Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2, 1686-1694 2025 Publisher: Learning Gate DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2024 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate History: Received: 25 December 2024; Revised: 5 February 2025; Accepted: 7 February 2025; Published: 18 February 2025 * Correspondence: arslanasim@dal.ca High Q Nanoplasmonic biosensor based on surface lattice resonances in the visible spectrum Arslan Asim1*, Michael Cada1,2, Yuan Ma1, Alan Fine3 1Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada; arslanasim@dal.ca (A.A.). 2Faculty of Materials Science and Technology, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Poruba, Ostrava, Czech Republic. 3Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. Abstract: Plasmonic nano-antennas are widely accepted as suitable platforms for biosensing tasks because Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is very sensitive to changes in its environment. However, recent studies suggest that SPRs may have limited Quality (Q) factors, especially in comparison with their dielectric counterparts. Therefore, this paper attempts to innovate the design of plasmonic nano- antennas to achieve high Q factors through Surface Lattice Resonance (SLR) in the visible frequency band. This resonance is linked with plasmonic nanostructures organized in arrays. The structure consists of a metal-dielectric-metal configuration at the base with metallic nanopillars protruding upward. The nanophotonic device has been investigated for refractometric sensing applications. The maximum Q factor achieved as a result of this work is 245, which has been compared with contemporary plasmonic metasurface Q factors. The simulation framework has been implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics, which employs the Finite Element Method (FEM). Regression analysis has been used to formulate the calibration curve for the sensor. High Q factors provide better selectivity for biosensing applications. Keywords: Finite element analysis (FEA), Metamaterial, Plasmonics, Quality (Q) factor, Refractive index, Sensor. 1. Introduction Nanoscience remains one of the greatest wonders of the twenty-first century. It utilizes knowledge from multidisciplinary research fields to enhance its viability and practicality. A conspicuous domain of nanoscience is nanophotonics which involves the interaction of light with matter designed at nanometer scale. This interaction has been studied and documented for a wide variety of applications including computing, communications, healthcare and environmental control [1, 2]. In this paper, we focus on the application of nanophotonics in sensor technology. Sensors play a significant role in the monitoring and evaluation of engineering systems. Traditionally, a sensor has been defined as a device that converts a physical, chemical or biological parameter into an electrical signal [3]. However, photonic sensors have an enormous role to play in today’s time. Photonic systems are generally faster than electronic systems because of the speed of electromagnetic waves. Nanophotonic sensors are also less bulky compared to traditional optical sensors. They provide smaller footprints as well [4, 5]. A special class of micro/nanophotonic sensors comprises plasmonic materials. The concept of a plasmonic material was presented by Veselago [6]. His theoretical contribution described a material with negative values of permittivity and permeability. In this era, there is a remarkable emphasis on the engineering of novel optical materials. Plasmonic and other types of novel optical materials are collectively known as metamaterials today [6, 7]. Metamaterials have been frequently used for the development of miniaturized optical sensors. Naib et al. have extensively reported sensors employing resonating metamaterial structures. A large portion 1687 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2: 1686-1694, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate of their work is based on plasmonic biosensors in the terahertz frequency band [8, 9]. Similarly, Patel, et al. [10] have studied various metamaterial designs, with special focus on graphene and plasmonics [10, 11]. Several applications have been targeted by photonic metamaterial sensors. Different parameters of blood have been investigated through metaphotonic biosensors [12, 13]. The detection of microorganisms associated with fatal diseases have also been reported in the realm of biophotonic metasensors [14, 15]. Biomedical sensors employing metamaterial structures have been proposed for cancer detection too [16, 17]. Various other biomedical applications have been