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© 2024 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 
* Correspondence:  egbekley@gmail.com 

 
 
 
 
 

Sustainable development: Genesis, challenges and perspectives 

 
Efui Holaly GBEKLEY1*, Abla-Sika Hanou GBEKLEY2,3, Yassir ANNOUAR4, Abdourahamane Aissa 
Ghanny Vanessa ALI5, Fodoh Clefasse KOULA6,7,8 
1Regional Center of Excellence on Sustainable Cities in Africa (CERViDA-Dounedon), University of Lomé, Lomé 01 BP 1515, 
Togo; egbekley@gmail.com (E.H.G.)  
2African Institute of Biomedical, Agrifood, Societal and Environmental Sciences (IASBASE), Lomé, Togo ; 
vanakley04_@yahoo.fr (A.S.H.G) ;  
3Biology Department, Universität Philipps Marburg, Marburg, Germany. 
4Pedagogy, Language, Innovation, Complexity and Development Laboratory, Faculty of Letters and Hu-man Sciences, Cadi 
Ayyad University Marrakech, Marrakech, Morocco. yassirannouar@gmail.com (Y.A.) 
5Institut Quantique, University of Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada. alivaness09@gmail.com (A.A.G.V.A.) 
6Félix Houphouet-Boigny National Polytechnic Institute (INP-HB), Yamoussokro, Ivory Coast. clefasse@gmail.com (F.C.K.)  
7African Center of Excellence for the VALorization of waste into high added value products (CEAV-ALOPRO), Abidjan, Ivory 
Coast. 
8Biomedical, Food and Environmental Health Sciences Laboratory (LaSBASE), University of Lomé, 01 BP 1515, Togo. 

 

 
Abstract: The notion of sustainable development appeared in a period when humanity, prey to the 
conse-quences of the anarchic destruction of the environment, decided to change the paradigm of eco-
nomic development called bad (bad) development to turn towards good development or ecode-
velopment. If in the countries of the North, the concept is in phase with an adaptation or even an 
adequacy with the system of governance, this is not the case in the countries of the South. There is a 
need to rediscover this concept and do a fairly complete rereading of the proposed actions. The objective 
of this review is to present the facts, challenges and perspectives on sustainable development. 
Methodology: A systematic search was carried out in the Scopus and Google Scholar database using the 
key concepts: Sustainable Development, development indicators, ur-ban revitalization, eco-district, 
SOUTH countries. 69 selected articles relate to theoretical studies, field studies, study reports, 
international conferences and summits and expert declarations. Sus-tainable development takes into 
account the economic, social, cultural and especially environ-mental aspects which rhyme with a new 
governance policy where the actors are made up of rep-resentatives of grassroots communities: this is 
governance from below. The consequence is ur-ban governance which takes into account the priority 
issues of poor populations gathered in pe-ripheral districts which must be transformed into eco-districts. 
The approach to sustainable de-velopment is to evolve the principles and frameworks of city and 
regional planning by integrat-ing new economic, social and environmental issues. This gradually 
involves numerous modifi-cations by moving from a compartmentalized system of city governance to an 
integrated city management system or better to inclusive governance. Halfway to its completion, in 
view of the urban challenges, especially environmental ones, there is an urgent need for a reassessment 
of the strategies deployed to achieve the objectives of sustainable development globally and specif-ically 
in the global south. 
Keywords: Development indicators, Eco-districts, Southern countries, Sustainable development, Urban regeneration. 

 
1. Introduction 

In 1987, after four years of work, the UN World Commission on Environment and Development 
(WCED) published its report "Our Common Future", whose main contribution was undoubtedly the 
large-scale mediation of the principle of sustainable development [1]. Since then, this principle has 
gradually taken root in international and national structures, so that it is now part of the "ordinary 



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discourse" on development [2]. According to its proponents, the program proposed by sustainable 
development will enable us to achieve more viable development for current and future generations. 
What's more, sustainable development proposes a more ethical orientation than its predecessor, 
traditional economic development. Indeed, sustainable development is also the symbol of a new 
consciousness, a genuine ethics of change, the matrix of a new way of looking at development problems 
in both Southern and Northern countries, in rural areas and urban agglomerations [3]. Ultimately, the 
principle would make it possible to reconcile the economic, social and environmental imperatives of 
development, so as to achieve a better balance. 

In 2000, when the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were adopted at the United Nations 
Millennium Summit in 2000, the year 2015 was chosen as the deadline for assessing the achievements 
made in terms of human development in the countries of the South. That same year, the Conference on 
Financing for Development was held in Addis Ababa (Monterrey 3), followed by the Conference on 
Climate Change in Paris (COP 21), and the UN General Assembly set its members new goals for 2030 
to improve the living conditions of people around the world, the Sustainable Development Goals 
(SDGs). Agenda 21 sets out options for combating soil, air and water degradation, as well as preserving 
forests and biological diversity. It addresses poverty and over-consumption, health and education, cities 
and agriculture, and the roles to be played by all parts of our societies: government, business and 
industry, trade unions, scientists and children. It affirms that only sustainable development will make it 
possible to abolish poverty and halt environmental degradation [4], [5]. 

At the UN General Assembly in September 2015, 193 countries of the world adopted new goals for 
2030, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [6], [7]. 17 goals relating to three dimensions of 
sustainable development were selected, defined around dignity (2), people (5), prosperity (5), planet (3), 
justice (1) and partnership (1). First dimension is economic growth, second dimension is social inclusion 
and third dimension is environmental protection - Various sustainable development objectives have been 
added to the human development objectives. The international community is involved through 
environmental objectives, but also through the financing to be mobilized; new dimensions are appearing 
with governance, for example. These goals are helping to shape international cooperation programs for 
the next fifteen years: "In terms of aid flows, the MDG campaign was a success. But by focusing on the 
social treatment of poverty, this program was very deficient. 

On the contrary, the SDGs emphasize, for example, the fight against inequality and the need to 
tackle the efficiency and fairness of tax systems. They reflect a desire to consider development in all its 
complexity and multiple dimensions. The goals are numerous and appear to be very ambitious, while 
concealing dimensions, particularly political dimensions, on which there is no consensus: "The SDGs 
should guide the dialogue on development, but it is difficult to see what is excluded from them, apart 
from civil and political rights, and it is not clear how this vastly expanded and extremely ambitious 
program will actually stimulate development" [8]. 

These days, sustainable development (SD) is a leitmotif for many politicians and players in the 
public debate. Since it first appeared on the international scene as a model for renewed development, SD 
has been praised from every rooftop and in every sector to the point where it has become a concept that 
borders on the habitual. So much so that SD has become a theoretical notion that some would even say 
that it is an illusion, all the more so as we feel that it has been emptied of its substance, sustainable 
development, which only has meaning in practice. So, the feasibility of sustainable development raises a 
few eyebrows. Some see it as a set of postulates and values that are too simplistic or too abstract to be 
put into practice [9]. Others, more reluctant, see it as a rhetorical and ideological maneuver designed to 
legitimize and maintain a system of exploitation of ecosystems and the most vulnerable populations 
[3],[10]. 

In the academic world, SD is making the headlines in scientific debates, both in the legal and 
economic fields and in the basic sciences and human and social sciences. The aim now is to study this 
new development paradigm and propose training curricula. The literature search therefore covers not 
only the measurement of development, but also the theoretical underpinnings of the approach adopted 
and the methodologies implemented, whether at a macro or micro level [11],[12]. This entry is 
structured around the following question: Sustainable development: what is it really? what are its 



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origins? how has the concept evolved since the 1970s and what are the prospects for action using this 
concept? 

This entry provides a summary of current data on sustainable development. Specifically: (1) it 
presents the genesis of sustainable development and the underlying theories of development; (2) it 
presents the definition of sustainable development, the key concepts and related themes of Sustainable 
Development; (3) It presents the indicators linked to sustainable development, their scope and relevance 
for measuring perceptible results in the light of the objectives to be achieved in the long term; (4) it 
carries out a critical analysis of global sustainable development policies; (5) it presents the specificity of 
the challenges for developing countries then (6) provides perspectives for achieving the concept of 
sustainable development in its implementation in the countries of the South (Supplementary material). 
 
