9 noerhasmi.pmd EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 2(1) 2009 93 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Norhasni Zainal Abiddin is a Lecturer at the Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education, Faculty of Educational Studies UPM (University of Putra Malaysia); and Prof. Dr. Turiman Suandi is also a Lecturer at the same Department of UPM, Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. They can be reached at: nonie@ace.upm.edu.my and tj@putra.upm.edu.my Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring Norhasni Zainal Abiddin & Turiman Suandi ABSTRACT: Mentoring is a part of educational training to develop people in the professions. Mentoring is related to self-development, professional growth and career development of the mentee. Not only do mentors have to play their role but the mentees too, and all this must be placed within the specific institutional context. The mentoring relationship has been described as an invaluable learning activity for beginners as well as experienced practitioners such as teachers, administrators, managers and other professionals. This article is designed to summarize existing literature on mentoring in order to assist mentors-mentees in enhancing the best practices for effective mentoring. Thus, it focuses on mentoring theories, the role of mentor and the nature of the mentor-mentee and its relationship. There are many views of the role of a mentor, but all include verbs like support, guide and facilitate. There are many models of mentoring. The selection of the best suited model should be based on the student’s needs and organisational contexts. The models discussed in this article includes: (1) the Counselling Model for Effective Helping; (2) the Competence-Based Model and the Mentor as Trainer; (3) the Furlong and Maynard Model of Mentoring; (4) the Reflective Practitioner Model; and (5) the True and Pseudo Mentoring Relationship. KEY WORDS: mentoring, mentor, mentee, professional development, relationship and models of mentoring. Introduction The relationship between the teacher and student plays an important role in promoting the student’s objectives. Many authors have mentioned the importance of the relationship between a student and a supervisor in this context (Phillips- Jones, 1982; Acker, Hill & Black, 1994; Graves & Varma, 1999; and Cryer, 2000), NORHASNI ZAINAL ABIDDIN & TURIMAN SUANDI, Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring 94 particularly where the two work closely over a number of years. However, sometimes a problem of compatibility occurs between them and therefore M. Wilkin (1992) and J. Hockey (1997) suggest that they both need to know their roles in order to ensure a good relationship. Generally, learning involves two parties, the teacher (also known as the supervisor, mentor, coach) and the student (known as the trainee, mentee, mentoree, coachee, protégé). This article discusses the supervisory approach commonly adopted towards student/trainee in order to help them achieve their objectives. In this, roles and practices of mentor-mentee are described. Both parties, either a mentor or mentee, should play their roles effectively. Hence, this paper explores a review of the literature on mentoring. It focuses on the nature of the mentor-mentee relationship. Literature Review and Discussion: A. The Mentoring Model There are many models of mentoring. The selection of the best suited model should be based on the student’s needs and organisational contexts. This section aims to provide an overview of the different theoretically and empirically derived models. The models discussed here are: (1) the Counselling Model for Effective Helping; (2) the Competence-Based Model and the Mentor as Trainer; (3) the Furlong and Maynard Model of Mentoring; (4) the Reflective Practitioner Model; and (5) the True and Pseudo Mentoring Relationship. The first model is the Counselling Model for Effective Helping. Effective mentors will use counselling skills to enhance the achievements of students. Hence, G. Egan (1998) describes the three stages of counselling as: (1) identifying and clarifying problem situations and unused opportunities; (2) goal setting with the developing of a more desirable scenario; and (3) action and moving towards the preferred scenario. These three steps can be used when giving students guidance and support in working out their own action plans. Integral to the process is the concept of client self-responsibility, which is strengthened by success, modelling, encouragement and reducing fear or anxiety. In the context of teacher training, mentoring is essentially about classroom craft and articulating the knowledge, theory, skills and experience which make trainees into good teachers. Successful counselling by the mentor will both depend on and enhance the ability of the trainee to be self- aware and engage in constructive self-appraisal of his or her practice. Besides, this model also underlines the importance of negotiation and problem- solving in sorting out conflict. It is important that all parties involved are able to maintain their self-esteem at all stages in the negotiation. The basic skills of good negotiation are anticipating and avoiding possible conflict, non-confrontational verbal or body language, good verbal and non-verbal