation based on performance; payment was based on the job or position. Job 
roles were restricted, task-based, and highly routinized, and administration was formed in accordance 
with Tayloristic work practices of isolating constituent pieces of labor in order to gain economies of 
scale. The promotion was based only on seniority or duration of service. This unitary structure was put 
under strain by the financial crisis and a desire to contract with governments out of their services in the 
face of rising criticism of 'big government' (Shim, 2001). The language because of the requirement for 
increased responsiveness and efficiency underpinned the calls for a new style of management that 
permitted for greater flexibility when it comes to dealing with worker difficulties. 

The focus in the public sector switched from management to administration under New Public 
Management, which was a component of a larger plan to promote efficiency, effectiveness, and service 
quality. There were changes in the public sector implemented as a result of a perceived requirement to 
cut government spending, offer more efficient services, and narrow the breadth and depth of government-
provided products and services provided by the government (Vermeeren & Van der Voet, 2017). NPM 
components included responsibility for outcomes, performance assessment, corporate planning, the user 
pays principle, devolution of power, activity decentralization, and risk management. Managerialism 
under an NPM paradigm entailed the use of physical, financial, and human resources to achieve 
government goals. The new public management model is said to have a "flexible, market-based form" 
(Adaobi & Agbemelo-Tsomafo, 2021). The 'arts of private sector management' were expanded into relating 
to the public sector language of New Public Management (Rosenberg Hansen & Ferlie, 2016). These 
new business techniques also included innovative approaches to personnel management in the public 
sector. 

As a result, the administration of human resources was covered in the reform agenda for the public 
sector. New Public Management ideas and practices challenged traditional notions of career service, 
consistent and lifetime employment opportunities, as well as service-wide employment conditions. 
 
3.2.2. The Public and Private Sector’s Managerial Styles 

The public and private sector managerial styles can differ in several ways. Here are a few key 
differences: a) Goals: The primary goal of a private sector manager is to maximize profits and 
shareholder value, while the primary goal of a public sector manager is to provide effective and efficient 
services to the public. b) Accountability: Managers in the private sector must answer to shareholders 
and owners, while public Sector executives must answer to the public, elected officials, and regulatory 
bodies. c) Decision-making: Private sector managers have more autonomy in decision-making since they 
are accountable to shareholders and owners. Managers in the public sector, on the other hand, must 
follow established procedures and regulations and often have less flexibility in decision-making. d) 
Incentives: Private sector managers are often incentivized through bonuses and stock options based on 



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company performance, while public sector managers are typically incentivized through salary increases 
and promotions based on seniority and performance evaluations. e) Budgets: Public sector managers are 
often constrained by budgetary limitations and must make decisions within the framework of available 
funding. Private sector managers, on the other hand, may have more resources and flexibility to pursue 
growth opportunities. f) Risk-taking: Private sector managers are often encouraged to take risks and 
innovate in order to acquire a competitive edge, while public sector managers are often more risk- averse 
and prioritize stability and predictability. 
 
3.3. The Impact of Cross-Cultural Competencies on Public Management Performance 

Cross-cultural competencies have become increasingly important in public management due to the 
globalization of economies and the multicultural nature of societies. Public managers need to be able to 
work effectively with diverse groups of people to provide equitable and efficient services to citizens. 
Effective communication is crucial for public managers to build relationships with stakeholders and 
citizens from diverse backgrounds. A study by O’Toole and Montjoy (2004) found that public managers 
who have strong communication skills are better able to negotiate and manage conflicts. Ng and Sears 
(2012) found that intercultural communication competence positively affects cross-cultural service 
encounter outcomes. Empathy and understanding of cultural differences are essential for public 
managers to address the needs of diverse populations. Loughlin and Barner (2013) found that public 
service motivation and cultural competence can help public managers navigate cultural differences and 
improve public service delivery. Communication among representatives of different confessions is a 
difficult and conflicting process, whose multifarious form is dictated by the fact that communicants 
belong to distinct confessions. During contact, communicants evaluate their interlocutors’ using signs 
that are typical of representatives of their own confession. The dissimilarity of several indications 
frequently leads to communication breakdowns (Lipina et al., 2017). 

Van de Vijver and Leung (1997) emphasize the importance of understanding cultural differences in 
research and data analysis. Public managers need to have strong problem-solving skills to address 
complex issues that affect diverse populations. Zampetakis, Moustakis, and Tsaousis (2010) found that 
innovation profiles positively affect task performance and entrepreneurial orientation. Lee and Lai 
(2010) highlight the importance of cross-cultural competence in public affairs education for developing 
problem-solving skills. Leadership is critical for public managers to effectively manage diverse teams and 
achieve organizational goals. Kim and Kim (2015) found that leader inclusiveness positively affects work 
outcomes through the mediation of psychological safety and innovation. Alexander (2004) developed a 
conceptual framework for leadership in public service that emphasizes the importance of strategic 
thinking, ethical leadership, and communication skills. 

National schools in the Balkans can play an important role in developing cross-cultural 
competencies among public managers in the region. Agarwal and Selen (2009) emphasize the 
importance of dynamic capability building for service innovation, while Gallois and Ogay (2005) 
highlight the ongoing need for research on communication accommodation theory. By developing cross-
cultural competencies, public managers can better serve diverse populations and improve public service 
delivery in the Balkans.  