1.1. Theories of the Concept of Development 

The notion of development generally remains very vague and this situation is explained by the fact 
that the definition of this concept poses numerous problems to the point that it remains controversial 
and above all approximate to this day. An ideology that marks world policies is that less developed 
countries will have to be developed, and development theories have profoundly influenced the strategies 
put in place to “develop” “underdeveloped” countries. Among the most studied, theories of catch-up , 
theories of development from below: 

Catch-up theories, which emerged in the 1950s, are a set of economic and social concepts aimed at 
explaining how developing countries, often referred to as the "third world", can progress to reach the 
level of development of countries industrialized countries of the North (Sakai, 2014) . These theories 
suggest that less developed countries can “catch up” with developed countries by adopting similar 
policies and strategies. These theories developed in a historical context marked by decolonization and 
post-war reconstruction. They are based on the idea that economic development is a universal process 
and that lagging countries can accelerate their growth by following the example of developed countries 
(Sakai, 2014) . There are different approaches within theories of catch-up, with differences over the 
precise definition of development and the underlying ideology. Some theories emphasize 
industrialization and specialization in the production of low-capital-intensive goods, while others 
emphasize the importance of technology transfers and the role of institutions, particularly the state, in 
development process (Page, 2008) . In summary, theories of catch-up provide a framework for 
understanding the challenges and opportunities facing developing countries in their quest for economic 
and social progress. They continue to influence development policies across the world (Page, 2008) . 

Theories of development from below, which appeared in the 1970s, emphasize the notion of poverty 
and emphasize that economic development does not necessarily guarantee the eradication of poverty. 
These theories argue that although economic growth can contribute to development, it alone is not 
enough to eliminate poverty ( Brasseul and Lavrard -Meyer, 2016; Torre, 2015) . 

They offer solutions where the beneficiaries are also actors in their own economic development, thus 
encouraging the self-eradication of poverty ( Zahoui-Dégbou , 2024) . Development from below is 
distinguished from development from above in that it starts from the possibilities of local economic 
agents and seeks to expand them by relying on local resources and capacities ( Bélaidi and Djedid , 
2018) . 

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) are indeed economic reforms implemented by the 
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) in the 1980s. These programs aim to 
help countries facing serious economic difficulties. to emerge from their crisis. They include a set of 
measures that act on both the economic situation and the economic structures of the country (“ 
Wikiwand - Structural adjustment,” 2024) . SAPs are often conditioned by the IMF and the WB on the 
implementation of reforms of a liberal nature, such as the marketization of common goods, deregulation 
of the economy, and opening to the free global market ( Desvallées , 2022) . These measures can include 
legislative provisions promoting economic initiative, the fight against corruption, the improvement of 
infrastructure, and a tax system that encourages initiatives and economic growth ( Assidon , 2002) . 
However, these programs have been criticized for their effects on populations, particularly in terms of 
reducing public spending in essential areas such as health and education, which has sometimes 



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exacerbated inequalities and poverty (JBB, 2022) . These programs characterized theories of economic 
dependence. 

Emerging in the mid-1990s, human development theories represent a significant evolution in the 
understanding of development (de Lame, 2001) . They include broader aspects of human well-being and 
therefore seek to go beyond simple economic measurement (Bloch, 2024) . The main theorist behind this 
approach is Amartya Sen , and it was during this period that the United Nations Development Program 
(UNDP) introduced the Human Development Index (HDI) (Vignolles, 2012) . This index has become a 
key tool for assessing a country's progress, taking into account not only per capita income, but also 
education (literacy) and health (life expectancy) to provide a more complete picture of human 
development (Tharamangalam et al., 2015) . The HDI assesses well-being, a key factor in development. 

Theories of sustainable development are indeed closely linked to ecological security and 
environmental threats (Charles and Kalaora , 2019) . They seek to understand and respond to the 
challenges posed by technical innovation and its impact on the environment. These theories recognize 
that economic and social development must occur without compromising the ability of future 
generations to meet their own needs (Charles and Kalaora , 2019) . Risk society, a concept developed by 
Ulrich Beck, is often cited in this context. It describes a society where risks and threats, particularly 
environmental, are omnipresent and must be managed through a collective and reflective approach 
(Charles and Kalaora , 2019) . This approach highlights the need for reflexivity and pragmatism in the 
face of unpredictability and environmental risks (Charles and Kalaora , 2019) . Theories of sustainable 
development revolve around several axes, including: (1) The reduction of poverty and precariousness, 
which are factors of environmental vulnerability ( Becerra , 2012) ; (2) The fight against climate change 
and the preservation of biodiversity; (3) Promoting social equity and environmental justice; (4) The 
integration of the environment into economic and political decision-making processes. These theories 
also encourage innovation and the adoption of environmentally friendly technologies, as well as the 
implementation of policies that promote sustainable economic development. They emphasize the 
importance of education and awareness to encourage responsible behavior towards the environment ( 
Reyssier , 2022) . Global policies are being developed to stimulate development efforts in enough 
countries around the world: this is the example of the Millennium Development Goals and the 
Sustainable Development Goals. 

Regarding development field theories, post-development theories offer a critical perspective on 
traditional development ideologies and practices. Indeed, these post-development theories argue that the 
development model based on industrialization and Western economic growth is not necessarily 
applicable or desirable for all societies, particularly the least technically equipped societies. Thus, post-
development theories highlight the importance of self-determination, local knowledge, and endogenous 
development processes of these societies which respect the specific cultures and environments of 
populations and said societies. Concrete examples of post-development approaches that implement the 
principles of this theory can be explained. The self-organization of societies with vernacular economies: 
These societies operate according to their own value and production systems, often based on traditional 
agricultural practices, non-monetary exchanges and community social structures (Conte, 2001) . 
 



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Figure 1. 
Diagram of Evolution of development theories in the world (Gbekley, 2024). 

 
2. The Origins of Sustainable Development: Ecodevelopment to Offset Maldevelopment 

Awareness of the shortcomings and limitations of the economic growth model in the 1970s gave rise 
to the concept of sustainable development. It was at this time that we realized that wealth was 
synonymous with poverty, and that over-consumption was leading to environmental degradation. The 
almost polluted environment was suffering from high levels of urban mobility, with all kinds of 
pollution escaping in addition to the products of urban industrialization [31]. Between these two worlds 
of neighborhoods sharing urban space, there are not only social but also environmental boundaries. 
These findings have launched the debate on economic growth into a concept of maldevelopment. In 
1972, the Club of Rome published the Meadows Report entitled "Stop Growth", which advocated zero 
growth [32]. The same year, the United Nations Conference on the Environment was held in 
Stockholm (Sweden), introducing the concept of sustainable development. Sustainable development 
came to be known as ecodevelopment in response to maldevelopment [31]. 

Sustainable development is a development model that seeks to strike a balance between the 
economy, ecology and society, because according to the inventors of this ecodevelopment model, 
environmental protection should not be a pretext for slowing down the economic progress of emerging 
countries, but rather for balancing the needs of today and the future. 
 
3. SD Definitions 

Following its entry onto the media scene, sustainable development has been the subject of numerous 
interpretations, giving rise to a variety of definitions [3]. Among the main ones, we can mention three: 

(i) Withdrawals from the stock of natural resources must not exceed the natural growth of the 
resource; they must at least ensure its renewal over time; a constant stock of natural capital must be 
maintained over time; 

(ii) The per capita income or total capital stock (natural and artificial) must not decrease from 
generation to generation;  

1940-1950: Catch-up theory (Mechanization, Industrialization, 
Commerce)

1970-1980: Theory of Development from Below 
(Structural Transformation)

1980-1990: Dependency theory 
(Structural Adjustment Program, 

Washington Consensus)

1990-2000: Theory of 
human development (Per 
Capita Income, Education, 

Health, Quality of Life)

2000: Sustainable 
Development 
Theory (MDG, 

SDG)



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(iii) Sustainable development is a model of development that meets the needs of the present 
humanity without compromising the ability of future world to meet their own needs. 