communication, choosing appropriate settings for the negotiation to take place, clearly identifying and separating issues, the ability to review and summarises the other person’s points, acknowledging the value of the other person’s point of view and identifying issues of agreement (Egan, 1998). EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 2(1) 2009 95 The second model is the Competence-Based Model and the Mentor as Trainer. As stated by V. Brooks and P. Sikes (1997), this model is based on the view that teaching involves the acquisition of a specific set of competencies. In this approach, the mentor’s role is fundamentally to act as a systematic trainer who observes the trainee with a pre-defined observation schedule and who provides regular feedback upon the progress made by the trainee in mastering the required skills. This is in effect the role of a mentor. This approach has the advantage that standards and expectations are clear to both mentor and trainee. Certainly, the mentee will benefit from knowing about the standards as learning goals from the beginning of their course and using the standard statements regularly with mentors to chart their progress. Nonetheless, critics of competence training in education have argued that teaching cannot easily be broken down into a series of tasks. The fact that the “standards” are currently under revision is an indication of the level of debate which has been generated in the education world about how to describe the complex act of teaching. In summary, the competence model, in which the mentor performs the role of a trainer, is central to government thinking and provides the basis for the regulations with which all initial teacher education courses must comply. The third model is the Furlong and Maynard Model of Mentoring, which is empirically based on J. Furlong and T. Maynard research (1995). They propose that good-quality mentoring is a complex, sophisticated and multifaceted activity incorporating different strategies and requiring high-level skills. Furlong and Maynard’s Model is a staged one which depicts learning to teach as a series of overlapping phases in which mentoring strategies need to be carefully matched to students’ developmental needs as stated in table 1. Therefore, the stages need to be interpreted flexibly and with sensitivity. The model is grounded in the conviction that: like any form of teaching, mentoring must be built on a clear understanding of the learning processes it is intended to support students. Mentoring cannot be developed in a vacuum, it must be built on an informed understanding of how students develop (Furlong & Maynard, 1995). Table 1: The Furlong and Maynard Model of Mentoring NORHASNI ZAINAL ABIDDIN & TURIMAN SUANDI, Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring 96 If the points stated in Furlong and Maynard’s Model are accepted: (1) effective mentoring is based not on a single generic model but is a collection of strategies used flexibly and sensitively in response to changing needs; (2) different stages in the mentoring process are likely to be cumulative rather than sequential. As the course progresses, the range of strategies employed is likely to expand and the balance between them is likely to shift; (3) mentoring is an individualised form of training, often conducted on a one-to-one-basis, which needs to be tailored to the needs of the individual; and (4) mentoring is a dynamic process, aimed at propelling students forward, which needs to combine support with challenge. The fourth model is the Reflective Practitioner Model. Hence, J. Arthur, J. Davison and J. Moss (1997) argue that teaching involves values and attitudes, which are largely ignored in the competence models. They note that the terms reflection and critical reflection are used in many descriptions of approaches to teacher education. It should, however, be noted that there is no one specific set of strategies constituting the reflective practitioner approach. Some writers stress that the reflective practitioner should be concerned with the moral and ethical dimensions of teaching as well as the pedagogical and practical ones. Hence, the term reflective practitioner has been used in different ways. Also, it is worth noting that research by S. Tann (1994) suggests that many students want mentors to just give them their opinions on their teaching, rather than to question them and encourage them to reflect. However, it has also been argued that by reflecting on practice students can derive “personal theory” from experience and may relate this to formal theory which they have acquired from reading and other sources. In doing so, A. Pollard (2001) says that reflective action involves a willingness to engage in constant self-appraisal and development. He identifies six characteristics of reflective teaching: (1) aims and consequences, which means that teachers should consider their goals and intended outcomes, not only within the classroom, but also within the wider context of society; (2) competence in classroom enquiry which means that reflective teachers give consideration, at all times, to the effectiveness of their teaching skills; (3) attitudes towards teaching which means reflective teachers regularly review new information and research topics concerning issues in the classroom; (4) teacher