Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7, 2108-2118 2025 Publisher: Learning Gate DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate History: Received: 23 May 2025; Revised: 10 July2025; Accepted: 14 July 2025; Published: 26 July 2025 * Correspondence: trungnt2@vhu.edu.vn The impact of psychological capital on employees' organizational commitment Nguyen Thuy Huong1, Nguyen Tan Trung2*, Ha Thi Thu Phuong3, Vu Dinh Hieu4, Mai Quynh Phuong5 1University of Labour and Social Affairs, Hanoi, Vietnam; nguyenthuyhuong.889@gmail.com (N.T.H.). 2Van Hien University, Vietnam; trungnt2@vhu.edu.vn (N.T.T.). 3Hanoi University of Business and Technology, Vietnam; haphuongtc96@gmail.com (H.T.T.P.). 4Ha Noi Metropolitan University, VietNam; vdhieu@daihocthudo.edu.vn (V.D.H.). 5Electric Power University, Hanoi, Vietnam; phuongmq@gmail.com (M.Q.P). Abstract: An organization's core value is its people, and since it influences the business success of the company, employee organizational commitment is crucial to raising the caliber of human resources. In the disciplines of sociology and management, psychological capital is now one of the most studied subjects. Anyone with positive psychological capital will undoubtedly have an advantage in any field. The purpose of this research is to learn, evaluate, and measure the impact of psychological capital on the organizational commitment of employees in firms. The authors use a qualitative research method with document review techniques, including previous studies, expert interviews, comparison, synthesis, and analysis. The quantitative research method is carried out with the support of SPSS software. Techniques of quantitative research include analyzing the reliability of the scale through the Cronbach's alpha coefficient, EFA analysis, and model regression testing. The results show that psychological capital, including confidence, hope, optimism, and resilience, has a positive influence on employee organizational commitment. We offer some suggestions for businesses and workers on psychological capital to increase employees' organizational commitment based on the study's findings. Keywords: Business administration, Business performance, Economics, Organizational commitment, Psychological capital. 1. Introduction Employee organizational commitment is a well-studied topic in the context of developed countries but is relatively new in the context of developing countries [1]. The context of developing countries is distinctly different from that of developed countries [2] and raises the question of whether the previous understanding of employee organizational commitment that began and was developed in the context of developed countries [3] is still relevant in the context of developing countries or how relevant the theory is when tested in the context of developing countries. This question is particularly relevant in the context of developing economies being increasingly seen as the main growth engines of the world economy [4]. People are the core value of an enterprise, and the organizational commitment of employees plays an important role in improving the quality of human resources since it affects the business performance of the enterprise. The General Statistics Office predicts that until 2039, the majority of Vietnam's population will be of working age, or between the ages of 15 and 65, maintaining the country's "golden" ratio [5]. Even with an abundance of human resources, the overall quality of these resources is still rather low when compared to other nations in the region. One could argue that this is one of the primary causes of Vietnamese businesses' inability to attain rapid development and high labor efficiency. The challenge https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2968-2185 2109 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate that businesses face is how to raise the caliber of human resources and boost employee and company performance. In the disciplines of sociology and management, psychological capital is now one of the most studied subjects. Anybody with positive psychological capital will undoubtedly have an advantage in any field. According to Avey, et al. [6] psychological capital significantly influences attitudes, behavior, and productivity at work. Employee effort and maturity at work are influenced by psychological capital [5, 7]. According to Luthans, et al. [8] psychological capital is crucial for improving people's ability to learn, professional skills, problem-solving ability, and inventiveness in the workplace. Four essential components comprise psychological capital: hope (RE), optimism (OP), resiliency (RE), and confidence (CO) Luthans, et al. [9] claim that psychological capital is a source of both experiential and cognitive motivators. The majority of Luthans et al.'s psychological capital research has been carried out in developed countries. In developing countries like Vietnam, psychological capital studies have received little to no attention. Prior research has demonstrated that psychological capital also influences employees' organizational commitment. Because contented workers will be more passionate, love life more, and work more at their jobs. They are motivated and collaborate to overcome obstacles in the pursuit of the organization's shared objective in a spirit of solidarity. In light of the ongoing 4.0 industrial revolution and the entire society's adoption of digital transformation, this study keeps measuring the impact of psychological capital on employees' organizational commitment in businesses. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Psychological Capital According to Avey, et al. [10] psychological capital is the good psychological states that come with personal growth in humans. Luthans, et al. [11] claim that psychological capital is about identity. According to Luthans et al. (2004), psychological capital is the capacity and conduct of specific individuals to capitalize on their psychological characteristics. Positive organizational behavior creates psychological capital, which is defined as an optimistic assessment of any given circumstance and the likelihood of success based on one's positive efforts and perseverance Luthans, et al. [9]. Luthans and Youssef [12] state that psychological capital is produced by positive organizational behavior. It uses more than just social and human capital to produce profitability. Psychological capital is a basic psychological element of positive in general and norms of sound financial behavior that are important to states in particular. Investing in your identity can improve your competitiveness [11]. Human nature and a healthy psychological state are both components of psychological capital [10]. One type of strategic resource that is becoming more and more well-liked in the field of research on how strategic resources impact human performance is psychological capital [13]. Psychological capital (PsyCap) is closely linked to other concepts at different levels. Scholars are investigating various factors associated with PsyCap, including health, project success, service marketing, and banking services. It is important to note that different research areas have varying conceptualizations and scales when it comes to PsyCap [14]. According to Youssef-Morgan [15] psychological capital (PsyCap) is a multidimensional construct that includes the positive psychological resources of hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism (i.e., the HERO within). Positive organizational behavior, PsyCap, and positive psychology in general have been very well received by both scholars and practitioners across the world in search of positive, proactive, and stigma-free approaches to success and well-being. Since its emergence about 25 years ago, numerous studies across the world support PsyCap as an evidence-based positive psychological resource that is open to development in various contexts and important life domains (e.g., life, work, health, relationships, families, school, and military). Across these domains, PsyCap also has been empirically 2110 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate demonstrated to yield desired impact in terms of performance, attitudes, behaviors, physical and mental health, and wellbeing. 2.2. Organizational Commitment Through the results of many previous studies, employee commitment to the organization has many different approaches and concepts. Allen and Meyer [16] believe that employee commitment to the organization is demonstrated by the employee's desire to work for the company for a long time and not wanting to quit or leave the company's working environment to work elsewhere. Organizational commitment is understood as a psychological state that binds an individual to an organization [17]. Previous studies have shown that there are many different definitions of organizational commitment and there is no specific, common definition [18]. However, statements about organizational commitment all point to a common idea: the strength of an individual's strong attachment and involvement in a particular organization [19]. Organizational commitment can be viewed in three different forms: affective commitment, calculative commitment, and normative commitment [17]. Affective commitment is a psychological state that represents the desire to stay and continue working in the organization [20]. The stronger the affective commitment of individuals to the organization, the more committed they are to pursuing the goals of the organization. Calculus commitment is the perception of the importance of an individual's existing relationship with an organization based on a comparison of the costs and benefits of maintaining that relationship [21]. Normative commitment is the degree to which an individual feels obligated to the organization, and the individual cannot leave the organization even if he or she is dissatisfied or has other better opportunities [17]. According to Mowday, et al. [22] affective commitment is the identification of an employee's goals and values with the organization, and this is the strongest relationship that an individual has with the organization and is immersed in its activities. Beneficial commitment is an individual's commitment to work for the organization based on reasons related to the costs or benefits lost when leaving or moving elsewhere [23]. Meanwhile, moral