explored in the context of metamaterial optics. Plasmonic sensors have also shown good promise in the sensing of analytes for various other arenas like environmental monitoring and food industry [18, 19]. This area is witnessing great interest from researchers as many new metamaterial ideas are being proposed for sensing applications. Another well-acknowledged category of metamaterial sensors consists of dielectric sensors. As opposed to plasmonics, dielectric structures suffer from lower losses and provide ease of fabrication due to their compatibility with Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) processes. In terms of sensing performance, plasmonic sensors usually display higher values of sensitivity compared to dielectric sensors. This is because SPR is very sensitive to changes in its environment. However, higher quality factors can easily be achieved by virtue of dielectric resonators, which appears to be a challenge for plasmonic sensors [20-22]. Hence, this paper concentrates on the enhancement of quality factors in plasmonic sensors. The fundamental concept behind a plasmonic resonance is a metal-dielectric interface. A metal- dielectric interface gives rise to a special phenomenon known as Surface Plasmon Resonance. Two commonly reported types of plasmonic resonances are Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP) and Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR). In the former case, strong electromagnetic fields are observed along the boundary of a metal and dielectric. On the other hand, when strong fields are confined within nanoscale structures, we call it LSPR. The interaction between nanostructures and light is on a subwavelength scale, which requires the size of nanostructures to be smaller than the wavelengths of incident electromagnetic beams. Plasmonic nanostructures can be arranged periodically on larger surfaces to engineer light wavefronts. These flat optical surfaces are called metasurfaces. The term ‘metasurface’ represents a two-dimensional counterpart of the term ‘metamaterial’, which is used to refer to any artificially engineered material with unnatural characteristics. Arrays of periodic nanophotonic resonators give rise to combined resonances termed as Surface Lattice Resonances (SLRs). Generally, in the case of LSPR, the frequency response has a low Quality (Q) factor. On the other hand, collaborative plasmonic resonances originating from nanoplasmonic arrays have larger Q factors. Therefore, Q factor has been a question of interest in the context of plasmonic metasurfaces, especially because of their widespread applications in bioimaging, biosensing, cloaking, etc [23-25]. In this paper, a novel SLR sensor design has been targeted. The proposed sensor operates in the visible light band and provides sharp reflection dip in the targeted frequency range. We emphasize that quality factors have not come into detailed discussion in the context of plasmonic biosensors. Therefore, this paper includes a deep insight into the Q factor of plasmonic metasurface sensors. This is one aspect of this paper’s novelty. The Q factor achieved through the proposed design competes among the highest quality factors reported till date. A comparison table (Table 1) validates the claim. The sensor performance, involving measurement of frequency shifts with changing refractive indices, has been discussed in detail. The simulation work has been carried out in COMSOL Multiphysics. It uses Finite Element Method (FEM) for solving electromagnetic problems. Data analysis and visualization has been done in Python. 1688 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2: 1686-1694, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Table 1. Comparison of the proposed work with different meta-photonic sensors. Ref. Wavelength/ frequency Materials Structure Signal Response Maximum Q Factor Singh, et al. [26] 633 nm Ag, Si3N4, BP Planar waveguide Resonance angle 131.51 Maurya, et al. [27] 11 – 13 THz Au, SiO2 Square patch with triangular edges. Absorption peak - Asim and Cada [28] 1800 – 2200 nm Ag, SiO2 Nanocylinders Absorption peak 49.99 Asim, et al. [29] 0 – 1 THz Al, Au, Cu, SiO2 Split Ring Resonator Absorption peak - Chen, et al. [30] 1000 – 4500 nm Au, SiO2 Nano-rings Reflection minima - Ni, et al. [31] 700 – 1300 nm Au, SiO2 Dimer (square brackets) Reflection minima 548 Wang, et al. [32] 0 – 6 THz Cu, Rogers RT5880 Corrugated rings Transmission peaks 161.6 Danaie, et al. [33] 1000 – 2000 nm Ag, Air 8-shaped resonator Transmission peaks 247.4 Chau, et al. [34] 300 – 1300 nm Ag, dielectric Combination of nanosphere and nanorod Transmission minima - Liu, et al. [35] 140 – 200 THz MgF2, Au, SiO2 Nano-disks