judgment which means that reflective teachers not only reflect on their teaching styles but also adjust them according to their interpretation of new evidence and research; (5) learning with colleagues, which means that a reflective teacher is prepared to listen, discuss and consider issues with other professionals; and (6) reflective teaching which is an ongoing process whereby teachers review and adapt their classroom practice. In doing so, A. Pollard (2001) also comments on the benefits of mentoring with regard to reflective teaching. He states that mentoring and being guided by a mentor, provide excellent opportunities for the development of both practical skills and reflective understanding. D.A. Schon (1987) identifies reflection-on-action (after the event) and reflection- in-action (during the event) as essential characteristics of this professional artistry, which is distinguished by its reference to a store of relevant previous experiences EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 2(1) 2009 97 and detailed contextual knowledge, rather than relying simply on the knowledge and skills acquired during initial training. However, J. Elliot (1991) contrasts this model with the new professional images which are similar in many aspects to D.A. Schon’s characterisation of the reflective practitioner in that they involve: (1) collaboration with clients, who may be individuals, groups or communities, in identifying, clarifying and resolving their problems; (2) the importance of communication and empathy with clients as a means of understanding situations from their point of view; (3) a new emphasis on the holistic understanding of situations as the basis for professional practice, rather than on understanding them exclusively in terms of a particular set of specialist categories; and (4) self-reflection as a means of overcoming stereotypical judgments and responses. The fifth model is the True and Pseudo Mentoring Relationship. Classical mentoring and contract mentoring can be considered as true mentoring, as both contain the vital elements essential to mentoring, namely the helper functions, mutuality and sharing, and identified stages and duration. Pseudo-mentoring or quasi-mentoring approaches have probably occurred due to the initial lack of understanding of the roles, purposes, processes and formal applications of mentoring (Cooper & Palmer, 1993). In business, the emphasis is for the mentor to function as a sponsor, guide or net-worker within a competitive culture that is often male- dominated. The main focus has been on career guidance, executive nurturing and managerial support, with informal or formal, planned programmes of contract or facilitated mentoring (Murray & Owen, 1991). In this context, A.M. Cooper and A. Palmer elaborate the relationship as follows: Jointly attracted by each other’s qualities and attributes, in classical mentoring the mentor and mentoree are free to develop the relationship in the manner of their choosing. The emphasis is on informality. In classical mentoring the nature and terms of the relationship are set informally by the people involved. Contact mentoring concerns the adaptation of classical mentoring and its resulting application within structured programmes. The people involved are obliged to achieve the identified aims, purposes and outcomes of a recognised programme of development and support (Cooper & Palmer, 1993). In classical mentoring, the central focus of the partnership is on the mutual trust of two adult individuals attracted by the possibility of what has been described as a “mentor signal” (George & Kummerow, 1981). In the early stages of the relationship, the mentee may appear dependent or reliant on the mentor in terms of the intensity of the support offered. As the relationship develops, this intensity will change as the needs and priorities of the mentee change. The aspects of mentoring that set it apart from other, more specific relationships and give it its multidimensional and dynamic nature are: (1) the repertoire of helper functions; (2) mutuality and reciprocal sharing; and (3) the fact that duration identifies the stages and transitional nature of the relationship. These required elements match those of L.A.W. Darling (1984), who maintains that the vital ingredients for mentoring are attraction, action and effect. NORHASNI ZAINAL ABIDDIN & TURIMAN SUANDI, Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring 98 The Role of an Effective Mentor There are many views and definitions of the role of a mentor, but all include verbs like support, guide and facilitate. The important aspects have to do with listening, questioning (Brown & Krager, 1985; Carter & Lewis, 1994; and Fisher, 1994), and enabling, as distinct from telling, directing and restricting (Parsloe, 1999). In other words, most authors highlight that the most important role of the mentor is giving guidance, advice and counsel (Schon, 1987; Claxton, 1989; Shaw, 1992; and Wilkin, 1992). These roles can help all mentees to review and identify their own strengths and areas for further development, to develop skills and understanding and to plan and implement their own professional development (Brown & Krager, 1985; and Mountford, 1993). This statement also reflects the views of many authors, since most mentoring involves someone