Scholars in the field have used the terms sociocultural adjustment, intercultural adjustment, cross- 
cultural adjustment, international adjustment, and cross-cultural adaptation interchangeably 
(Gumundsdóttir, 2015; Kim et al., 2008; Konanahalli et al., 2014; Moon et al., 2012; Ward & Fisher, 
2008). The level of psychological distress felt by an expatriate in connection to various features of the 
host nation is characterized as cross-cultural adaptation. Traditionally, one of the most popular 
prominent subjects in the ex-pat community study has been an intercultural adjustment (Selmer & 
Lauring, 2016). Intercultural adjustment is commonly interpreted from a social learning viewpoint, in 
which adaptability to a different culture can be seen as a sense-making process in which expatriates seek to 
make their reality more predictable (Caligiuri, 1997). 
 



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3.3.1. Best Practices in Developing Cross-Cultural Competencies in National Schools in the   Balkans 
Integrate cross-cultural education into the curriculum: Integrating cross-cultural education into the 

curriculum can help students develop a better understanding of diverse cultures and perspectives. As 
noted by Lee and Lai (2010), cross-cultural competence can be developed through education and 
training. National schools in the Balkans should consider incorporating cross-cultural education into 
their curricula to help students develop these competencies. 

Provide opportunities for cross-cultural interactions: Cross-cultural interactions can help students 
develop empathy and understanding of diverse perspectives. National schools in the Balkans should 
provide opportunities for students to engage with people from different cultures, either through 
exchange programs or other means. As noted by O’Toole and Montjoy (2004), effective communication 
and negotiation skills can be developed through interaction with diverse groups. 

Offer language courses: Learning a new language can help students better communicate with people 
from diverse backgrounds. National schools in the Balkans should consider offering language courses to 
help students develop language proficiency in different languages. As noted by Ng and Sears (2012), 
intercultural communication competence is positively associated with cross-cultural service encounter 
outcomes. 

Provide practical training opportunities: Practical training opportunities can help students develop 
problem-solving and leadership skills in a real-world setting. National schools in the Balkans should 
provide practical training opportunities, such as internships or service learning, to help students 
apply their cross-cultural competencies in a practical context. As noted by Zampetakis et al. (2010), 
innovation profiles positively affect task performance and entrepreneurial orientation. 

Foster a culture of diversity and inclusion: National schools in the Balkans should foster a culture of 
diversity and inclusion to support the development of cross-cultural competencies. This includes 
promoting awareness and respect for different cultures, providing support for students from diverse 
backgrounds, and creating an inclusive learning environment. As noted by Kim and Kim (2015), leader 
inclusiveness positively affects work outcomes through the mediation of psychological safety and 
innovation. 
 
3.3.2. The Importance of Leadership in Promoting cross-cultural Competencies 

Cross-cultural development opportunities should have one overall purpose in the context of 
developing a pipeline of future leaders: to establish global leadership abilities, which will be favorably 
associated with performance on global leadership duties. When leadership development techniques may 
increase leadership performance, they are regarded as useful (American Management Association, 2010). 
The global economy is creating a competitive landscape that is growing increasingly complicated, 
dynamic, and ambiguous for cross-border enterprises. Globally competent business executives, not only 
those on overseas assignments, are crucial for a company's capacity to compete and prosper on a global 
scale. In response to the increasing demand for globally competent business leaders capable of operating 
successfully in today's global environment and improving organizational performance across all 
geographic markets, 62% of firms worldwide report having some form of global leadership development 
program. (American Management Association, 2010). Caligiuri and Tarique (2012) conducted research 
that demonstrated a combined influence of work and non-work experiences; this study should assist add 
greater weight to international experiences earned outside of the usual corporate environment. This 
study also contributes to the corpus of literature by shining light on the significance of individual 
personality traits. We join the numerous experts who are pushing enterprises to employ a combination of 
selection and well-designed developmental experiences to establish the pipeline of future global leaders 
that will be vital to organizations' future competitiveness.  

For example, Chrobot-Mason and Aramovich (2013) argue that cultural awareness competencies are 
a critical component for authentic global leaders and that leaders must develop cross-cultural 
competencies in order to be successful in today's globalized world. House et al. (2004) conducted a large-
scale study of leadership across 62 societies and found that effective leadership is contingent upon 



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cultural norms and values. Jonsen and Maznevski (2010) argue that world leadership requires the 
capacity to work across many cultures and that leaders must develop cross- cultural competencies in 
order to lead effectively on a global scale context. Kim and Kim (2015) found that leader inclusiveness 
positively affects work outcomes through the mediation of psychological safety and innovation. Finally, 
Maznevski and DiStefano (2000) argue that effective global leaders must possess a variety of 
competencies, including the capacity to work across cultures, as well as the capacity to adapt to diverse 
environments. 
 
3.3.3. Cross-Cultural Competencies in the Context of Regional Integration 

Cross-cultural competencies refer to the capacity to comprehend and effectively communicate with 
individuals from various cultural origins. These competencies are becoming increasingly important in 
the context of regional integration efforts, as countries seek to work together to promote economic 
growth, social development, and political stability (Smith, 2010). By promoting cross-cultural 
competencies, regional integration efforts can facilitate communication and cooperation between 
different countries and cultures, leading to greater understanding and collaboration. One way in which 
cross-cultural competencies can support regional integration efforts is by promoting cultural sensitivity 
and understanding. When people from different cultures come together, they bring with them a wealth of 
diverse experiences, beliefs, and values. By promoting cross-cultural competencies, regional integration 
efforts can help people to appreciate and respect these differences, rather than seeing them as barriers to 
communication and collaboration. This can lead to a greater sense of unity and shared purpose, as 
people come to recognize the similarities that unite them despite their cultural differences. Another way 
in which cross-cultural competencies can support regional integration efforts is by fostering effective 
communication. Effective communication is essential for building trust and fostering cooperation 
between different cultures and countries. By promoting cross-cultural competencies, regional 
integration efforts can help people to develop the skills needed to communicate effectively with people 
from different cultural backgrounds. This can include developing the ability to listen actively, ask 
questions, and communicate clearly and concisely. By improving communication, cross-cultural 
competencies can help to break down barriers and facilitate cooperation between different cultures and 
countries (Jones & Brown, 2015). 

