







































EDUCATIO : Journal Of Education 
Volume 8 , Number 1, May 2023 

 ISSN : 2579-8383 (Print) ISSN : 2579-8405 (Online) 

 

  

The Role of the Basic Education System in Promoting 

Entrepreneurship Skills 
 

Gloria Buyisile Mlambo1, Dickson Mdhlalose2 
1Department of Education, Mpumalanga, South Africa 

2Department of Information and Communication Technology, National Electronic Media 

Institute of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa 

Correspondence author: dsskosana@gmail.com* 

 

Accepted: 

Feb 10th 2023 

Reviewed:  

April 5th , 2023 

Published:  

May 30th 2023 

 
Abstract; Basic education is for all in South Africa. The dawn of the democratic government 
in 1994 brought forth numerous curriculum changes throughout the basic education system to 
redress past differences. The changes saw the introduction of a subject like Technology designed 
to stimulate innovativeness and develop learners' creative and critical thinking skills. This study 
aimed to explore the role of the basic education system in promoting entrepreneurship skills, 
including teacher selection and evaluation, learning tools, classroom situations and support 
systems for the system’s effectiveness in producing learners with entrepreneurial skills. The 
constructivist worldview underpinned this qualitative study, using four schools within the 
Malelane Circuit in Mpumalanga Province. A case study explored the system's role in promoting 
entrepreneurship skills to learners. Senior phase technology teachers were selected for data 
collection, two grade 7 Technology teachers, four grade 8 Technology teachers, and four grade 
9 Technology teachers. Primary data were collected through in-depth semi-structured 
interviews. Meanwhile, journals, books, and policy documents were used for secondary data. A 
thematic data analysis technique was employed. The study revealed that entrepreneurship 
education promotes creativity and innovation needed to eradicate poverty and unemployment 
in our country. Furthermore, data show, among other things, that the basic education system 
faces challenges in teacher selection, resources, and infrastructure for an array of information. 
It is recommended that the basic education system invests in training Technology teachers 
properly towards content knowledge and recruiting qualified teachers to teach the subject.  
 
Keywords: Curriculum, Entrepreneurship, Education, Learners, Technology, Teachers 

 

Introduction 

Education became secondary to achieving liberation because of the struggle for 

independence in South Africa 1. Basic education in South Africa has seen a change in its 

curriculum since the inception of the country's democracy in 1994 2. The changes brought about 

 
1 John Ramaphakela and Dickson Mdhlalose, “Examination of the Creation of a Positive Culture of Teaching 
and Learning through Classroom Management,” Open Journal of Educational Research (2021): 32–40. 
2 Driekie Hay and ’Mabokang Monnapula-Mapesela, “South African Education Before and After 1994,” 
Higher Education in South Africa - A Scholarly Look behind the Scenes (SUN PRESS, 2009), 
http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/9781920338183/01; Johan Muller and Ursula Hoadley, “Curriculum Reform and 
Learner Performance: An Obstinate Paradox in the Quest for Equality,” South African Schooling: The Enigma 
of Inequality (Springer International Publishing, 2019), http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18811-5_6; 
Dickson Mdhlalose, Zandile Fakude, and John Ramaphakela, “An Analysis of the South African History of the 

mailto:dsskosana@gmail.com*


 
 
 

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two parallel curriculum reform processes3. The first is the General Education and Training 

(GET) band comprising Grades R-9, and the second is the Further Education and Training 

(FET) band comprising Grades 10-124. According to Muller and Hoadley5, in 1998, the first 

reformed curriculum was introduced, Outcome-Based Education (OBE), also known as 

Curriculum 2005 (C2005). The curriculum was based on outcomes rather than content 6.  

Besides, they mentioned the emphasis on learner-centredness and the learners’ creative activities 

through progression and competence-based direction. 

The flexibility and non-prescriptive approach resulted in a guiding framework for teachers 

and curriculum relevance 7. According to Muller and Hoadley8, this led to introducing a new 

curriculum in 2002, the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) 9. However, the 

outcomes-based framework was maintained with knowledge specification. The RNCS 

curriculum was revised based on its pedagogical shortcomings and conceptual instability 10. In 

2012, curriculum reform known as Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) at the 

GET band took a decisive shift toward a specialized performance-based curriculum (Muller & 

Hoadley, 2019). Furthermore, the curriculum provided high specifications of the subject content 

and clear stipulations regarding the sequencing and space of coverage. The learning process is 

through summative assessment and textbooks as critical aspects 11. 

The challenges facing implementing the technology senior phase in Malelane Circuit and 

in other provinces besides teaching and learning technology include a lack of learning resources 

(materials), a conducive learning environment and lacking subject expertise among teachers 

teaching technology (content knowledge). The aim of this study is to explore the role of the 

basic education system in promoting entrepreneurship skills through senior-phase technology 

teaching and learning in the Malelane circuit in the Mpumalanga province. This study will 

explore the basic education system's role in promoting the phase's entrepreneurship skills. 