older than the learner, it cannot escape from an advising and counselling environment (Tomlinson, 1995; Mawer, 1996; and Brooks & Sikes, 1997). The general role of a mentor involves providing resources and opportunities for development, helping learners to set high but achievable goals, making realistic plans, monitoring progress, providing feedback (Nasser & Maglitta, 1989; and Smith, 1989), providing a role model (Brown & Krager, 1985; Anderson & Shannon, 1988; and Carter & Lewis, 1994) passing on skills, assisting the learner in solving problems and providing personal support and motivation (Shaw, 1992; Carter & Lewis, 1994; and Tomlinson, 1995). In the context of training a student to be a teacher, the following are leading roles: (1) training students to teach their particular subjects; (2) developing their understanding of how pupils learn; (3) training them to manage classes and assess pupils; (4) supervising them in relation to school-based elements of the course; and (5) assessing their competence in subject application and classroom skills (Wilkin, 1992; and Kirkham, 1993). Therefore, to develop the student, a mentor needs preparation to fulfil these roles. Accordingly, R. Smith (1989) states that the success of school-based training and staff development can be highly dependent on the knowledge, skill and personal qualities of the mentor. How a mentor reacts probably depends on which organisation he/she is in and what role he/she wants to play. The literature indicates that a mentor can have various roles. Table 2 presents the basic mentor’s role and what seems to represent successful mentoring behaviours. In simple terms, successful mentoring involves the responsibility or the ability to respond to what is needed. There are various views about what a good or effective mentor is. However, they all incorporate the idea that a good mentor as usually has positive attitudes, while the opposite is true of a bad mentor. To be successful, mentors need to possess certain qualities and skills that will help them meet the expectations of the mentoring role. A precise definition is difficult to provide, but the common characteristics of a good mentor include intelligence and integrity, ability, professional attitude, high personal standards, enthusiasm and a willingness to share accumulated knowledge (Fisher, 1994). Mentors must be EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 2(1) 2009 99 flexible and willing to accept any decision made by the protégé, whatever the consequences (Cooper & Palmer, 1993; McIntyre, Hagger & Wilkin, 1993; and Carter & Lewis, 1994). More specifically, R. Shaw (1992) states that generic mentoring skills include needs analysis, negotiation and conflict solving, giving and receiving positive and negative feedback, observation and assessment, report writing and target setting. In order to be successful and effective, the mentor must have confidence in his or her communication skills (Schon, 1987; and Wilkin, 1992). Meanwhile, E. Parsloe (1999) proposes that besides clear role-definition, high quality mentoring is concerned with competence and experience, but it also crucially depends upon the right balance of personal qualities. A mentor will need an understanding, which may be partly intuitive, of what a learner is trying to achieve. Related to this is the fact that mentors also ideally need experience or knowledge of the organisation in which the mentoring relationship takes place (Brankin & Bailey, 1992). Furthermore, they need to understand through this experience how things get done and should be able to mobilise organisational support and opportunities to help a learner’s development (Clutterbuck, 1991; and Conway, 2001). According to E. Parsloe, good mentors are: (1) good motivators, who are perceptive and able to support the objectives of programmes and fulfil their responsibilities to the candidate; (2) high performers, secure in their owner occupied position within the organisation and unlikely to feel threatened by, or resentful of, the candidate’s opportunity; (3) able to show that a responsibility for mentoring is part of their owner occupied job description; (4) able to establish a good and professional relationship, sympathetic, accessible and knowledgeable about the Table 2: Basic Roles of a Good Mentor NORHASNI ZAINAL ABIDDIN & TURIMAN SUANDI, Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring 100 candidate’s area of interest; (5) sufficiently senior to be in touch with the corporate structure, sharing the company’s values and able to give the candidate access to resources and information; (6) good teachers, able to advise and instruct without interfering, and (7) good negotiators (Parsloe, 1992). For S. Carter and G. Lewis, a mentor should be credible to a learner and demonstrate an open approach, accessibility and many of the key behaviours that a learner might be trying to develop, such as personal organisation or a managerial style. S. Carter and G. Lewis to refer these skills as excellent interpersonal skills (Carter & Lewis, 1994). Meanwhile, J. Nias (1989) argues that interpersonal skills like questioning and observation are extremely important. In addition, being a good mentor requires analytical skills like interpretation (Fisher, 1994) and creative thinking (Edwards & Collison, 1996; and Brooks & Sikes, 