The final definition, which is broader than the other two, is that proposed in the Brundtland report. 
It further broadens the scope of the concept by focusing the approach on the notion of satisfying human 
needs. The aim is to give present generations the means to maintain a certain quality of life over the 
long term. We must not leave things as they are, but give the ecological, economic and social systems 
the capacity to reproduce themselves over the long term, by adapting and renewing themselves. With 
this in mind, we need to find actions or projects with a double or triple dividend. As we can see, 
development is a long-term process, because it involves maintaining natural, economic and social capital 
so that it can be passed on to future generations. But in addition to this inter-generational relationship, 
the concept aims for intra-generational equity through equity relationships between North and South 
and between urban and rural areas. It is "an interdisciplinary approach to change, studying the 
interrelationships between socio-economic systems and physical environments" [3]. 

It is believed that the three dimensions (economic, social and environmental) can only be interwoven 
in a process of sustainable development by reviving the cultural dimension, which is in fact the link 
between yesterday's generation, today's generation and tomorrow's generation. So, we retain: 

• Sustainable development is a cultural model of development that meets the needs of the present 
generation without compromising the future through intergenerational cultural engagement. 

• Sustainable development is a process of continuous improvement in which actions to prevent 
maldevelopment based on the findings of the past will ensure the well-being of our 
contemporaries, and actions to remedy current practices will ensure a better quality of life for 
future generations. 

 

 
Figure 2. 
Iconography of Sustainable Development (Gbekley, 2023). 

 
4. Key Dates in Sustainable Development 
4.1. Meadows Report and Stochkolm Declaration: Antiquity of Sustainable Development 

In 1972, the Meadows report of the No of two of the rapporteurs was published at the request of the 
Club of Rome. Scientists say in substance in the report that more than ever, humanity is now tending to 
accelerate population growth, accelerate land use, increase production, consumption and production of 
pollutants. Without further ado, it is assumed that the natural habitat allows this or that science and 



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technology to overcome all possible obstacles. We wanted to know to what extent this attitude is 
compatible with the realities of our limited planet and the fundamental necessities of our human 
community. According to the report, the main responsibility lies with the industrialized countries, not 
because they have a better understanding of the needs of a truly humane life, but because they have 
created the growth syndrome and are still vanguard of progress on which growth is based. As one 
delves deeper into the conditions and processes within the global system, these nations must realize that 
in a world that urgently needs stability, their high level of development is only justified and tolerated. 
only if it is not used as a springboard for even faster development, but as a starting point for a more 
equal distribution of wealth and income worldwide. One perspective of this report is that any reasonable 
attempt to achieve a lasting balance through planned action will ultimately be successful only if there is 
a fundamental shift in the values and goals of individuals, peoples and globally [33,34]. 

In 1972, the United Nations (UN) Conference on the Environment held in Stockholm (Sweden) was 
the first world conference to make the environment a major issue. The participants adopted a series of 
principles for environmentally sound management of the environment, including the Stockholm 
Declaration, the Action Plan for the environment and several resolutions. This "Stockholm Declaration" 
placed environmental issues high on the international agenda and marked the beginning of a dialogue 
between industrialized and developing countries on the link between economic growth, the pollution of 
the global commons ( air, water, oceans) and the well-being of people worldwide [32,35]. The 
Stockholm Declaration is an international awareness a set of principles for environmentally sound 
management of the environment. It contains 26 principles and its plan contains three main categories: a) 
Global Environmental Assessment Program (lookout plan); b) Environmental management activities; 
(c) International measures to support national and international assessment and management activities. 
In addition, these categories are broken down into 109 issued recommendations [36]. Due to the scope 
of the work, the work in Stockholm resulted in the creation of the United Nations Environment 
Program (UNEP) [37]. 
 
4.2. The Brundtland Report: The Middle Age of SD 

In 1987, the United Nations Commission on Environment and Development (UNCED) published 
the Brundtland Report, named after its president, Brundtland Gro Harlem, Prime Minister of Norway, 
and entitled "Our Common Future". This document became the guiding concept for sustainable 
development (SD) as it is still understood today. The Brundtland Report noted that the world's most 
serious environmental problems were essentially due to extreme poverty in the South and unsustainable 
consumption and production patterns in the North. It calls for a strategy to reconcile development and 
the environment. This process is defined by the term "sustainable development", which has 
subsequently been translated into "sustainable development" and which is defined as follows: 
"Sustainable development (SD) is development that meets the needs of the present without 
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". With the publication of the 
Brundtland Report in 1987, Our Common Future, the concept of sustainable development took a new 
turn by asserting that humanity has the means to achieve sustainable development, to meet the needs of 
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The report 
states that sustainable development (SD) is not a state of equilibrium, but rather a process of change in 
which the exploitation of resources, the choice of investments, the direction of technical development 
and institutional change are determined in the light of current and future needs. The report also 
referred to the challenges facing cities, "many of which are confronted with infrastructure and 
environmental degradation, city center decay and neighborhood collapse" [38]. According to the 
Brundtland report, sustainable development is a global growth model that takes into account the 
economic, social, environmental and cultural capital of a given humanity, and this is what is reflected in 
all the conventions and summits on the environment. 
 
4.3. After the Brundtland Report: Modern Development 

In 1989, the Brundtland Report was debated by the United Nations General Assembly, which 
consequently decided to organize a United Nations conference on the environment and development. 



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This was the 1992 Rio Conference. Following this conference, various world events punctuated the 
evolution of the SD concept: local agendas in Aalborg in 1994, Johannesburg in 2002 [39], [40]. 
 
4.4. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The Contemporaries 
of SD 
4.4.1. MDG: The Consequence of Unbalanced Globalization 

The Millennium Declaration was adopted in September 2000 by 189 states at the United Nations 
General Assembly. The Declaration included commitments on poverty reduction, development and 
environmental protection. In 2001, the roadmap of this declaration was popularized by the Millennium 
Development Goals, with a timetable that set a deadline of 31 December 2015 [6],[7]. The eight 
MDGs were officially intended to guide the efforts of organizations working in the field of development. 
They have also become a widely accepted framework for measuring development progress, thus 
constituting a presumed universal framework [6],[7]. Each goal was broken down into targets, for a 
total of 21 targets. All the targets were supplemented by 48 statistical indicators, the purpose of which 
was to measure results and monitor their progress over the period. It should be noted that measurable 
progress related only to developing countries. Regular reports made it possible to take stock of this 
progress towards the objectives, following the example of sub-Saharan Africa. A common approach to 
the progress made in the countries of the South has been developed, reflecting a form of universality of 
development "standards" and the perception of results for the populations [6],[7]. 
 
4.4.2. SDGs: A Crystal Palace That Reinforces the Image of Development Created by the MDGs 

In 2015, the United Nations drew up its assessment of the implementation of the MDGs, a report 
that is intended to be factual: the MDGs have been partially achieved (in other words, they have not 
been achieved, especially in Africa). There has been a massive quantitative reduction in poverty at global 
level, but this is mainly attributable to the development of China and, secondarily, India [6]. The 
MDGs have led to a certain reallocation of development aid in favor of infrastructure and social services, 
which has contributed to progress in the fight against infectious diseases and to improvements in school 
enrollment rates and access to drinking water [41]. Lastly, they are said to have proved their 
effectiveness as a grand narrative for, on the one hand, remobilizing donors after the 'aid fatigue' of the 
1990s, which saw official development assistance (ODA) fall in constant value, and, on the other, 
mitigating their divisions in the face of the Washington consensus, which they have not, however, called 
into question [42]. This role as a mobilizing grand narrative is presented by several authors as the most 
decisive contribution of the MDGs [43]. With the backing of the international community, which was 
convinced that this approach of proclaiming major global and quantified objectives had produced 
sufficiently convincing results, the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki Moon, organized a vast consultation 
process to draw up the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which were to take over from the 
MDGs. The SDGs were adopted on 27 September 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly, on 
the basis of its report On the Road to Dignity, which calls for "transforming the world" [5]. 