Cross-cultural competencies can support regional integration efforts by promoting flexibility and 
adaptability. When people from different cultures come together, they may encounter unfamiliar 
situations and challenges. By promoting cross-cultural competencies, regional integration efforts can 
help people to develop the ability to adapt to new situations and to be flexible in their thinking. This can 
help to facilitate cooperation between different cultures and countries, as people are better able to work 
together to address common challenges and achieve shared goals. Cross-cultural competencies are 
essential for supporting regional integration efforts and promoting cooperation between different 
countries and cultures. By promoting cultural sensitivity and understanding, fostering effective 
communication, and promoting flexibility and adaptability, cross-cultural competencies can help to 
break down barriers and facilitate collaboration between different cultures and countries. As such, they 
are an essential tool for building a more united and collaborative world (Smith et al., 2015). 

In the Balkans region, there are several ongoing regional integration initiatives, including the 
European Union (EU) accession process. The EU has been working to integrate Balkan countries into 
its economic and political structures, with the aim of promoting economic growth, stability, and 
democracy in the region. The EU accession process involves a series of negotiations and reforms that 
candidate countries must undertake in order to become EU members. This includes reforms in areas 
such as the rule of law, human rights, economic policy, and the environment. In exchange, candidate 
countries are granted access to the EU's single market, which is the world's largest trading bloc. In 
addition to the EU accession process, there are several other regional integration initiatives in the 
Balkans. For example, the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) was established in 2006 
to promote trade and economic cooperation between Balkan countries (Griessler, 2020). The Regional 



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Cooperation Council (RCC) was also established in 2008 to promote cooperation in areas such as 
economic development, energy, and transport. Despite these regional integration initiatives, the Balkans 
region still faces several challenges. There are ongoing disputes over issues such as borders, minority 
rights, and war crimes, which have hindered progress toward integration. In addition, corruption and 
organized crime remain significant challenges in many Balkan countries, making it difficult to establish 

the rule of law and promote democratic institutions (Uvalić, 2019). 
While the Balkans region has several ongoing regional integration initiatives, there are still 

significant challenges that must be addressed in order to achieve greater cooperation and stability in the 
region. 
 
3.3.4. The Impact of COVID-19 on Cross-Cultural Competencies in Public Management 

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on public management, particularly in the 
area of cross-cultural competencies. As governments around the world have worked to respond to the 
pandemic, they have had to navigate a complex web of cultural, social, and economic factors that have 
required a high level of cross-cultural competency. One of the key challenges of the pandemic has been 
the need to balance public health concerns with economic considerations. In many countries, this has 
required governments to make difficult decisions that have had significant cultural and social implications, 
such as restrictions on religious gatherings, social events, and other cultural practices. To navigate 
these challenges, public managers have needed to develop a deep understanding of cultural norms and 
values, as well as the ability to communicate effectively with diverse stakeholders. Another challenge has 
been the need to coordinate responses across different levels of government and between different 
cultural groups (Bajaj et al., 2021). This has required public managers to develop strong cross-cultural 
communication skills, as well as the ability to build trust and collaboration across cultural and 
organizational boundaries. For example, in some countries, public managers have worked with 
community leaders to develop culturally appropriate public health campaigns and messaging. At the 
same time, the pandemic has also created opportunities for cross-cultural learning and innovation. For 
example, many countries have looked to other countries for best practices and innovative solutions to the 
pandemic, leading to increased cross-cultural collaboration and knowledge sharing. In addition, the 
pandemic has highlighted the importance of cultural competence in public management, leading to a 
renewed focus on cross-cultural training and development. 

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on cross-cultural competencies in public 
management. While it has presented significant challenges, it has also created opportunities for 
learning, innovation, and collaboration across cultures. Going forward, it will be important for public 
managers to continue to develop their cross-cultural competencies in order to effectively address the 
complex challenges facing societies around the world (Vecco et al., 2022). 
 
3.5. Organizational Culture 

Organizational culture is an element of the internal environment of organizations, which together 
with the structure and resources constitute the internal functional whole with which the organization 
performs and stays in interaction with the external environment. Among the business community in the 
1980s, organizational culture emerged as the theme of central interest for researchers of organizations. 
No strong sharpness is required for it is understood that organizational culture is the name given to the 
cultural dimensions of individuals who operate within a structure known as an organization. 
Organizational culture is the system of values, norms, beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions that may not be 
articulated, but shape how people behave and the ways in which things are done in an organization 
(Armstrong, 2009). Schein (2010) identifies three levels of culture: artifacts, such as the visible structures 
and processes of sensitive, observed behaviors; beliefs and values embraced, such as ideals, goals, values, 
aspirations, ideologies, and rationalizations; basic assumptions, such as beliefs and values of the 
unconscious, taken for granted. An alternative and graphic form of looking at organizational culture 
gives McShane with it the so-called cultural Iceberg. Artifacts are symbols or indicators of culture 



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organizational. Artifacts of organizational culture: such as structure, language, rituals, and legends, 
represent physical artifacts, which can be seen, heard, and observed by accompanying those members of 
the organization. Likewise, artifacts are artifacts expressed, such as values and beliefs, which are not 
observed but are distinct from the way people explain them and e justify what they do. All of these are at 
the level of awareness of the members of the organization. Yes, besides there, are some values so 
ingrained in a culture that members are no longer aware of them. These basic assumptions and beliefs 
represent the essence of culture and subconsciously guide their behavior and decisions. 