1997). Good mentors will, it seems reasonable to assume, keep to their commitment and want to become even better at their job. Although the qualities and skills that a mentor possesses are vital to the effectiveness of the relationship, the qualities of a mentee are also influenced by the qualities, skills and characteristics of the linked mentor (Carter & Lewis, 1994). It is interesting to note that successful mentoring could be defined by reference to evaluation by the mentee. Accordingly, S. Carter and G. Lewis take the view that a mentor needs to be able to support a learner having regard to his/her particular strengths and weaknesses in the process of development (Carter & Lewis, 1994). Whatever the specific functional or technical skills, at the end of the process or relationship, a learner will probably need to employ some of the following: (1) learning skills; (2) setting goals; (3) identifying own learning needs; (4) planning own learning; (5) listening; (6) accepting help and feedback; and (7) risk taking. It is worth emphasising that mentoring is not an additional management task. Its main function is to enhance performance and to support people in their natural development. For L. Aldisert (2001), when someone mentors, one of the best ways one can pay back the favour is to mentor someone oneself. The cycle of mentoring is about learning from someone and passing the wisdom along to someone else. The Role of Mentees and Their Relationship with Their Mentor As the relationship involves two parties, the mentee too should play a role in achieving the objectives. As already mentioned, the main objective of mentoring is to encourage and assist in the development and growth of a learner, and to provide the mentee with a resource regarding career aspirations (Danziger, 2001). Each mentoring relationship will be different due to the mentee’s needs, his or her personal interests, and the unique nature of the mentoring relationship that develops with the mentor. Accordingly, A. Lee states that mentors can provide glimpses into the occupations students are drawn to and a clearer vision of the day-to-day reality of working. A mentor can also provide a wide variety of assistance to students, and it EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 2(1) 2009 101 is critical that the mentee communicates to the mentor about the areas in which he or she needs the most guidance (Lee, 2003). Among other things, the mentees need to be: eager to learn and willing to take on new challenges (Orland, 2001; and Robinson, 2001); receptive, be open to feedback, viewing it as an opportunity to improve his/herself (Maynard, 1997; and Saul, 2004); open to new ideas and able to see things from other perspectives (Lee, 2003); loyal, not violating confidences or trust (McIntyre, Hagger & Wilkin, 1993); and appreciative of the help the mentor is giving (Lee, 2003). Meanwhile, H.J. Heinz refers to the mentee’s role in a school perspective, pointing out that mentee should manage the relationship by establishing first contact and by continuing the relationship through e-mail, telephone or in person communication (Heinz, 2003). The mentee should also be willing to attend mentor programme events and/or to plan activities, which may enhance the mentoring relationship. The mentee should bear in mind that he or she has to have a sincere interest in developing a personal and professional relationship that supports development towards graduation and securing the job that he or she desires (Stephens, 1996). In order to ensure that the relationship is rewarding, mentees should talk to their mentors about what they hope to gain from the experience (Richo, 1991). They should also learn about the mentor’s experience and how he/she acquired his/her current position (Furlong & Maynard, 1995). However, A. Robbins (1991) adds that, to enhance the effectiveness of the relationship, both parties should be on- time. The mentee should accept the mentor’s advice (Phillips-Jones, 1982), be honest, inform the mentor of his or her relevant training and employment experience, ask clarifying questions and then listen carefully (Flaxman, Ascher & Harrington, 1968). Training for effective mentoring needs to be seen as a process rather than an event, with scheduled and regular meetings between partners within a partnership on a regular basis to discuss and develop the course, which will be dynamic since contexts (time, schools, mentors) are in constant flux (Mountford, 1993). The mentee should make an attempt to contact the mentor at least every three to four weeks so that the relationship can be built and maintained (Davis, 2004). Others give different views about the frequency of meeting stating that they should maintain informal contact at least twice per week or that the mentor should complete at least three structured academic activities per semester with the mentee (GreenBay, 2004). Meanwhile, J. Whiteside and J. Lies (2004) give their views on the mentoring of psychologists. They point out that the mentor and mentee should meet at least once to determine whether enough interest and commonality exists to warrant the establishment of a continued relationship. Beyond that, the frequency of meeting and length of association should be mutually decided upon too. Commitments vary widely, in terms of frequency and