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs or Agenda 2030) are an action plan for peace, 
humanity, the planet and prosperity, requiring the implementation of multi-stakeholder partnerships. 
The SD aims to transform our societies by eradicating poverty and ensuring a just transition to 
sustainable development by 2030. Universal, inclusive and interconnected, these goals call for action by 
all and establish a universal common language. The SDGs are a reference framework for action, a tool 
for raising awareness of corporate responsibility, a source of economic opportunities and a lever for 
multi-stakeholder collaboration. These 17 goals are accompanied by 169 interconnected targets, aimed 
at all types of stakeholders and setting out their content. It is essential to familiarize oneself with them 
in order to identify the most relevant SDGs for one's organization [44] . All in all, like the MDGs, the 
SDGs do not call for a break with the policies stemming from the Washington consensus, whose 
unfavorable effects they seek to correct. Inequalities are now taken into account, but the mechanisms by 
which they are produced are not addressed [43]. 
 



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Figure 3. 
Timeline diagram of the evolution of the concept of sustainable development (Gbekley, 2023). 

 
5. Keys Concepts of Sustainable Development  
5.1. Governance: An Innovative Concept of Sustainable Development  

One of the key factors of sustainable development marked by its various global policies and 
programs is governance. Because sustainability arises and survives from it, it remains the limiting factor 
of sustainable development. Indeed, governance and sustainability are two key concepts in the 
development of modern societies. Governance refers to how decisions are made and how power and 
responsibilities are distributed, while sustainability focuses on the ability to meet current needs without 
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [45]. 



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Governance and development, these two notions which have become essential for understanding the 
functioning of our societies, must be explored together, thought together and analyzed together in the 
context of sustainable development [46] . In the same semantic field, the neologism, local governance is 
often seen as a form of local and sustainable development. It can present sustainability characteristics by 
integrating the principles of prevention, precaution and stakeholder participation, while taking into 
account spatial difficulties and interdependencies [47]. 
 
5.2. Sustainability: An Innovative Development Concept 

While SD is indeed an innovation, the innovative nature of the term does not reside in development, 
which is well studied by economic, social and academic circles, but rather in the associated term 
sustainable. What does sustainable mean in terms of development? 
 
5.2.1. Physical Sustainability: Long-Term Reproduction of Natural Capital 

This dimension involves the reproduction and safeguarding of natural existential bases. Natural 
capital represents the stock of natural resources or assets capable of providing a certain number of 
goods and services to mankind. It is generally divided into three main categories: (1) natural resource 
reserves; (2) the land base; and (3) environmental systems, ie ecosystems. These are collective goods 
that are not necessarily economic goods with an exchange value. Depending on renewal, natural 
resources can be classified in two different ways [48]: 

1. Non-renewable resources: these are not likely to regenerate as they are used up. Any use of these 
resources is equivalent to the liquidation of part of this stock. They are subject to recycling if 
possible. 

2. Renewable resources: these are made up of both stocks that are likely to increase and flows (solar 
radiation). They can be replenished over a very short period of time on a human scale. However, 
the stock must be able to renew itself as quickly as it is consumed. This implies proper 
management of the resource 

For SD to be physically sustainable, "withdrawals from the stock of natural resources must not 
exceed the natural growth of the resource; they must at least ensure its renewal over time". This means 
learning to live off the "income from natural capital". This means "minimizing the use of non-renewable 
resources", encouraging the "long-term reproduction of renewable resources", "respecting the carrying 
capacity limits of ecosystems", and "maintaining biodiversity" [48]. 
 



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Figure 4. 
Diagram explaining the expression of physical sustainability (Gbekley, 2022). 

 
5.2.2. Social Sustainability: Long-Term Reproduction of Social Capital or Agenda 21 

With the advent of SD, greater emphasis is beginning to be placed on the notion of social 
sustainability in cities. The concept of socially sustainable urban development is relatively recent. It 
became one of the major themes adopted by Agenda 21 at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 
considering the future of cities, it is essential to think in terms of sustainability, which suggests the need 
for a new urban ethic based on the concept of sustainable social development. This incorporates notions 
of social equity, environmental sustainability, economic efficiency and social integration in a context of 
cultural plurality. This last aspect is still very elementary in terms of SD thinking. It is around the 
implementation of the principles of Agenda 21 that this notion of sustainability will take concrete form 
in the various actions that several cities around the world have adopted as a reference framework and 
mode of intervention [4]. 
 
5.2.3. Agenda 21 

The operationalization of social sustainability is Agenda 21. Defined at the Rio Earth Summit in 
1992, it was not until the late 1990s that Agenda 21 really began to be implemented. This approach 
aims to provide a comprehensive, coherent and sustainable response to the social, environmental and 
economic challenges facing cities. As part of its sustainable strategic plan, the city will be incorporating 
elements relating to housing, urban planning and social development. In terms of local agendas, the 
countries of the North, led by the European Union and the United States, have several sustainability 
plans prepared for European communities and North American communities. Alongside its 
achievements in the northern countries, initiatives, although timid, are emerging in developing 



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countries. These sustainability planning efforts in the Global South need a broad network of support for 
research on sustainability, biodiversity and urban ecosystems for African, Asian and South American 
communities [49].  
 
5.2.4. Local Agenda 21 

Local Agenda 21 is one of the most advanced forms of commitment to sustainable development 
currently being made by local authorities. Drawn up in consultation with all local stakeholders 
(businesses, associations, government departments, elected representatives, municipal officials and the 
general public), Local Agenda 21 is a long-term territorial project that takes the form of a 10–15-year 
action programme, defining the objectives and means of implementing sustainable development in the 
area. There are seven major common issues that represent the main courses of action for a Local Agenda 
21: (1) Spatial organization and planning, (2) Urban social development, (3) Development of economic 
activities and employment, (4) Travel and mobility , eco-management of natural resources, energy and 
waste, (5) North-South cooperation and the fight against global threats, (6) Tourism, health, food safety, 
culture, heritage and new technologies, (7) Consumption of fair trade products [4], [48]. If in the 
countries of the South, a permanent framework for the application of local agendas does not exist in a 
clear manner, in the countries of the North, particularly in Europe, the peoples signed the Aalborg 
charter in which, not only do they define their strategies for implementing local agendas but also 
strategies for verifying the measures taken by local authorities which must satisfy and truly enable the 
implementation of the Local Action 21 process, and in particular the local medium- and in the long term 
in favor of sustainability. According to the Aalborg Charter, the people of European cities envisage that 
efforts may be necessary by examining political arrangements, administrative procedures, 
interdisciplinary working methods, available human resources and cooperation between different 
authorities, including associations and networks [50]. 

With the local agenda, we enter into a key framework of governance, namely the integrated 
approach which must be better understood by grassroots communities and development stakeholders 
for successful sustainable urban governance. 
 
6. Sustainable Development Indicators  

Sustainable development indicators are social indicators and therefore scientific objects constructed 
and communicated for political use. Their construction is subject to three requirements that are 
sometimes difficult to reconcile: scientific rigour, political effectiveness and democratic legitimacy [51], 
[52], [12]. The construction of sustainable development indicators involves three different stages: the 
definition of the concept's constituent dimensions, the aggregation of the basic indices into a synthetic 
index and their weighting (Boulanger, 2004) . He discusses the respective advantages and disadvantages 
of conceptions of sustainable development in terms of domains (or pillars), resources (stocks of 
productive capital), well-being (needs, 'capabilities') or standards (effectiveness, efficiency, equity, etc. ), 
and argues for the construction of synthetic indices capable of tempering the influence of GDP as an 
indicator of development and complementing it [51]. 

The HDI, or Human Development Index, was created by the United Nations Development 
Program (UNDP), based in particular on the work of Amartya Sen [53]. It combines three basic 
indicators: life expectancy at birth; income; and level of education, itself measured by the adult literacy 
rate combined with the school attendance rate of young people [54] . 
 