Organizational culture is a concept that refers to the shared values, beliefs, assumptions, and 
practices that shape the behavior of individuals within an organization. The culture of an organization is 
shaped by its history, leadership style, and the attitudes and behaviors of its employees. The literature 
on organizational culture suggests that it can have a significant impact on employee behavior, 
motivation, and job satisfaction. Organizations with strong and positive cultures tend to have higher 
levels of employee engagement and better performance than those with weak or negative cultures. 
However, changing organizational culture can be difficult and requires a long-term commitment from 
leadership and employees. 

Schein, (2019). The changing concept of organizational culture in managing organizational change. 
Organizational Dynamics, 48(1), 1-8. This article discusses how the concept of organizational culture 
has evolved over time and how it can be used to effectively manage organizational change. In the 1950s, 
social psychologist Edgar Schein joined MIT's Sloan School of Management, which had just begun its 
grand experiment of teaching management through formal disciplines such as mathematics, social 
psychology, economics, and history. That was a fundamental break from expounding "management 
practice" through examples presented by professors who had been managers for most of their lives. The 
new method produced intimate, unexpected partnerships as well as profound, inventive thinking on 
leadership, group cultures, and organizational change, all of which were still in their infancy at the time. 
Ed and his colleagues started on what he calls "an exciting quarter century of model building" in this 
setting, which helped shape how people thought about and participated with companies. Decades later, 
in the digital age, Ed believes it is time for a new paradigm based on intimate professional connections, 
openness, and trust. He and his son and associate, Peter Schein, have been working on this approach for 
several years. Peter spent most of his career as a strategy executive at a variety of Silicon Valley 
businesses after getting a degree in anthropology and an MBA. In 2015, he chose to collaborate with Ed 
in evaluating and articulating the changes that are occurring as managerial responsibilities grow more 
complicated, interrelated, and dynamic. They discuss their viewpoints on organizational life, a brief 
history of ideas leading up to this point, and their predictions for the future. 

Culture and socialization in organizations (O'Reilly & Chatman, 2021). This article provides an 
overview of the role of organizational culture in socializing new employees and shaping their behavior 
within the organization. Macenczak and his colleagues found in a study on leadership and power, "Since 
those high in narcissism often seek high positions of power, this can be a dangerous combination if left unchecked." 
(Macenczak, Campbell, Henley & Campbell, 2016: 119). Their findings corroborate this conclusion by 
demonstrating that narcissistic leaders are far more likely to favor and foster environments that weaken 
cooperation and honesty, both of which are virtually always advantageous to firms. A previous study has 
neglected the potentially insidious influence of such leaders on persistent patterns of behavior among 
employees, who are more inclined to make decisions that are congruent with the organization's culture. 
In this sense, narcissistic leaders may leave a mark on businesses by enacting rules, establishing hiring 
and promotion criteria, and penalizing certain, but not all, actions that foster cultures lacking in 
teamwork and integrity. These cultures may outlive the term of a narcissistic leader, and as a result, 
narcissistic executives may leave a lasting, and bad, impact on the organizations they oversee (O'Reilly 
& Chatman, 2021). 

Toward a theory of organizational culture and effectiveness. Two of the attributes, engagement, and 
adaptability, are indications of flexibility, openness, and responsiveness, and were found to be powerful 
predictors of growth. The findings also revealed that all four attributes were important indicators of 



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subjectively-rated effectiveness criterion for the whole sample of enterprises, but only for bigger firms 
were they good predictors of objective metrics such as return-on-assets and sales growth. The article 
proposes a theoretical framework for understanding the link between corporate culture and 
organizational effectiveness (Denison, & Mishra, 2019). 

Organizational culture and leadership. This book is a classic in the field of organizational culture 
and offers a comprehensive overview of the topic, including case studies as well as practical advice for 
managers (Schein, 2016). 

Positive Organizational Scholarship and Agents of Change (Cameron & Quinn, 2019). This book 
provides a practical guide for managers and consultants on how to diagnose and change organizational 
culture using the competing values framework. 
 
3.5.1. Explicit Application of Social Culture in Public Management Development 

The idea of ''culture'' is an effort to explain variances in the conduct of distinct groups of actors in 
objectively similar conditions. These groups of actors must be constituted for this purpose, and 
characteristic aspects of behavior must be specified and described by non-rational factors. Thus, culture 
study is the quest for the shared subjective, which only materializes in a joint sense-making process among 
the actors of this so-called cultural group. Culture has been described as one of the most difficult words 
to define since it is used to express fundamental concepts in multiple various academic fields as well as 
several unique and incompatible systems of thought (Williams, 1976). Its popularity appears to be 
inversely related to its accuracy and clarity. A 1970s survey found 160 different definitions of culture 
(Welte, 1967) 

As previously said, culture has become a frequent concept in management studies in general, and is 
therefore widely represented in public management literature. However, the great majority of published 
material takes a functionalist approach to culture, which does not increase our knowledge of the 
interaction between society’s culture and public administration structures. Others, such as Kelman 
(2005), focus their research on change in public administration without using the term "culture" Hood's 
(1998). The Art of the State and Pollitt and Bouckaert's (2011) Public Management Reform - A 
Comparative Analysis are two classics of the current public management debate that can be considered 
prominent and influential contributions that explicitly address the topic of culture and public 
management. Hood uses anthropologist Douglas' (1982) grid-group culture theory in public 
management research in The Art of the State, frequently citing Thompson, Ellis, and Wildavsky (1990). 
Using this basic technique and analytical framework, he discovers what he considers to be fundamental 
recurrent patterns that underlie the vast range of crazy-quilt recipes presently visible in government 
organizations and management literature. He develops four main worldviews (''ways of life''): hierarchy, 
individualism, egalitarianism, and fatalism. Hood believes that by distinguishing the primary rhetorical 
families, the cultural theory may serve to develop rhetorical analysis beyond conventional analysis, 
particularly in relation to themes of managerial modernization and global convergence. 