overall length. The meetings can take place anywhere (Welford, 2004). However, there are various views on this matter. It can be seen differentially depending upon many factors such as the mentor-mentee expectations, the organisation of the mentee and how well the relationship has developed. NORHASNI ZAINAL ABIDDIN & TURIMAN SUANDI, Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring 102 The focus in the meetings depends on the topics agreed by both parties. However, the way the mentor asks questions can decide or encourage the student to think about and support change in their developing and professional repertoire (Weiss, 2001). For example, in the context of the student becoming a teacher, the questions from the mentor can develop an idea of the learner’s overall goal. Nevertheless, M. Wilkin (1992) highlights conversation, and points out that there are five things that need to do in it. The mentor should: negotiate the mentee role, taking care with the evaluation dimension; and if the mentee ask questions, give the rationale for asking them, which is also supported by S.O. Strohmeier, B. Bonnstetter and D.K. Wentworth (1993). The mentee should: ask the mentor what he/she wants to report on and discuss; and should not make judgments without clarifying their basis, in detail. Also, both mentor and mentee should: beware of regarding the discussion as an opportunity to control, which is also supported by D.I. Mitstifer, B.G. Wenberg and P.E. Schatz (1992). A mentoring relationship may end because the project for which the relationship was begun ends, or, one or the other of the participants no longer has the time or energy for the commitment, or the partners just are not clicking with one another. However, a structured mentoring programme should give benefits in at least three ways, the mentee, the mentor and the agency. As an example a mentee can increase his/her skills and knowledge for professional development, a mentor should have the opportunity to test new ideas and an agency can improve delivery of service by having more informed and skilled staff (Saul, 2004). Summary and Conclusion There are many models of mentoring. The selection of the best suited model should be based on the student’s needs and organisational contexts. The models discussed in this article are: (1) the Counselling Model for Effective Helping; (2) the Competence-Based Model and the Mentor as Trainer; (3) the Furlong and Maynard Model of Mentoring; (4) the Reflective Practitioner Model; and (5) the True and Pseudo Mentoring Relationship. Mentoring is related to self-development, professional growth and career development of the mentees. The mentor’s role is to help learners to achieve their goals by acting as counsellor, facilitator and advisor. Counselling is an important function in relation to the mentoring because it can lead to an improved relationship between the mentor and mentee. It consists of support, feedback, providing counsel, consultation, teaching, evaluation, motivation and the monitoring of professional issues. One of the important functions of a mentor is to be a role model for the mentee. This view is supported by many authors who have mentioned that the mentor is someone who has greater experience and helps less skilled or less experiences practitioners to achieve professional abilities. In order to react effectively, a mentor must: (1) have certain goals and plans; (2) be a good communicator; (3) have the knowledge and relevant skills about the candidate’s area of interest; (4) be able to establish a good and professional EDUCARE: International Journal for Educational Studies, 2(1) 2009 103 relationship; and (5) be flexible in supervision strategies depending on the individual requirements. In maintaining a good relationship, the mentor and mentee must have certain goals or objectives. The relationship will focus on these and both parties must trust, respect, empathise and be honest with each other. An effective mentor will have access to a range of teaching and learning methods, and will be able to adapt to individual supervisees and to provide clear and focused feedback to facilitate learning. A good relationship can make both parties comfortable with meeting regularly and sharing ideas or knowledge with a view to mentee development. As a student, one must be eager to learn, enhance ones self-awareness, learn from mistakes and successes, develop and apply new skills and design action plans or timetables. In addition, he/she must be diligent, conscientious and hardworking, open to criticism, willing to listen to others and to talk openly. Assigning experienced mentors to guide and support mentee provides valuable professional development for both parties. Mentoring helps mentees face their new challenges; through reflective activities and professional conversations. 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NORHASNI ZAINAL ABIDDIN & TURIMAN SUANDI, Enhancing Professional Development through Mentoring 106 Mentoring is related to self-development, professional growth and career development of the mentees. The mentor’s role is to help learners to achieve their goals by acting as counsellor, facilitator and advisor. Counselling is an important function in relation to the mentoring because it can lead to an improved relationship between the mentor and mentee.