Absorption peak - Rakhshani and Mansouri-Birjandi [36] 1000 – 4000 nm Ag, Air Nanorods Transmission peaks - Kabashin, et al. [37] 400 – 1400 nm Au, SiO2 Nanorods Reflection minima - Wu, et al. [38] 633 nm Au, SiO2, graphene Layered films Resonance angle - Xi, et al. [39] 400 – 800 nm Ag, SiO2 Triangle Transmission peak - Mesch, et al. [40] 1000 – 2200 nm Au, SiO2 Rectangular nanoantennas Transmission minimum - This work 480-490 nm Au, SiO2 Nanocylinders Absorption peaks 245 2. Design and Analysis The proposed nanostructure design is shown in Figure 1. The structure consists of a metal- dielectric-metal base. The metal-dielectric boundary serves as the resonant cavity that supports plasmon modes. Metal-dielectric-metal structures can provide higher sensitivity and much better resolution. Gold (Au) nano-cylinders are mounted onto the base. The metal used in the base is gold while SiO2 is the dielectric. The figure also shows the geometrical dimension labels. Table 2 provides the values for the geometrical dimensions. These dimensions have been finalized after a considerable number of trial simulations. The relative permittivity of SiO2 is considered equal to 2.1. The plasmonic optical properties, predicted by the Drude model, have been used for Au. In Eq. 1, 𝜀 and 𝜔 denote relative permittivity and angular frequency, respectively. The plasma frequency, 𝜔𝑝 equals 13.8 x 1015 rad/s whilst the damping constant, 𝛾 is 0.011 x 1015 rad/s for the specific case under consideration (i.e. gold) [41]. ε(ω) = (1 − ωp 2 ω2+ γ2) + j ( γωp 2 ω(ω2+ γ2) ) (1) 1689 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2: 1686-1694, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate (a) (b) Figure 1. (a) Nanostructure sensing element. (b) Simulation setup. Table 2. List of geometrical symbols and their values. Dimension Value Dimension Value P (PX, PY) 300 nm R 40 nm H1 20 nm H2 70 nm H3 110 nm H4 70 nm Figure 1(b) shows the simulation setup. Perfectly Matched Layers (PMLs) are defined on both sides of the structure. The bottom face of the upper PML is used as ‘port 1’ to supply electromagnetic waves. The upper face of the lower PML is defined as ‘port 2’. Computational simulations have been performed through Finite Element Method (FEM). The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics. The physics used for the simulations is ‘Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain’. There is air between lower PML and lower end of the sensor. The space around the four nanocylinders has been allocated for the analyte, the chemical that needs to be sensed. The height of the analyte chamber (in the z direction) is 200 nm. It spans across the sensor in the x and y directions. The air gap is 800 nm long on each side of the structure and the PML thickness in 125 nm. Periodic boundary conditions are applied in the x and y directions. The electromagnetic source emits x-polarized visible light waves along the negative z axis. The outer surfaces of both the PMLs have scattering boundary conditions applied to them. A wavelength sweep has been used to study the response of the sensor with changing wavelengths. The wavelengths range from 480 nm to 490 nm. S parameters are recorded and used to obtain reflectance, transmittance and absorptance of the metasurface in accordance with the expressions mentioned below. A(ω) = 1 − R(ω) − T(ω) (2) R(ω) = |S11|2 (3) T(ω) = |S21|2 (4) In Figure 2, the frequency dependent response of the sensor has been depicted. A resonance peak is evident in the absorption spectrum. The peak appears in the visible light regime. It corresponds to a 1690 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2: 1686-1694, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate wavelength of 481.92 nm. This wavelength point belongs to an analyte with refractive index of 1.33. When the analyte refractive index changes, the wavelength peak shifts as shown later in the paper. Figure 2. Spectral response of the nanophotonic sensor. Figure 3 shows the distribution of electromagnetic fields in the nano-resonator. The electric and magnetic field distributions at the upper surface of the structure, upon which the nanopillars stand, have been shown. The Surface Lattice Resonance (SLR) is evident at the resonance peak. The SLR results in field confinements around the edges of the nanostructures. The SLR is a unique phenomenon combining the optical field localization effect of individual plasmonic nanostructures as well as the diffraction effect resulting from the interaction of electromagnetic waves with the metasurface array. The confinement of electromagnetic fields inside individual nanoparticles is referred to as Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR). Though it provides high sensitivity, the associated quality factor is usually of the order 10. SLR provides a wonderful opportunity to combine the sensitive nature of plasmonic resonance with higher Q factors. In many applications, higher quality factors are desirable. High Q factor indicates smaller losses. When the Q factor is high, there is large amount of energy concentrated in the resonance. In other words, a good Q factor guarantees that the ratio of energy stored to energy lost is high. Hence, a sensor with a higher Q factor will display better spectral selectivity. 