Reflecting on the implementation of this theoretical framework, he contends that intellectual 
analysis and reasoning promote divergence and variety more than champions of modernity and 
globalization would have us think. The cultural theory method is viewed as useful as a framing strategy 
for thinking creatively about available kinds of organization and examining a range of what-to-do ideas 
surrounding public services and government (Hood, 1998), or in Hood's terms: 

“The cultural theory explains why there is no universally accepted solution to the question of "who should manage 
whom and how" in government. Cultural theory may give a foundation for examining the various ways that 
control might operate in, over, and by public service organizations. It can also assist us in exploring the many types 
of rhetoric - persuasive stories and analogies associated with recipes - that are appropriate to public management by 
identifying the kind of stories and metaphors that fit with each organizational perspective” (p. 223). 

As a result, Hood's definition of culture does not clearly focus on social or corporate culture. Hood 
appears to be following an implicit idea of organizational culture as he studies the ''organizational world-
view''. However, in several sections of his book, he alludes to history and collective narrative in many 



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nations, which have an influence on cultural bias in public administration. Sociocultural theories appear 
to have some importance for Hood's thinking, and it may be said that he is following in the footsteps of 
historical and sociological institutionalism. As he states in his book: 

"... a historical understanding of cultural and organizational diversity deserves a central place in the analysis 
of public management" (p. 225). 

Although Hood proposes a clever approach to look at culture via the lens of cultural analysis, it 
remains largely unclear how exactly the shift ''down-grid/down-group'' should occur, and what public 
managers may do to make this step with their companies. Hood's book did not go any further than his 
essay, which used cultural theory to illustrate the problems of NPM. (Dunleavy & Hood, 1994). In Public 
Management Reform, Pollitt and Bouckaert (2004) establish explicit models and taxonomies that 
identify and explain particular patterns and trends. The writers emphasize the importance of cross-
national variance in reform processes. 

Reforms in various countries are discussed against the backdrop of a taxonomy of regime types, 
which includes a five-tiered classification for elements of politico-administrative regimes such as a form 
of state and government, majoritarian versus consensus type executive governments, relationships 
between ministers and top-level bureaucrats, administrative culture, and policy advice channels. 
Structures of political and administrative systems are described as enclosing and surrounding more 
specialized and dynamic reform processes. According to the authors, their theoretical approach is 
"probably closer to a mildly constructivist historical institutionalism than to either rational choice or 
the more strongly constructivist sociological institutionalism." (Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2011). Pollitt and 
Bouckaert's analysis is also well placed within historical institutionalism, according to Barzelay and 
Gallego (2006). 
 
3.6. Training and Competencies in the Public Sector 

In the public sector, training, and competencies are critical to ensuring that public servants have the 
knowledge and skills necessary to perform their jobs effectively. Training refers to the process of 
imparting knowledge and skills to employees, while competencies refer to the knowledge, skills, and 
abilities that employees must possess to be successful in their jobs. In the public sector, training, and 
competencies are particularly important because public servants are responsible for providing essential 
services to citizens and managing public resources. There are several reasons why training and 
competencies are important in the public sector (Brewis, 2022). First, they help to ensure that public 
servants have the knowledge and skills necessary to carry out their duties effectively. For example, 
public servants must be knowledgeable about the laws, regulations, and policies that govern their work. 
They must also possess skills such as communication, problem- solving, and decision-making, which are 
critical to their job performance. Second, training and competencies are essential for ensuring that 
public servants are able to adapt to changes in their environment. In the public sector, the needs and 
expectations of citizens and stakeholders are constantly evolving, and public servants must be able to 
respond to these changes. This requires ongoing training and development to ensure that public 
servants are equipped with the skills and knowledge necessary to adapt to changing circumstances. 
Public servants are responsible for managing public resources, and they must be held accountable for 
their actions. By ensuring that public servants possess the necessary competencies, governments can 
help to ensure that public resources are managed effectively and efficiently (Berman et al., 2021). 

Because competency-based training concepts and methods have lately been applied to HRD 
programs in the commercial and public sectors, it is required to first define "competency-based." When 
looking for the origins of competency, academics frequently use McClelland's (1973) essay "Testing for 
Competence Rather Than Intelligence," which was published in the American Psychologist (pp. 423-447). 
The competence movement and competency-based education have been propelled forward by 
McClelland's idea of competency. The term competence refers to the specification of knowledge and 
skills, as well as the application of that information and skill to the performance standards expected in the 
workplace. In other words, "competency-based training" not only increases employees' knowledge, 



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abilities, skills, and attitudes, but it also prepares them to meet the goals of their business and aligns 
training and methods with performance intervention. This paragraph defines both competency-based 
training and traditional training to help you understand the distinctions between the two. Training 
is distinct from education and employee development, which both prepare people for work and everyday 
life. Remedial/basic skills, orientation, qualification, second-chance, cross-training, retraining, and 
outplacement are all examples of training. Training can be either impromptu or planned. Unplanned 
training, according to Dubois and Rothwell (2004), is rarely beneficial since people cannot learn how 
others perform. When training is designed, it is most likely based on the instructional systems design 
model (ISD). The ISD model, a classic training technique, has some key characteristics of competency-
based training. 