 
Culture of Teaching and Learning,” Open Journal of Educational Research 2, no. 6 (2022): 289–300, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.31586/ojer.2022.499. 
3 Muller and Hoadley, “Curriculum Reform and Learner Performance: An Obstinate Paradox in the Quest for 
Equality.” 
4 Muller and Hoadley, “Curriculum Reform and Learner Performance: An Obstinate Paradox in the Quest for 
Equality.” 
5 Muller and Hoadley, “Curriculum Reform and Learner Performance: An Obstinate Paradox in the Quest for 
Equality.” 
6 S Garnett Russell, Sandra L Sirota, and A Kayum Ahmed, “Human Rights Education in South Africa: 
Ideological Shifts and Curricular Reforms,” Comparative Education Review 63, no. 1 (2019): 1–27, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/701100. 
7 Linda Chisholm, “The Politics of Curriculum Review and Revision in South Africa in Regional Context,” 
Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 35, no. 1 (2005): 79–100, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057920500033563; Jonathan D Jansen, “Curriculum Reform in South Africa: A 
Critical Analysis of Outcomes-based Education,” Cambridge Journal of Education 28, no. 3 (1998): 321–331, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764980280305. 
8 Muller and Hoadley, “Curriculum Reform and Learner Performance: An Obstinate Paradox in the Quest for 
Equality.” 
9 Russell, Sirota, and Ahmed, “Human Rights Education in South Africa: Ideological Shifts and Curricular 
Reforms.” 
10 Kadar Asmal, “Truth, Reconciliation and Justice: The South African Experience in Perspective,” The Modern 
Law Review 63, no. 1 (2000): 1–24. 
11 Muller and Hoadley, “Curriculum Reform and Learner Performance: An Obstinate Paradox in the Quest for 
Equality.” 



 
 
 

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Additionally, this study will explore the ways to help address curriculum implementation issues 

related to Senior phase technology teaching and learning in South Africa. It is the responsibility 

of the senior phase technology cluster in the Malelane circuit and other sections of basic 

education across the country to ensure that learners in this phase reap the benefits of the 

curriculum: to equip learners with the knowledge, skills and values necessary for self-fulfilment 

and meaningful participation in society as citizens of a free country; provide access to higher 

education; facilitate the transition from education institutions to the workplace and provide 

employers with a good profile of a learner's competences (CAPS, 2011). Therefore, there should 

be an effective way(s) for the implementation of the senior phase technology curriculum to 

reach these stipulated goals of the basic education system in the country. Teachers with subject 

expertise, learning resources and a conducive learning environment promote learner 

performance; in this case, we can have learners with entrepreneurial skills in technology.  

 

Literature Review 

Entrepreneurship education 

Entrepreneurship education is learning various skills for learners to discover broader 

benefits on individual and socioeconomic levels. Entrepreneurs need distinct learning for 

entrepreneurial activities different from regular professional activities12. Schumpeter 13 states 

that “entrepreneurship as innovation” means embracing creativity in school education and 

innovation so that entrepreneurship becomes a goal of innovative practice. Taking steps like 

these may avert such discrepancies and the impossibilities of inventiveness. Therefore, opening 

a business requires one to be creative and innovative. Birdthistle et al. 14 mentioned that 

education must impart and prepare learners' mentality regarding the challenges they will face 

tomorrow, which is a saying among departments, teachers, and lawmakers. Communities must 

prepare today’s learners for tomorrow's responsibilities in solving complicated and dynamic 

problems or issues possible through entrepreneurial education. Mars and Rios-Aguilar 15 

observe that the connection between education and entrepreneurship had developed into a 

remarkably significant presence. Entrepreneurship is described as bringing forward essential 

opportunities 16. Therefore, entrepreneurship education occurred due to entrepreneurship 

actions which are the seeds of entrepreneurship education, resulting in eminent development 

and improvement 17.  Research conducted at the secondary level has shown positive feedback 

 
12 Colin Jones and Andy Penaluna, “Moving beyond the Business Plan in Enterprise Education,” Education + 
Training 55, no. 8/9 (2013): 804–814, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-06-2013-0077. 
13 Ina Drejer, “A Schumpeterian Perspective on Service Innovation,” in 9th International Joseph Schumpeter 
Society Conference, Gainesville, 2002. 
14 Naomi Birdthistle, Yvonne Costin, and Briga Hynes, “Engendering Entrepreneurial Competencies in the 
Youth of Today: A Teacher’s Perspective,” Education + Training 58, no. 7/8 (2016): 766–782, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-02-2016-0031. 
15 Matthew M Mars and Cecilia Rios-Aguilar, “Academic Entrepreneurship (Re)Defined: Significance and 
Implications for the Scholarship of Higher Education,” Higher Education 59, no. 4 (2009): 441–460, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9258-1. 
16 Miri Yemini, “Entrepreneurship in the Education System – the Revolution of the Twenty-First Century,” 
Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy 8, no. 1 (2014), 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jec-11-2013-0035. 
17 Colin Jones, Harry Matlay, and Alex Maritz, “Enterprise Education: For All, or Just Some?,” Education + 
Training 54, no. 8/9 (2012): 813–824, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00400911211274909. 



 
 
 

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from learners towards enhancing their entrepreneurial competencies, entrepreneurial abilities, 

and effectiveness 18. 