6.1. Particularities of Sustainability Indicators 

The particularity of sustainability indicators (SDI) is that they provide information on the state of a 
project, a policy or a community from the perspective of an integrated view of the proper functioning of 
a system. IDDs take into account the economic, social and environmental impacts of public policies. By 
identifying areas within each sector that are affected by a policy, impacts can be quickly identified and 
resolved [55]. 
 
 



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6.2. Difference Between Development Indicators and Sustainability Indicators 
Every sustainability indicator is a development indicator but not every development indicator is a 

sustainability indicator. The difference between traditional indicators and DDIs is that traditional 
indicators focus on change within a specific sector without considering the influence of other sectors 
whereas DDIs reflect the interconnected relationships of all sectors [55]. 
 
7. SD and Urban Governance 

Sustainable development began with sustainable governance. Urban governance in the context of 
sustainable urban development is seen as a model of city governance (with eco-districts as a basic model) 
based on the concept of an integrated approach to sustainable urban development [56]. 

The integrated approach to urban governance of sustainable urban development is indeed a break 
with traditional centralized methods. It promotes participatory governance where citizens, 
organizations and different levels of government collaborate to create policies that better meet local 
needs and are adapted to the specificities of each territory [57]. This approach recognizes the 
importance of territorial dynamics and the need to take into account the interactions between places, 
people and organizations to develop urban development strategies that are both sustainable and 
inclusive. It allows for better responsiveness and adaptability to changes and the specific challenges 
faced by cities and regions [58]. The policies that result from this integrated approach are often more 
innovative, because they are the result of a co-creation process involving a multitude of actors. They 
tend to be more effective and sustainable in the long term, because they are designed with a deep 
understanding of local contexts and the needs of the populations concerned [57]. The application of 
Integrated Approaches in urban governance offers an in-depth analysis of the mutual relationships 
between urban governance and integrated sustainable urban development policies [59]. In short, 
integrated city management aims to create synergies between the different urban dimensions (water, 
transport, environment, etc.) for harmonious and sustainable development [60]. 
 
7.1. Sustainable Development: From a Compartmentalized System to an Integrated City Management System 

Sustainable development means moving from a compartmentalized system to an integrated system. 
It is a structural change that requires us to rethink everything: lifestyles, production methods, land-use 
planning and governance. It's "a new ethic of change, a more transversal and systemic approach, a better 
articulation of the short and the long term, the local and the global, a new governance". Governments 
and administrations no longer take decisions on their own, but a dialogue is established between the 
State and civil society through debates and discussions. It is necessary to overcome the barriers that 
separate the different sectors in order to be able to communicate and resolve conflicts together. 

The concept of integrated approaches to sustainable urban development, in terms of neighborhood 
regeneration, is inspired by practices observed in various European countries over the last thirty years. 
There is as yet no agreed definition of the concept.  

Integrated approaches to sustainable development are formulated in different ways for a variety of 
reasons, which are rooted in the history, culture and ways of doing things in different countries. Over 
the last twenty years, we have witnessed a multitude of new approaches alongside more traditional 
initiatives in the fields of poverty alleviation, urban regeneration, health promotion, community 
economic development, culture and the environment. Each of these experiences contributes to the 
development of integrated approaches to sustainable urban development. This integrated approach is 
emerging in industrialized countries, where urban development is fairly advanced and industrialization 
is bringing environmental issues to the fore. 

These different intervention strategies, developed over the years, attempt to identify the potential 
and opportunities that exist in areas in difficulty. They focus on people, on social groups in all their 
diversity, and on their ability not only to participate in projects, but also to drive them forward. The 
integrated urban governance approach to sustainable urban development breaks with the logic of 
centralized, homogenizing procedures of top-down approaches and the ambiguities of their 
formulations. Urban governance policies based on an integrated approach to programs achieve this best, 



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and in some ways innovate because they take account of the dynamics of territories (places, people, 
organizations). 
 

Table 1. 
Examples of integrated urban governance policies in northern countries. 

Country Integrated urban governance policies and years 

France 
 
 
 

Neighborhood social development policy (1982) 
Urban social development policy (1988), 
Urban policy (1992), 
Solidarity and Urban Renewal Act (2000) 

In the Netherlands 
The program for problem areas (1985) 
Social renewal program (1989) 
Urban policy (1993) 

In Italy Neighborhood contracts (1997) 
England Urban regeneration program (1970) 
United States Community Development Block Grant (1970) 

Canada and quebec 

Neighborhood improvement program (1970) 
Urban development agreements (1980) 
Program to revitalize old districts (1996) 
Urban renewal program (2002), 

 
Integrated urban development is based on genuine strategies which must, in the final analysis, 

encourage the participation of the population and local players around what might be called the notion 
of "social capital". The emergence of these integrated approaches to sustainable development is 
characterized by both a global vision and simultaneous action on a range of economic, social and 
environmental issues facing the city. 
 
7.2. Local Governance and Urban Regeneration 
There are several definitions of local governance: 

• Governance is the construction of an involvement, a grouping of different players in society with a 
view to achieving a common end through collective projects" (Lepage and Prévost, 2003). 

• Governance is built by bringing together a number of players from different backgrounds who are 
affected by one or more issues and who work together to find solutions. 

• Governance, analyzed in terms of power, leads to a democratization of state operations, to civic 
mobilization and to local and citizen initiatives [61]. 

If we stick to these three definitions, local governance is a concept of governance in which the 
government player is no longer able to govern alone, and has to deal with many players. This concept 
calls into question the role of the traditional state as we have known it, as guardian of the public interest 
and a place where local interests can be overcome. Local governance is a process whereby the various 
players concerned with one or more issues come together to form a partnership around a project that 
takes shape through the construction of local compromises characterized by interactions between 
private, community and public players. 

This requires processes and procedures capable of integrating actions, necessarily involving a wide 
range of stakeholders, and governing interfaces. In a way, it means governing networks [59]. 

In terms of participatory democracy, living together as part of a collective project is one of the 
essential components of governance. "The notions of interdependence, cooperation and co-production 
are becoming essential in establishing a form of governance that can meet the demands of collective 
development" [62]. In response to the crisis of governance that is also affecting local government, cities 
have become a key arena for social and political innovation, particularly in the management of public 
affairs. They are now key social players" [61]. In Africa, and particularly in West Africa and Togo, 



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local urban governance has to start from local communities and local authorities and work its way up to 
the global political level: local governance is governance from below, by grassroots communities [62]. 

This renewed conception of local governance is present in most urban regeneration policies and 
programs. They also have several other aspects in common. They aim to revitalize neighborhoods 
suffering from poverty and exclusion. To promote economic, social and cultural inclusion at local level, 
it is essential to recognize the contribution of local communities to their ability to ensure their own 
development. This means taking account of the territorial dimension of policies, integrating all 
stakeholders and providing public policies and programs that take account of their universality, as well 
as supporting local development in terms of equity and sustainability. 

This transformation of cities is having major consequences. They are both places where wealth is 
concentrated and places that attract and retain disadvantaged populations. We are also witnessing a 
renewal of the concept of local governance. We can see that the state is no longer in a position to govern 
alone, and that it has to deal with a large number of players. This new governance is leading to the 
creation of new policies and programs aimed at regenerating areas suffering from poverty and exclusion, 
by intervening in the living environment and conditions. 
 
7.3. Accelerating the Transformation of Cities 

Sustainable urban development defines cities, their social and economic challenges and urban 
thinking. Today, the population of cities around the world has increased tenfold, from 200 million in 
1950-1990 to more than two billion today, with more than half the world's population living in urban 
areas. This trend is set to accelerate over the next thirty years, with an estimated 2 billion people added 
to the populations already living in the world's cities [63]. We are now witnessing an acceleration in 
the demographic transformation of cities, and the dominant role they play in the development of 
countries. The urban way of life has taken hold everywhere [64], [48]. Cities now tend to play a 
dominant role in the development of countries. Although they are not yet recognized at the political and 
institutional level by national authorities, cities are changing from being mother intermediaries for 
states to key players in the structuring and organization of the territory [34]. Depending on the 
country, cities are assuming major responsibilities, to varying degrees, in the economic, social, cultural, 
environmental, health, sanitation, fight against poverty and exclusion, etc. fields. Urban governance 
must reconcile the local development of cities with that of States in terms of public policy. Only in this 
way can local urban governance be a driving force for urban regeneration as part of a process of 
sustainable urban development [48] ,[64].  
 