ISD consists of nine steps: Step 1: Applying the ISD model to study the performance problem in 
order to discover the underlying reason; Step 2: Only involves problems that are the result of a lack of 
individual knowledge, abilities, or attitudes. Step 3 is to perform a thorough training requirements 
assessment; Step 4 is to write instructional objectives; Step 5 is to decide whether to create or buy 
training content to accomplish the instructional objectives; and Step 6 is to decide how to deliver the 
training. Step 7 is a formative assessment; Step 8 is training delivery, often known as the 
implementation phase; and Step 9 is a summative evaluation. The ISD conventional training paradigm 
"has been shown to be effective in producing results in improved job performance. Unfortunately, learners and 
supervisors may lack ownership of the training provided." (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004: 50). 

Aside from these definitions, understanding the distinctions between competency-based training and 
traditional training is essential. According to Naquin and Holton (2003), competency-based training, 
which is founded on the core concepts of proving capacity, typically necessitates people demonstrating 
their competence to execute certain activities first. Competency-based training is centered on 
behaviorally articulated and quantifiable goals. Life experience, on-the-job training, and training and 
development programs are all methods to obtain competencies. According to Dubois and Rothwell 
(2004), competency-based training is an "attempt to make training a collaborative effort or to place 
greater responsibility on the learner for taking initiative." However, standard training focuses on job 
requirements rather than distinguishing between excellent and successful performance. These training 
methods are not mutually exclusive, although they do emphasize various aspects. Competency-based 
education takes a broader perspective. This means that competency-based training is about more than 
just imparting knowledge, developing skills, and changing attitudes. There are two emphases: (a) 
competency-based training to assist self- directed training and development, stressing an individual's 
obligation to assume more responsibility for his or her learning, and (b) competency-based training for 
work-team growth. (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004). 
 
3.6.1. The Role of National Schools in the Balkans 

National schools in the Balkans play an important role in training and developing public servants. 
These schools provide specialized training in areas such as public administration, finance, and 
management, and they are designed to ensure that public servants possess the knowledge and skills 
necessary to perform their jobs effectively. One of the key benefits of national schools is that they provide 
a standardized approach to training and development. By establishing a common curriculum and 
training approach, national schools ensure that public servants possess the same basic competencies 
regardless of their specific job roles. This helps to ensure consistency and fairness in the treatment of 
public servants, and it also helps to promote transparency and accountability. 

Another benefit of national schools is that they provide a structured approach to career 
development. Public servants who attend national schools have the opportunity to develop their skills 
and knowledge over time, and they may also have access to career advancement opportunities. This 
helps to ensure that public servants are motivated and engaged, and it also helps to ensure that 
governments have a pool of qualified and capable leaders to draw upon. National schools play an 
important role in promoting professionalism and ethics in the public sector. 



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By providing training on topics such as ethics, integrity, and accountability, national schools help to 
ensure that public servants are committed to serving the public interest and upholding the highest 
standards of professionalism. This helps to build public trust and confidence in the public sector, which 
is essential for effective governance. Training and competencies are essential for ensuring effective and 
efficient public sector performance. National schools in the Balkans play an important role in providing 
standardized training and development opportunities for public servants, promoting career development, 
and ensuring professionalism and ethics in the public sector. As such, governments in the Balkans 
should continue to invest in these schools and ensure that they have the resources and support necessary 
to fulfill their important role in public sector training and development. 

 
3.6.2. Critical Competency-Based Training Success Factors 

The conception and execution of competency-based training is only one aspect of guaranteeing the 
training program's success. However, according to Hyland (1994), competency-based training is a 
"theoretically and methodologically vacuous strategy." In addition, Collins (1983) contends in his critical 
critique of competency-based training as a system in adult education that it is unduly reductionistic in 
its attempt to explain complex phenomena through discrete standardized notions. (Kosbab, 2003). 
Despite differing opinions on the usefulness or otherwise of competency-based training, it is still 
employed as a learning strategy (Smith, 2000). 

Competency-based training (CBT) is a methodology that focuses on the skills and knowledge 
required for job performance. In order to ensure the success of CBT, there are several critical factors 
that should be considered: 

• Clearly defined competencies: The competencies required for job performance should be clearly 
defined and communicated to the learners. This includes both technical and soft skills. 

• Learner-centered approach: The training should be designed with the learners in mind. It should 
be tailored to their needs, preferences, and learning styles. 

• Appropriate content and materials: The content and materials used in the training should be 
relevant, up-to-date, and aligned with the competencies required for the job. 

• Trained instructors: Instructors who deliver the training should have the necessary knowledge 
and skills to effectively facilitate learning. 

• Assessment and feedback: Regular assessment of learner performance and feedback should be 
provided throughout the training. This helps learners understand their progress and identify 
areas for improvement. 

• Application of learning: The training should include opportunities for learners to apply their 
learning in real-world situations. This helps them develop the necessary skills and confidence to 
perform their job duties. 

• Continuous improvement: The training program should be regularly evaluated and updated to 
ensure it remains effective and relevant. 