commitment is an employee's attachment to the organization as a duty or a professional ethic. According to Meyer and Allen [24] organizational commitment is considered a psychological state that characterizes the relationship between employees and the organization and has a decisive meaning in the employee's decision to continue or end the membership relationship in the organization, including emotional commitment, moral commitment, and continuance commitment. Commitment is the outcome of a relationship that is formed in the future [25]. According to Van der Gaag, et al. [26] employee commitment to an organization is related to the employee's experience with the organization itself. Employee experience can be formed from historical factors, past events, and also from expectations, visualizations, and imaginations about the future of that organization. Mowday, et al. [27] asserted that organizational commitment (OC) consists of a factor measured by 9 scales with a 7-level rating scale. Ngo and Tran [28] inherited the research results of Saks [29] and Lee and Kim [30] and through expert interviews and field observations, affirmed that the commitment of health care organization employees includes 9 observed variables (scales), including :I am willing to work at the organization until retirement., Working at the organization brings a lot of meaning to me personally. I feel that the organization's problems are also my problems. I feel attached to the organization. I am proud to introduce to others that I work at the organization. I feel that I belong to the organization. I am willing to introduce my friends to join the organization. If another organization offers a little increase in salary, I do not think about changing my job. The connection that exists between an employee and their organization is known as organizational commitment. The main variable of interest is organizational commitment, which is influenced by work- life balance, leadership, rewards, and trust [31]. 2111 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 2.3. The Relationship between Psychological Capital and Organizational Commitment When employees have self-efficacy, they believe that they can solve any problem well through their efforts [32]. Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy have a stronger belief in their ability to control outcomes and succeed in solving difficult challenges than individuals with low levels of self-efficacy [33]. They also believe that these difficulties and obstacles help them to practice and grow more [34]. People with high levels of hope view difficult problems at work as challenges and learning opportunities to improve their abilities and complete their ability to solve them [35]. Therefore, people with a hopeful mindset feel positive about their jobs [36] and form a desire to continue working at the organization. Research results by Larson and Luthans [37] and Youssef and Luthans [35] have demonstrated that hope is related to employees' organizational commitment. Kluemper and Rosen [38] found that optimists tend to believe in positive outcomes in the future. Optimists perceive negative events as isolated, externally caused, and not as stable but as temporary [39]. Optimism helps employees perceive events as isolated, externally caused, and temporary Youssef and Luthans [35]. Masten [40] sees resilience as the ability to withstand and adapt to adversity and risk. Resilient people are more confident in their abilities, more assertive, and have more positive emotions [41]. Positive emotions further increase resilience to negative events [14]. 2.4. Theories Of Orientation and Social Cognition, Organizational Behavior, And Psychology An overview of studies on organizational commitment shows that there are many approaches, but the approach of partnership management theory is chosen by many studies. Because this approach is one of the modern approaches, directly addressing the nature of the relationship between parties in business activities, it is increasingly attracting the attention of scholars. According to Wood and Gray [32] Partner Relationship Management (PRM) is a business strategy to select and manage customer relationships. Partner relationship management is the process of monitoring and maintaining effective, productive and harmonious relationships with partners Chris [42]. Charles and Gareth [43] believe that PRM can be a strategy for businesses in developing close relationships with partners arising in the production and business process on the basis of research, thoroughly understanding their needs and habits, to ensure mutual benefits. Thus, it can be understood that partnership management is a system to detect potential partners, select suitable partners and develop mutually beneficial and sustainable relationships throughout the entire business operation process. The general purpose of PRM is to allow organizations (and groups) to manage partners through systems, processes and procedures to identify, evaluate, develop relationships and work with external companies. In orientation and social cognition theory, Bandura [33] argues that self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience share an internal