7.4. Sustainable Urban Development and Working-Class Neighborhoods 

All major cities have neighborhoods that are home to populations in difficult situations and that are 
referred to as working-class, sensitive or simply poor neighborhoods. As a result of poor development, 
there is an imbalance between the improvement of conditions in the so-called "rich" neighborhoods and 
the detriment of the so-called "poor" working-class neighborhoods. These highly stigmatized 
neighborhoods are a kind of refuge for populations excluded from the rest of the city. At this stage in 
the modernization of cities, the gap is widening between the city that is winning and participating in the 
globalization process, and the city that seems to be excluded from the benefits of wealth creation day 
after day. The needs of cities and their growth will not diminish the need to better define the city. 

Sustainable urban development must address the essential issue of territorial segregation and even 
the progressive blocking of mechanisms for redistributing wealth within cities. This is the only way to 
achieve sustainable urban development. In fact, a renewed conception of the city is essential to improve 
the vitality of urban areas. For Michael Walzer, a political science researcher, urban spaces can be 
classified into two distinct groups: narrow-minded spaces and open-minded spaces. Narrow-mindedness 
represents a concept of urban space that occupies a single function and generally stems from the 
decisions of urban planners with a purely functional vision of the city, while open-mindedness is 
understood as being multi-functional, with a multiplicity of uses in which everyone can take part. 
Segmented urban functions in several residential suburbs, the housing estate, the business district, the 



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industrial zone, the car park, the subway, the shopping center and the car itself favor narrow spaces. But 
the lively square, the street full of life, the market, the café terrace are open-minded [65]. 
 
7.5. Sustainable Development and Smart Cities 

Throughout history, cities have been at the center of economic development, technological 
innovation, social progression and the improvement of human capabilities. Cities face major challenges 
such as congestion, pollution, environmental degradation and increasing inequality in access to 
opportunities and suitable living environments due to their increasing numbers and their size (more 
than half of the world today lives in urban areas). It is therefore absolutely necessary to bring together 
varied points of view and bring together the different actors to provide solutions to these major urban 
problems with a view to the sustainable development of cities. Smart cities are a method that aims to 
make the most of available data, technologies and resources to improve city planning, management and 
service delivery, engage citizens and strengthen accountability. The development of cutting-edge 
technologies such as the digital twin, artificial intelligence (AI), big data and IoT (Internet of Things) 
aims to establish a civic platform for new forms of sustainable, prosperous and agile cities. In other 
words, although innovative technologies are key enablers, promoting integration and alignment in 
urban planning and management is at the heart of the success of smart cities [66]. 
 
8. SD and Training 

In its early days, sustainable development was a concept that stimulated the development of a 
scientific discipline concerned with the crises shaking humanity: the science of sustainability. 
Sustainability science focuses on mechanisms for managing health crises (COVID-19), humanitarian 
crises (the migrant tragedy), environmental crises (the displacement of refugees from ecological 
disasters, global warming) and socio-political crises (building an ideal in times of war - Ukraine-Russia, 
war in the Great Lakes region, Israeli-Palestinian war, war in Yemen). This new scientific discipline, at 
the crossroads of the natural and technological sciences and the humanities, is bringing about upheavals 
in the academic world, thanks to the dynamism of young researchers who are finding a rational space in 
which to understand, construct and transform the world [39].  

Nowadays, there are countless ways to learn about smart cities. These notions are quite common in 
the academic environment with the animated online training on smart cities aimed at facilitating live 
knowledge sharing on the subject of smart cities for sustainable development. The Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs) symbolize a collective vision for the development of our world today. It 
makes it less difficult to exchange and share knowledge on how sustainable development can contribute 
to this common effort to improve global sustainability [40]. 
 
9. The Challenges of Sustainable Development as a Consequence of Globalization 

Since the end of the Second World War, the world has seen a new form of socialization, with a 
vision of globalization dominated by large multinational organizations and governance dominated by 
highly influential financial circles. Globalization and the emergence of governance are underpinned by 
the myth of economic development, which is supposed to bring prosperity and peace to all. 

Development is organic growth allowing an organism or society to grow to maturity. It certainly 
appears to be an ideal that can be desirable for everyone. But the notion of development has a history 
and carries with it a whole series of connotations. At the end of the Second World War, the creation of 
the concept of development gave rise in its wake to the emergence of an underdeveloped world and 
therefore in need of development. The matrix is profoundly Western, and development was able to 
follow the role that the idea of civilization could play during the era of colonization. Is Development a 
perjury of the strong over the weak? an insult from the developed to the underdeveloped? 
In the past, the West's relationship with 'others' has long been manifested in its mission to Christianize, 
civilize and colonize barbarians and savages. In the recent past, the West's relationship with others has 
manifested itself in the idea that it has to develop them through the 3D theory (Divide, Divert and 
Dominate) ad infinitum.  



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From the perspective of a society that believes in man's absolute mastery over nature, in a linear 
historical evolution towards progress, in the unlimited amassing of wealth (as a sign of divine grace), 
societies that value, for example, man's place in the cosmos , in cyclical time, and whose social cohesion 
is structured around duties to be fulfilled rather than rights to be demanded, and which advocate self-
sufficiency and control over the growth of wealth to avoid a possible concentration that creates 
situations of power and dependence, can only appear primitive, as if stuck at an earlier stage of human 
progress or development. Can such a society promote sustainable development? 

The lack of running water or electricity could have been decreed at the end of the Second World 
War as a form of poverty that had to be eradicated because of the Western development model. To 
"civilize" perhaps, but also, let's not kid ourselves, with the pragmatic aim of being able to open new 
markets with the sole logic of dominating ad vitam aeternam. 

Indeed, if the Marshall Plan had undeniable success in Europe both at the macroeconomic level and 
in terms of social benefits for Europeans, the development of the rest of the world brought more mixed 
results. Poverty has been gradually driven out by misery in many contexts. By our standards, many 
populations in developing countries are no longer just poor, while living a life that is meaningful to 
them and allows them to satisfy their needs in accordance with their visions of the world and society. 
They have become miserable, in other words they are placed in situations where they can no longer 
ensure their own survival in a dignified manner in accordance with their values, their aspirations and 
their resources [41]. 

Development uses double standards because if the Marshal plan did allow the development of 
European nations in the aftermath of the Second World War, in the southern countries, the various 
development programs are of little benefit to the nations concerned. One of the consequences of 
development has been to create underdevelopment. Even the World Bank and the International 
Monetary Fund (IMF) are forced to recognize that statistically the number of poor people in the world 
has continued to increase in absolute and relative terms and that the gap between rich and poor has not 
stopped growing. Development therefore seems to mainly benefit the developed, those who are at the 
center of power structures, but at the expense of those who are supposed to be underdeveloped. The 
latter, in addition to their underdevelopment, are excluded from the model of modern and developed 
living together. 

This comment on the "perverse" effects of development leads us to rethink the concept of 
"sustainable" development. Could it be because it has been unsustainable? Or "development with a 
human face", for that matter? Could it be because it has had an inhuman face? Why this need to qualify 
development? Could it be to soften it a little, to make it more acceptable? Calling it sustainable in no 
way detracts from the fact that development could have a non-sustainable, non-human essence. 