The success of CBT depends on the careful consideration of these critical factors, as well as a 
commitment to ongoing improvement and adaptation to changing job requirements and learner 
needs. Ignoring any of these elements can have a huge impact on product success or failure. A 
department must demonstrate the capacity to do activities and obligations to the normal expectation in 
employment in order to assess a person's competence. competence-based training focuses on the 
development of the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes to meet the competence requirement. The 
competency standard must be based on a high-performance system and must fit with the organization's 
strategic goals and strategies. One of the key characteristics of competence-based training is that each 
learner's success is measured to determine if they meet the competency level. Each learner is tested under 
the competency-based training method to determine the gap between the abilities they require (as defined 
in the training package) and the skills they already possess. The distinction between the two is known 



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as the competence gap. A training program is then created to assist the learner in acquiring the 
necessary skills and closing the gap. 

 
Figure 1.  
In competency-based training, there are several critical success elements. 
Source: https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026013487124 

 
3.6.3. The Importance of Training in Public Administration Capacity Building 

European economies and societies are undergoing ongoing dynamic changes, and as a result, public 
authorities must be adaptable enough to respond to these changes. In today's Europe, strengthening 
administrative capacity entails not only raising workers' skill levels and broadening their skill set, but 
also increasing their capacity for decision-making, independent thinking, accountability, leadership 
capability, and agility. Coaching is a development strategy that can aid in these areas. Training may be 
included in a capacity framework as a unique ability for managers and leaders, as well as employed as a 
key tool for building all of the framework's other skills. The quality of PA in each European country is 
heavily influenced by the country's human resource capabilities. And building human resource capability 
must be a long-term, deliberate effort (Karini, 2017). 

Training can improve performance and productivity, increase self-awareness and confidence, 
positively influence relationships with others, develop leadership skills and decision-making, improve 
flexibility and the ability to manage change and develop clear goals for both performance and professional 
development on an individual level. Coaching may promote happiness and productivity, teamwork, 
employee engagement, and retention at the organizational level. It may also aid in the development of a 
learning culture, as well as the improvement of feedback loops and performance management (Caplan, 
2004). Training is not widely used in the Albanian civil service. It is quite difficult to find real-world 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026013487124


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instances of coaching in PA. Furthermore, there is a misunderstanding about the distinctions between 
mentoring, peer learning, and coaching. Even in the private sector, proper mentoring is not practiced. 
Training is very irregularly available in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and even then, there is some 
misunderstanding about what it is and how it differs from mentoring or training. Fortunately, there is 
widespread acceptance of coaching and its application. Training is nearly unheard of in Kosovo. 
Coaching is perceived and understood differently by different people, and it is frequently confused with 
advising and mentoring. Furthermore, there is a lack of understanding about the advantages of 
coaching. Also, training is not a frequent practice in the Macedonian civil service. There is no official or 
informal coaching at the central level, and it is only intermittently present at the local level, always as a 
one-time event. There is widespread misunderstanding about the differences between coaching and 
mentoring (Women, 2020). 

The Montenegrin civil service does not utilize training. There is widespread agreement that 
coaching may be an effective technique; yet, there is some doubt regarding the viability of coaching 
practices, particularly in light of the current organizational, budgetary, legal, and cultural context in the 
Public Sector. Serbia is the only ReSPA country where training is employed systematically at one of its 
institutions. There is also a common knowledge of what coaching is, how it is used, and the distinction 
between coaching and mentoring. In the private sector, coaching is also widely used (Staronova, 2018). 
 
3.7. The Hofstede’s Model 

Hofstede’s model is the framework used to identify and classify cultures into different types 
(Hoftstede, 1980). The concepts and frameworks used to understand various cultural variances across 
various civilizations are called cultural dimensions (Aldawsari et al., 2019). Since various civilizations 
have diverse cultural practices, different countries have different cultures. The cultural elements of 
power, uncertainty, temporal orientation, and gender orientation are only a few. Using the examples 
above as a guide, the cultural dimension describes how various cultures behave and function within 
various contexts and frameworks. At the national level, a country's values and norms determine what 
kind of attitudes and behaviors are acceptable and appropriate. People of a particular culture socialize in 
these values as they grow and social norms and directives describe how they should behave towards each 
other. The significant importance of cultural change constitutes the message it conveys to Geert 
Hofstede, the foremost scholar of the intercultural dimensions of human resources. One of Hofstede's 
conclusions has been that cultural values within a nation are substantially more similar to the values of 
individuals from different nations. Using a geocentric orientation, the eminent Dutch social scientist 
Geert Hofstede has developed the most widely accepted framework for understanding the 
organizational impact of differences cultural. Hofstede's work is characterized by three basic assumptions: 
the state in which a person lives is the key determinant of his cultural orientation; the key problem in 
intercultural communication is that people from different countries have different value orientations, and 
these value orientations can be measured and quantified. Ever since he made his study known with the 
book “Culture’s Consequences, international differences in Work-related Values” (1980), Hofstede has 
implemented his work not only in the field of social psychology but also in management development 
(Hofstede, 1984). 

Developed by Dutch sociologist Geert Hofstede, the model identifies six cultural dimensions that are 
used to compare cultures: power distance, individualism as opposed to collectivism, uncertainty 
avoidance, masculine versus feminine, long-term against short-term focus, and indulgence versus 
constraint (Hofstede, 1980). 

The power distance dimension refers to the extent to which people in a culture accept and expect an 
uneven distribution of authority and power. In high power distance cultures, there is a strong 
hierarchical structure, while in low power distance cultures, power is more evenly distributed. The 
individualism versus collectivism dimension refers to the extent to which people prioritize individual 
goals over collective goals. In individualistic cultures, people tend to value personal achievement and 
autonomy, while in collectivistic cultures, people prioritize the goals of their social groups. The 



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uncertainty avoidance dimension refers to the extent to which people in a culture feel threatened by 
ambiguity and uncertainty. In high uncertainty-avoidance cultures, people tend to have strict rules and 
rituals, while in low uncertainty-avoidance cultures, people are more tolerant of ambiguity and change 
(Hofstede, 2001). 