sense of direction and intentional control. Psychology theory distinguishes between two types of human characteristics: personality type and psychological ability [44]. According to the theory of organizational psychology, the theory of organizational behavior also distinguishes between two types of employee abilities: personality-based competencies (i) and mental-state-based competencies (ii) [45]. Personality traits are not specific to a certain work and are often hard to maintain or change over time. Chen, et al. [44] claim that psychological state capacity changes with time and varies depending on the specific work. The psychological well-being and personality of employees have not received much attention from organizational behavior researchers. Personality is not specific to any one job or situation and tends to stay constant throughout time. Psychological states, on the other hand, are situation-specific and easily change over time. Self-assurance, optimism, hope, and resilience are all linked by an innate sense of control, direction, and belonging, according to Bandura [33] theory of social cognition and orientation. 2112 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate 3. Methodology 3.1. Scale This study uses a Likert scale with a rating scale from 1 to 5, in which “1” represents “totally disagree” and “5” represents “totally agree” with the given proposition. The dependent variable is organizational commitment, which the author learned and inherited from the research of Ngo and Tran [28]. The independent variable is psychological capital, which the author learned and inherited from the research of Nguyen and Vu [46]. 3.2. Qualitative Research Methods The literature search included works published from 1974 to the present. A total of 54 sources were reviewed, abstracted, and analyzed to facilitate this review. The following criteria were used to select the reviewed studies: (i) Those who discuss the resources that can teach us more about organizational commitment and psychological capital. (ii) Studies emphasizing the value of organizational commitment and psychological capital. Leading authorities on organizational commitment and psychological capital were also interviewed by us. They work for top Vietnamese institutions as senior teachers with real-world expertise and as business managers for companies. 3.3. Quantitative Research Methods Sample and survey participants: The authors selected readily available participants using the random sample technique. The survey participants were workers from Hanoi-based companies. Data collection and processing procedure: The authors transmit questionnaires to survey participants via an online and offline survey program. Out of all the surveys that were distributed, 325 valid replies were received, meeting the sample size requirement. Because Nguyen [47] cites Chen, et al. [44] as saying that the minimum sample size required for multivariate regression analysis is N≥50 + 5p, where p is the number of observed variables. Reliability will be assessed using regression analysis, Cronbach's alpha analysis, EFA exploratory factor analysis (Bartlett test), and the KMO coefficient after the gathered data has been processed using SPSS 22.0 software. 3.4. Research Models Independent variables: Psychological capital includes twentyfour (24) observations, of which: (i) confidence (CO) includes six observed variables, (ii) optimism (OP) includes six observed variables, (iii) hope (HO) includes six observed variables, and resiliency (RE) includes six observed variables [46]. Dependent variable: Organizational commitment includes nine observed variables: OC1, OC2, OC3, OC4, OC5, OC6, OC7, OC8 and OC9, inherited from the research results of Ngo and Tran [28]. 2113 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Figure 1. Research Model. 4. Result 4.1. Cronbach’s Alpha – Reliability Cronbach's alpha is the most widely used and efficient technique in SPSS analysis for conducting reliability tests [48-50]. Four independent and one dependent variable are subjected to the Cronbach's alpha test in this study. The Cronbach's alpha test result is shown in Table 1. Additionally, according to Hair, et al. [49] for a Cronbach's alpha result to be considered credible enough for research, it must be equal to or greater than 0.7 (≥ 0.7). All of the Cronbach's alpha findings in Table 1 satisfy these common standards, indicating that each questionnaire item has a high degree of reliability and is suitable for use in this study. Table 1. Cronbach’s Alpha Analysis. Variables and coding Cronbach’s Alpha Item-Total Correlation No. of items Confidence (CO) 0.869 0.499 6 Optimism (OP) 0.912 0.699 6 Hope (HO) 0.841 0.365 6 Resiliency (RE) 0.733 0.348 6 Organizational commitment (JP) 0.929 0.434 9 4.2. Factor Analysis Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), which determines the correlation between observed variables and assesses the validity of the collection of questions, is one of the most important procedures in data analysis with SPSS. As shown in Table 2, the KMO and Bartlett's test for independent variables are used in this study. As can be seen, the KMO value is 0.894 (0.5 < 0.894 < 1) and the sig. value is 0.000, both of which are less than 0.05 (< 0.05), indicating that the study's requirements were met [48]. After applying the rotation matrix, we also obtained the following results: 73.384% of the variance was explained, and each 2114 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate determinant with a factor load > 0.5 had eigenvalues of 1.048 > 1. It proves that the research data's factor analysis is suitable [48-50]. Table 2. KMO and Bartlett's Test. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.894 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 4,777.407 Df 276 Sig. 0.000 4.3. Regression Model Analysis To ascertain the result, a multiple regression analysis is performed on the four independent variables and one dependent variable in this study. Organizational commitment will be the sole variable used in the regression step of this study. Investigate and apply model regression to test hypotheses on the impact of psychological capital on organizational commitment (see Fig. 1). The model's validity and the connections between the four independent variables (predictors) and the dependent variable, organizational commitment, are demonstrated in Table 3. According to this model's R-square value of 0.716, four variables account for 71.6% of the variance in organizational commitment [48-50]. With a 95% confidence interval, the ANOVA test's p-value (sig. value) is 0.000, meeting the requirement that it be less than 0.05 (table 4). That is to say, the ANOVA analysis proves that the linear model is not meaningful [48-50]. That is to say, the ANOVA analysis proves that the linear model is meaningful [48-50]. Because the Durbin-Watson value falls between 1 and 3 (DW = 1.840), Durbin-Watson statistics, which are used to verify the autocorrelation of residuals, demonstrate that the model is not violated when employing the multiple regression method. Put otherwise, the model shows that the residuals do not autocorrelate [48-50]. Table 3. Model Summaryb. Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson 1 0.846a 0.716 0.713 0.37830 1.840 Note: a. Predictors (Constant): RE, OP, CO, HO b. Dependent Variable: OC. Table 4 Anovaa. Model Sum of Squares Df Mean F Sig. Square 1 Regression 115.590 4 28.898 201.921 0.000b Residual 45.796 320 0.143 Total 161.387 324 Note: a. Dependent Variable: OC. b. Predictors: (Constant): RE, OP, CO, HO. All of the p-values (sig. values) in Table 5's coefficient results are less than 0.05, indicating that the independent variables significantly predict the dependent variable. Additionally, both predictors' VIF values are less than 2, indicating the absence of multicollinearity [48-50]. The regression equation for the influence of psychological capital on organizational commitment is as follows: OC = 0.208 * CE + 0.262 * OP + 0.293 * HO + 0.323 * RE 2115 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate Table 5. Coefficientsa. Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients T Sig. Collinearity Statistics B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF (Constant) -0.785 0.155 -5.056 0.000 Confidence (CO) 0.247 0.045 0.208 5.487 0.000 0.620 1.614 Optimism (OP) 0.246 0.035 0.262 7.113 0.000 0.653 1.532 Hope (HO) 0.369 0.049 0.293 7.575 0.000 0.594 1.683 Resiliency (RE) 0.440 0.049 0.323 9.075 0.000 0.702 1.425 Note: a. Dependent Variable: OC. 5. Discussion and Implications The most researched psychological state in relation to individual organizational commitment is confidence, which is one of the components of psychological capital that represents an individual's belief in his or her ability to mobilize the motivations, cognitive resources, and actions necessary to successfully perform a specific task in a specific context [51]. Hope, the component of psychological capital that represents persistence toward goals and, when necessary, redirection of pathways toward goals [9] has been shown to be theoretically and empirically related to organizational commitment. Optimism is a component of psychological capital that represents a positive perception or assessment of an individual's current and future success [9]. People with “realistic” optimism are able to sustain commitment, which leads to higher performance [9] thereby, they are more committed to the organization. Resiliency is the component of psychological capital that represents an individual's ability to sustain, recover, and even go beyond achieving success [9]. To rigorously regulate the quality, quantity, and time of work completion, business administrators should create, modify, and add to an existing comprehensive working process. Understand the purpose and objectives of supervision at work, and avoid supervising too frequently. Instead, supervise the appropriate task at the appropriate time. In order to foster organizational commitment and employee work satisfaction, do not terminate employee promotion policies. To lessen employee work stress, limit unplanned meetings outside of regular business hours, know each employee's capabilities, and have a strategy in place to divide the workload in a fair and rational manner. Workers should analyze and reevaluate their own working conditions, become more self-conscious