The world's diverse societies have lived for millennia by knowing how to adapt to the conditions of 
their environment. They have demonstrated ingenuity and sustainability. It was by beginning on 
modern development that we began to exhaust, in an increasingly irremediable way, the resources of 
our planet, not only natural resources, it should be pointed out, but also human resources. Faced with 
this unsustainability, this non-humanity, we had to sound the alarm: be careful! We must not lose sight 
of the long-term nature of mankind and its place in the world around it. But this awareness has failed to 
free us from the myth of development and has not led us to ask ourselves whether it is not development 
itself and all that it implies that could be the problem, or at least part of the problem. What shall we say 
about the indices used for SD that seem to present a reality of the concept? 

Indeed, the development of indices, and more precisely that of the human development index, 
provokes reactions which call into question the use of a number (index) to summarize all the complexity 
of the multiple dimensions of human development. This borders on vanity, pretension or just plain 
ridiculousness. Would the Human Development Index be a summary index or a dashboard? However, 
the final stage of the process of constructing and measuring indicators is only the only difference 
between a dashboard and a synthetic index: the production, from the basic indicators, of a single 
synthetic value intended to condense the information contained in the dashboard. In other words, a 
synthetic index is simply a dashboard to which an additional indicator has been added consisting of all 
the data contained therein. However, it seems that, for some, this final phase makes all the difference 



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between a scientific, rigorous, serious approach and a subjective, ideological and fanciful exercise [28]. 
Is SD a response to all forms of poor development? 

The issue today, then, is not so much simply to think about or put into practice alternative 
development, but also to try to identify alternatives to development. The state, reformed, if necessary, 
certainly still has an important role to play in this process (Eberhard, 2004). Sustainable development is 
not a panacea, but a vision of a panacea. Sustainable development is not an ideal, but one of the visions of 
the ideal. This being the case, other existing alternatives that are not known in all forms of society need 
to be revisited for a fair assessment, because they are not aberrations. In fact, there are still many 
examples of "sustainable" lifestyles, and it is the duty of civil society organizations, governments and 
international organizations to recognize and encourage them, and to reflect on how they relate to and 
interact with contemporary development processes, which will inevitably be put into perspective. Is SD 
under the sway of international organizations? 

The construction of a "sustainable development" frame of reference, common to all players, is a 
horizon obstructed by the weight and force of reference of sectoral objectives and routines, particularly 
among public players, and especially in those professions that have, de facto and by tradition, managed 
urban planning and the environment in the city. As for the results of the actions, they are mixed to say 
the least, even taking into account the arguments put forward against the critics by the initiators of the 
programme: the change expected was not in the action, but in the governance and social change ... The 
poor performances in terms of demonstrative projects cannot be ignored, however, as they have left 
their mark on people's minds and are influencing behavior. 

In some environments, although the SD objectives are well defined, the methodological approach 
raises many questions, reinforced by the observation that there is little methodological 
adaptation/innovation at the end of the process. Capitalization remains insufficient to generate a 
dynamic of refinement and adaptation of approaches, a dynamic that could be salutary by correcting 
methodological naivety and inflexibility. 

However, the future impact of emerging players, of local initiatives, or even of "traditional" players 
who themselves - for political or economic reasons - take on the objectives of the social dimensions, is a 
phenomenon to be monitored, particularly in terms of possible synergies with international 
organizations. 

We would therefore be inclined to take a rather mixed view of the contribution of Local Agenda 21 
as "best practice" in sustainable urban development processes. Certainly, with the experience and 
hindsight of decades of "development", we know that the impact on the implementation of the social 
dimension in projects is not precisely a "result" that we expect to see developed in the short term, or 
measured by evaluations of performative actions. The foregoing may also give the impression that the 
IOs are being accused. In their defense, it must be acknowledged that, from the 1970s onwards, these 
organizations helped to push forward, at national level, trends and a desire for change that were desired 
by a growing number of urban policy players in the South. This support is still true today, with IOs 
supporting national and local initiatives, sometimes on the fringes of official policy. But there are two 
reasons why we need to remain vigilant in our criticism and justify the "charge" against "best practice". 
The first is, of course, because of the power of IOs to impose their views on governments in the South 
[13], if necessary, by funding these projects, or by demanding conditionalities as part of loans. The 
second is that these injunctions are made while overlooking the failures and deadlocks generated by 
previous injunctions, which are particularly damaging in terms of their social effects. When it comes to 
learning and the impact of methodological training, we therefore have to wonder about the apparent 
lack of feedback on IOs from putting past or present best practice to the test locally. We cannot 
underestimate the amnesia of these institutions and the experts' irrepressible fantasy of the sorcerer's 
apprentice. Only ignorance of the presuppositions and a rather mechanical view of the expected chain of 
causality can explain why anyone would put so much faith in a universal methodology. The subtle and 
often quite contradictory forces driving social change are not really taken seriously, even when there are 
many national examples of the social drift and unsustainability of the actions undertaken [13]. The 
postulates relating to the universality of approaches intended to lead to the democratization of urban 
policies, management and governance are also part of this unquestioned foundation, completely 



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overshadowed by the new watchwords of sustainable development. Unless they have been explicitly 
requested by local players, with full knowledge of the facts, or have been based on needs that are 
strongly felt locally, participatory decision-making and action methods such as AL 21 are condemned to 
limited effects because they ignore both the workings and the specific dynamics, visible or hidden, of 
local and central socio-political structures. 
 
10. Example of Specific Challenges for Developing Countries: The African Continent 
Particularly Sensitive to Environmental Degradation 

Sustainable development as conceived and formulated by sustainability sciences should in the short, 
medium and long term make it possible to resolve the environmental crisis in Africa which is doubly 
affected: on the one hand because it is the victim of environmental degradation. environment of other 
world powers developing their economies and on the other hand not benefiting rightly and to the right 
extent from the support necessary for the development of the continent with a view to restoring 
biodiversity. Indeed, Africa today appears to be one of the most vulnerable among the regions of the 
world considered most exposed to environmental degradation. This vulnerability caused by the 
overexploitation of the environment by developed countries has serious consequences on the complex 
climate system of the continent which is full of the largest forest in the world. These consequences are 
reinforced by the interaction of this system with the socio-economic challenges that currently 
characterize it. Indeed, the galloping density of the African population from the 1960s to the present day 
is a corollary of important transformations linked to the increase in its needs, exerting increasing 
pressures in all directions in areas such as water, forests, lands, land, agriculture and even biodiversity. 

The Sustainable Development Goals with its previous model the Millennium Development Goals 
advocated a reduction in the consequences of growth on the environment without, however, 
consequently helping to resolve the economic crisis generated by human growth on a continent which is 
nevertheless in decline. adequacy with its reality: in this sense, the SDGs would be a hoax. Today the 
reality is very present in terms of the assessment of the SDGs on the environmental crisis: in the 
absence of substantial aid and an integral and inclusive development policy, the pressures are amplified, 
with climate disruption whose demonstrations there are more and more intense. Indeed, after almost 25 
years of combined development policies, we note a deterioration of fresh water resources, a drop in 
agricultural production, an increase in extreme phenomena and even migratory movements due to 
drought and water stress. 

From the above, the SDGs in terms of results have not slowed climate change; on the contrary, the 
climatic and ecological transition arises from the challenges of a continent marked by a high proportion 
of poverty within the population and by numerous political crises. 
 
 
 
11. Sustainability Outlook 

Sustainable development as we know it today has come a long way since the industrial revolution. 
In the 21st century, the MDGs were defined at the beginning of the millennium. The need to open up to 
other horizons has led to a redefinition of the objectives of sustainable development without a truly 
exhaustive study, especially in the countries of the South, with questions that are still relevant today. 
The fact that the United Nations has already turned the page on the MDGs to promote new goals 
without a full and complete assessment gives the impression of a fallow project and unfulfilled objectives 
for the MDGs. 

To avoid a phenomenon similar to the transmutation of the Millennium Development Goals 
(MDGs) into the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), we need to look at the actual potential of the 
targets set to combat poverty and protect the environment in developing countries. This reflexive 
assessment of the tools must be both quantitative, as the measurement of objectives is intended to be, 
and above all qualitative, in order to shed light on the context [7]. 