The masculinity versus femininity dimension describes the amount to which a culture values typical 
masculine features versus feminine traits (such as caring and nurturing). The long-term versus short-
term orientation dimension refers to the extent to which a culture's people prioritize short-term versus 
long-term goals. In long-term-oriented cultures, people value perseverance and thrift, while in short-
term-oriented civilizations, individuals emphasize rapid fulfillment. The indulgence versus restraint 
dimension refers to the extent to which people in a culture indulge in pleasure and gratification versus 
exercising self-discipline and restraint. However, critics have pointed out that the model oversimplifies 
cultural differences and can lead to stereotypes and generalizations. Therefore, it is important to use the 
model with caution and to recognize the complexity and diversity of cultures (Taras, Kirkman & Steel, 
2010). 
 
3.8. Public Administration in Balkan National Schools 

Given the region's diversified population and historical backdrop, cross-cultural abilities are crucial 
for public administration in national schools in the Balkans. The Balkans have had several waves of 
migration and geopolitical upheavals, resulting in a diversified population with a variety of cultural 
origins, languages, and traditions. As a result, public managers at Balkan national schools must 
understand and respect distinct cultural norms and values in order to successfully communicate and 
interact with stakeholders and the community they serve. It is clear how dependent our society and job 
have become on data, particularly true and well-collected data. As this is becoming the new "power" to 
defend actions or provide meaningful feedback for corporate or non-profit objectives, it complicates the 
situation in the Balkan area. It is remarkable to see how the Balkan countries, Albania, Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia, are expanding their 
collaborations through international conventions and educational goals, despite the stigma of nationalism 

that has harmed their image (Rodić & Horvat, 2022). 
By developing cultural awareness, communication skills, cultural competency training, collaboration, 

and inclusivity, public managers can effectively serve the diverse population in the region and help to 
build a more cohesive and inclusive community. 
 
3.8.1. Balkan States’ Management Reform Aspirations and Reality 

Implementing European administrative standards is a challenging undertaking for Balkan nations 
that are struggling to align their own norms with external demands. Their administrative systems 
share similarities due to their shared pre-nineties background, such as a complex institutional 
framework, highly centralized public sector, weak horizontal coordination, lack of administrative 
expertise, political influence on institutions, and never fully implemented merit-based civil service with 
low status and pay (Arcadis, 2004). Given the inadequate development of the civil service system and 
the absence of a democratic state tradition in the Balkan area, public administration reform must 
establish a new role for civil employees in relation to society as well as the fundamental ideals of 
contemporary public service. 

Building fundamental competencies based on EAS principles and values will aid in the 
internalization of new functions and standards. 'During our complex, rapidly changing times, all one can do, 
but what one must do, is strive for a learned, creative, adaptable yet intellectually secure Public Administration 
professional who is aware of the basic questions and thus able to address the day-to-day ones once they pose 
themselves, often in unforeseeable form,' writes Drechsler (2000:267). 
Civil officials cannot be regarded as simple employees since they play a constitutional responsibility in 
implementing laws and serving society. As a result, the state bears the obligation of establishing a civil 
service that is efficient, professional, impartial, and transparent. This goal may be met by 



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comprehensive human resource management, which includes consistent staffing and career policies, as 
well as a fair and merit-based approach to selection, recruiting, and promotion. The best features of 
European civil service experiences may be leveraged to develop an appropriate human resource 
structure. However, policies and concepts must be tailored to the realities of the Balkan nations. 
The Balkan region's public management reform is a long-term endeavor to redefine administrative 
concepts, aims, and institutions. The ideas of European Administrative Space, developed from Western 
European administrative systems and norms, are the result of decades of democratic progress. Changes 
in institutions, such as laws or constitutions, are more rapid than changes in attitudes and values. As a 
result, public administration, particularly civil employees, plays a critical role in achieving the role model 
of a democratic society. Given the inconsistencies in public administration and the lack of coordination in 
the Balkan administrative systems, a strategic vision is required to establish coherent standards that are 
aligned with local absorption capacity in order to achieve goal-oriented and well-functioning 
administration (Arcadis, 2004). 
 
4. Conclusions 

The aim of this paper was to conduct a literature study on the function of national schools in the 
Balkans in developing cross-cultural competencies in public management. National schools in the Balkans 
have a critical role in taking part in developing cross-cultural competencies in public administration. 

Teaching and learning must integrate global perspective education so that students may become 
responsible "active" global citizens. Global/international education must start with a commitment to 
comprehend globalization. Furthermore, cross-cultural experiences in teacher education may foster 
cultural competency, cooperation skills, and an understanding of global linkages, which can then be 
transferred to the classroom. 

Rethinking instructing and learning in these ways may give us the chance to gain a deeper 
knowledge and appreciation for people around the world, which is crucial to our duties and obligations 
as global citizens. It must contextualize intercultural education challenges and incorporate local and 
global links in appropriate training, study, and service. 

The studies on managing cultural the variety of classrooms expose unseen parts of teaching and 
function as a great resource for instructors who wish to reflect on their teaching style. They will acquire 
essential feedback through this approach in the interest of coping more successfully with tough 
circumstances involving cultural diversity in their class. 

Finally, training on intercultural concepts is critical for empowering educators in the more effective 
management of cultural diversity, so that they may harness rather than marginalize their immigrant 
students' cultural capital.  
 
Copyright:  
© 2024 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions 
of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 

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