1691 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2: 1686-1694, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate (a) (b) Figure 3. Normalized (a) electric (V/m) and (b) magnetic (A/m) fields’ distribution plots at the resonant wavelength. The proposed design can be employed in biosensing applications by using a visible light transceiver. Visible light wavelengths can be incident on the structure and reflectivity can be measured. A reflection dip can be spotted for each refractive index being sensed. The shifts in the two reflection dips can be tracked to detect refractive index. 3. Application Next, the performance of the sensor has been gauged and recorded. Very minute refractive index changes have been introduced in the analyte medium to see the effect on resonant wavelength. The step size for refractive index variation is 0.005. The resonance spectrum tends to shift towards the right (higher wavelengths) with increasing refractive index. The resonant wavelengths for 5 different refractive index media have been plotted. Subsequently, linear regression analysis has been applied. Figure 4 (a) and (b) depict the above-mentioned details. Figure 4 (a) shows the spectra for different refractive indices while (b) provides linearized response of the sensor in the given refractive index range. Figure. 4 (c) provides a similar linearized response. The variables in Figure 4 (c) are resonant wavelength and concentration of aqueous potassium ion concentrations. The case of potassium ion concentration holds a lot of significance from a clinical perspective. For example, accurate detection of potassium ion concentration in blood/ serum/ urine can be a critical step in determining if a patient has hyper/ hypokalemia. 𝑛 = 1.3352 + 0.0016167 𝐶𝑘 529.8 − 0.0000004 ( 𝐶𝑘 529.8 ) 2 (5) Equation (5) describes the relationship between the concentration (C in mg/dL) of potassium ion solution and the refractive index (n). The constant, k, is the concentration element. Its value is 50 for K+ solutions. The values of the refractive indices for different concentrations have been calculated through Eq. 5 and fed into the simulation model. The resulting simulation data have been used to plot Figure 4 (c). Besides the high Q factor, the sensor provides good sensitivity and very linear response. The correlation coefficients (R values) for Figure 4 (a) and Figure 4 (b) are 0.9999502842624352 and 0.9998633442553864, respectively. These values serve as evidence of sensor linearity. The constants m1 and m2 are equal to 338 nm/ RIU and 484 nm/ (mg/dL), respectively. RIU stands for Refractive Index Unit. Both constants signify the sensitivity of the nanophotonic structure. The constants c1 and c2 are y-intercepts of the regression lines of best fit. 1692 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 2: 1686-1694, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/25768484.v9i2.4871 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate (a) (b) (c) Figure 4. (a) Resonance spectra for different refractive indices of the analyte. (b) Resonant wavelength plotted against the refractive index of the analyte. Data points have been extracted from the spectra in (a). (c) Resonant wavelength plotted against concentration of potassium ion solutions. magnetic (A/m) fields’ distribution plots at the resonant wavelength. Regression analyses have been applied to calibrate the responses in (b) and (c). 5. Conclusion In this paper, we have provided a quick overview of the recent works on plasmonic sensors, especially in the context of their Q factors. It has been identified that the achievement of high Q factors through plasmonic devices is an area of potential improvement. Therefore, a novel design has been presented that utilizes Surface Lattice Resonance (SLR) in the visible region to achieve a Q factor of 245. This is significantly higher than Localized Surface Plasmon (LSP) sensors. High Q factors can provide better selectivity in biosensing applications. Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. 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