Today, in the light of what has been achieved, we can ask ourselves many questions: (1) Have the 
objectives been achieved? (2) What quantitative progress has been made in this measure of 



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development? (3) Qualitatively, what are the biases of the SDGs? (4) What is the scientific relevance of 
the indicators and the data sources used? (5) What are the consequences of the failure of certain 
measures and targets? (6) Are the MDGs so far from being achieved in sub-Saharan Africa that 
significant progress has been made but is not measured by the MDGs? More generally, what 
interpretation can be made of the development paradigm underlying the MDGs, and what about the 
post-2015 period? What are the consequences of the international focus on this declaration for 
development policies at local level? What about the areas or indicators of development not targeted by 
the MDGs (for example, in the area of health (Molyneux, 2008), but also in other areas like culture? 

Sustainable development must be integral by giving importance to the culture and past of 
populations. An essay on integral sustainable development will have to take into account all the aspects 
that we suggest (Figure 3). 

 

 
Figure 5. 
Integral reading of Sustainable Urban Development (Gbekley, 2022). 

 
We all inherit from the glorious or disastrous past: today's viable environment is the fruit of 

yesterday's genius. This genius resides in the cultural that will have to be probed on a daily basis in 
order to adjust the present actions that we want to be aware of: we will speak of a livable 
intergenerational transition. The present is both social and economic: the first ensures an allocation of 
basic services (Social inclusion, Education for all, universal access to health and global nutrition) to the 
passive generation according to the availability of available resources and the second contributes to a 
transformation (Agriculture, Industries, Trade) of the resources available by the active generation for a 
more efficient productivity of goods and services (Productive capacities, research and innovations). The 
intra-generation must be equitable (equality and solidarity between populations and territories, between 
passive and active, between the richest and the poorest) in order to guarantee sustainable development. 
The future is understood to be the viable environment (Modes of production and consumption: The 
current concern vis-à-vis the future generation is the mitigation of climate change and the availability of 
natural resources for human life and for a restored ecosystem that we must make viable Sustainable 
development will have to take into account the intragenerational and intragenerational gap for its 
entirety. 

Intrageneration Equitable  

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at

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Sustainable development, although already existing in the mind and in endogenous human practices, 
takes shape within new societies that have broken with endogenous practices. In short, the concept is 
making its way with the different forms of application taken (Global Education, World Health, MDGs, 
SDGs) and the key concepts it conveys (Agenda 21, Eco-districts, urban governance). If in the 
developed countries, there is progress in the objectives and in the actions thanks to the predispositions 
linked to technological progress and market consensus, in the countries of the South, everything is 
lagging behind with a debate on the scope integral part of the actions of the WCO and the SDG. For 
example, in many African countries, basic sanitation problems remain and have become public health 
priorities [4]. With this in mind, we need to take stock of sustainable development through a critical 
examination of achievements and future potential. It is only by taking stock, particularly in the 
countries of the South, which are suffering the full brunt of the damage caused by poor resource 
management, that we will be able to perceive the principle of this type of international declaration and 
to determine both its contributions and its limits, particularly in the context of societies in the South. 
Particular emphasis should be placed on test cases in developing countries to take into account existing 
realities with a view to globalizing the objectives of integral and inclusive development. To achieve 
sustainable development, it is necessary to attach importance to improving the quality of sustainable 
development models and their users [67]. Following some work done with regard to social sustainability 
, it will be necessary to make permanent the increasing attention recently given to the methodology of 
social life cycle analysis (SLCA), which aims to analyze the social impacts of a product, trying to avoid 
moving problems between different stages of the life cycle [68]. The educational aspect should not be 
overlooked for better implementation of sustainable development within our societies [69]. 

 
12. Conclusion and Prospects  

The aim of this entry is to present current, factual data on sustainable development. Specifically, the 
aim is to define the concept in a diachronic perspective, to present the indicators linked to development 
in order to measure the perceptible results in the light of the objectives to be achieved in the long term, 
to point out the criticisms leveled at SD and to set out the prospects for achieving the concept of 
sustainable development and its implementation in the countries of the South. What conclusions can be 
drawn from this overview of SD, which is undoubtedly not exhaustive given the enormity of the 
questions raised, but which nevertheless reveals the key concepts, issues and prospects surrounding SD 
and urban issues? 

Since the advent of SD, we can see that (i) certain local players have acquired knowledge of the 
concept of urban governance, (ii) they have acquired know-how in conducting participatory processes, 
and (iii) several of them have acquired know -how through their involvement in the local human 
development committees set up a few months ago as part of the INDH. However, the failures include: 
action plans that are not very operational, the failure to implement actions identified during the 
development process and the tricky question of how the concept of SD is appropriated by those in 
power; (iii) the approaches initiated at local level all appear, albeit to varying degrees, to be strongly 
driven "from above", from where they descend, moreover, trapped in the logic of SD. This top-down 
impetus is not without consequences for the initial characteristics and criteria, guiding, among other 
things, the 'choice' of stakeholders to be involved, as well as the methods used. The relationship between 
the different dimensions of sustainable development does not appear to be a game of equals: the 
processes initiated under the current "sustainable" labels are strongly "driven" by the environmental 
objective, with the macro-economic dimension imposing itself as a constraint, while the social dimension 
remains secondary and subordinate to the other two. 

The integration of social knowledge into debates and decisions remains very weak, and there does 
not seem to be much 'curiosity' in the workshops about the inhabitants of less urbanized neighborhoods, 
as if a few certainties about them exhausted the question of knowledge and understanding of their 
problems and expectations. What's more, by ignoring the social and micro-economic dynamics that 
make up the everyday world of the people affected by the projects, Local Agenda 21 replicates the 
blindness and deafness of many previous projects and programs, which were incapable of addressing the 
material or immaterial shortcomings to which the urban poor are exposed. 



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13. Contributions 

This article has two main contributions. First of all, this article deciphers sustainable development 
in all its aspects in order to better understand the concept which has been around for almost forty (40) 
years now. Then, thanks to the literature review, we identified the progress and challenges faced by 
states, especially in the global South, for its achievement. At the same time, we have identified the gaps 
in the definition of sustainable development objectives, which could affect the achievement of global 
objectives. A synthesis framework with seven propositions was proposed, which can give researchers 
ideas and directions worth exploring or deepening for future research. 
 
14. Boundaries 

This study described sustainable development and identified the challenges and prospects of 
achieving sustainable development goals in the global south by searching relevant literature for content 
analysis, and only 69 articles were included in analysis, so that future research could include more 
scientific research to gain a more comprehensive understanding of sustainable development. Also, this 
study did not combine quantitative analysis. However, future research could consider a combination of 
qualitative and quantitative analyzes to more comprehensively identify the framework of knowledge on 
sustainable development. 
 
Funding: 
This research was funded by the Regional Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Cities in Africa 
(CERViDA_DOUNEDON), the Association of African Universities (AAU) and the World Bank. 
Supplementary Materials: 
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: www.mdpi.com/xxx/s1. 
Author Contributions: 
Conceptualization, GBEH, ASHG; Methodology, GBEH, KK, DKA, PA; Software, GBEH; Formal 
analysis, GBEH, ALA, FCK; Survey, GBEH, AA; Resources, AN; Data curation, GBEH, AAGVA; 
Original drafting, GBEH, GAS; Revision and editing, GBEH, PA; Visualization, YA, AAGVA; 
Supervision, PA. All authors have read and accepted the published version of the manuscript. 
Acknowledgments :  
All our thanks to the Association of African Universities (AUA), the Regional Center of Excellence on 
Sustainable Cities in Africa (CERViDA-Dounedon) and the World Bank via the coordination of African 
Centers of Excellence (CEA) for the funding our research work and associated publications. Our 
gratitude is expressed to the Director of CERViDA-Dounédon Full Professor Cyprien Coffi AHOLOU 
and to the assistant Director Full Professor Kossiwa ZINSOU-KLASSOU for their multiple leaderships.  
 
Copyright:  
© 2024 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions 
of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 
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