and proactive, and stop procrastinating. They should also be fully aware of the inevitable nature of their work and how they handle it. They should also self-manage their working time, enhance their knowledge and abilities, spend time fixing any flaws they haven't had a chance to address while working, and be conscious of the factors that contribute to stress at work. the best strategy for lowering workplace stress. The results of surveys should be used by business administrators to gather the data they require for hiring. To determine a candidate's basic personality and find ways to assist them develop the correct personality, managers should provide basic biometric, psychometric, and preliminary psychological tests. Companies ought to offer group activities to foster relationships, short-term training programs to enhance competencies, and solutions pertaining to soft skills, teamwork, professional skill practice, and other pertinent topics. Business administrators should create a favorable work environment from all perspectives (at the firm management level and the employee level) in order to boost organizational commitment. Workers should be aware of the strong correlation between mental health and organizational commitment and work attitudes. Therefore, in order to grow and overcome the constraints that previously existed for you, you need identify your strengths. 2116 Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology ISSN: 2576-8484 Vol. 9, No. 7: 2108-2118, 2025 DOI: 10.55214/2576-8484.v9i7.9096 © 2025 by the authors; licensee Learning Gate One's short-term mental horizons can be expanded and one's long-term personal resources, including psychological resources, developed by experiencing joy, curiosity, contentment, pride, and other pleasant emotions. In other words, certain aspects of the workplace can encourage the development of individuals' psychological capital. Organizational administrators should focus on increasing workers' self-esteem by providing training in knowledge and skills, making the workplace friendly, and fostering a positive corporate culture. Additionally, leaders should prioritize empowerment since it creates a trusting environment between the two parties. Giving employees the autonomy to make their own decisions and giving them a chance to express their opinions in meetings are two ways that administrators can show that they genuinely appreciate and respect their employees. To encourage employees to perform better and set higher goals for their work, they should be assigned incredibly challenging tasks to do. Leaders should also hear what their employees have to say and accept it. Communicating the administrator's confidence to the staff member is a challenging undertaking. The worker will feel as though their supervisors value and trust them. The psychological trait of stubbornness can be displayed by anyone [9]. It is essential to know how to awaken this potential so that it can manifest and be effectively utilized as a resource. Leaders should let staff members know that the organization is always there for them, encourage them when they encounter difficulties by providing solutions, and provide prompt support and motivation by sharing personal stories of overcoming hardship and real-world instances of overcoming numerous obstacles. How many failures and challenges did it take to get there? 6. Conclusion In the context of developing economies where changes are rapid, numerous, and uneven (Sharma et al., 2018), employees are not only concerned with what has happened in the past but also very concerned with what might happen to the organization in the future. This study contributes to the scientific literature on human resource management and the role of human resource management activities in influencing employee attitudes and behaviors and also finds that organizational commitment plays an important role in improving the quality of human resources and retaining talent. The results of the study also indicate the need for organizations to focus on designing and selecting high-performance human resource activities, as well as the importance of continuously communicating the plan to implement the human resource management system to employees. Employee commitment to the organization in the context of this study has different characteristics compared to the context in developed economies. Therefore, the results of this study also have some differences compared to the results of some previous studies. Transparency: The authors confirm that the manuscript is an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study; that no vital features of the study have been omitted; and that any discrepancies from the study as planned have been explained. This study followed all ethical practices during writing. Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. This open-access article is distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). References [1] G. F. Watson IV, S. Worm, R. W. Palmatier, and S. Ganesan, "The evolution of marketing channels: Trends and research directions," Journal of Retailing, vol. 91, no. 4, pp. 546-568, 2015. [2] J. N. 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