It is said that increasing the perception of entrepreneurship as a career option through 

entrepreneurial education increases motivation and stimulates learners to start new ventures 19.  

Entrepreneurship education aims to target how to perform entrepreneurial activities 20 rather 

than focusing on what theories and knowledge the learner must learn from in conventional 

educational viewpoint 21. Aamir et al., 22 stated that the influence of entrepreneurial education 

on all educational systems levels had developed into a center of consideration. The target is to 

incorporate common entrepreneurial skills in learners. It has instructional and upgradation 

influence components on which learners choose entrepreneurial careers 23. A study conducted 

by Rosique-Blasco et al. contributed to developing entrepreneurial skills at schools and how 

inventions, proactive, and risk-taking attitudes as skills prepare an entrepreneurial career choice 

in learners24. 

The entrepreneurial intention in high school learners is overwhelmed by sociocultural 

elements. Another study by de Lourdes Carcamo-Solis et al. 25 showed that entrepreneurial 

 
18 Eli Gimmon, “Mentoring as a Practical Training in Higher Education of Entrepreneurship,” Education + 
Training 56, no. 8/9 (2014): 814–825, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-02-2014-0006; Virginia Barba-Sánchez 
and Carlos Atienza-Sahuquillo, “The Development of Entrepreneurship at School: The Spanish Experience,” 
Education + Training 58, no. 7/8 (2016): 783–796, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-01-2016-0021; Mario 
Rosique-Blasco, Antonia Madrid-Guijarro, and Domingo García-Pérez-de-Lema, “Entrepreneurial Skills and 
Socio-Cultural Factors,” Education + Training 58, no. 7/8 (2016): 815–831, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-06-
2015-0054. 
19 Z J Lin and J Zhang, “Ethical Awareness of Chinese Business Managers and Accountants and Their Views 
on the Use of Off-Book Accounts,” Advances in Accounting 27, no. 1 (2011): 143–155, 
https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-
79958782890&doi=10.1016%2Fj.adiac.2011.04.004&partnerID=40&md5=9cb5cfe7d83584d85a456fcc164e
39d3; Nicole E Peterman and Jessica Kennedy, “Enterprise Education: Influencing Students’ Perceptions of 
Entrepreneurship,” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 28, no. 2 (2003): 129–144, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1540-6520.2003.00035.x; Linda F Edelman, Tatiana S Manolova, and Candida G 
Brush, “Entrepreneurship Education: Correspondence Between Practices of Nascent Entrepreneurs and 
Textbook Prescriptions for Success,” Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education 7, no. 1 (2008): 
56–70, http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2008.31413862. 
20 Hemant Kassean et al., “Entrepreneurship Education: A Need for Reflection, Real-World Experience and 
Action,” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior &amp; Research 21, no. 5 (2015): 690–708, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-07-2014-0123. 
21 Allan Gibb, “Creating an Entrepreneurial Culture in Support of SMEs,” Small Enterprise Development 10, 
no. 4 (1999): 27–38, http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0957-1329.1999.040. 
22 Suhaib Aamir, Nuray Fatma Atsan, and Ayfer Ferda Erdem, “A Review of Entrepreneurship Education 
Research in the Special Issues of Education + Training Journal,” Education + Training 61, no. 9 (2019): 1078–
1099, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-02-2019-0027. 
23 Joakim Falkäng and Fernando Alberti, “The Assessment of Entrepreneurship Education,” Industry and 
Higher Education 14, no. 2 (2000): 101–108, http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000000101294931; Jones, 
Matlay, and Maritz, “Enterprise Education: For All, or Just Some?”; Aamir, Atsan, and Erdem, “A Review of 
Entrepreneurship Education Research in the Special Issues of Education + Training Journal”; Rosique-Blasco, 
Madrid-Guijarro, and García-Pérez-de-Lema, “Entrepreneurial Skills and Socio-Cultural Factors.” 
24 Mario Rosique-Blasco, Antonia Madrid-Guijarro, and Domingo García-Pérez-de-Lema, “Entrepreneurial 
Skills and Socio-Cultural Factors: An Empirical Analysis in Secondary Education Students,” Education + 
Training 58, no. 7/8 (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/et-06-2015-0054. 
25 María de Lourdes Cárcamo-Solís et al., “Developing Entrepreneurship in Primary Schools. The Mexican 
Experience of ‘My First Enterprise: Entrepreneurship by Playing,’” Teaching and Teacher Education 64 
(2017): 291–304, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.02.013. 



 
 
 

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abilities could be developed at the foundation and intermediate school levels. Therefore, the 

senior phase of CAPS for technology in South Africa was introduced to recognize the demand 

to produce designers, artisans, and architects essential in modern civilization and promote a 

technologically knowledgeable society for the modern world. With such a curriculum, South 

Africa will flourish with such skills or a young promising future technologically literate 

population. Nonetheless, the technology classroom setting needs to be positioned to provide 

the necessary space or environment for competent teaching and learning. Technology is a more 

practical subject where learners need to work with tools, creatively and critically develop design 

ideas and investigate, make, evaluate, and communicate or present a product that best solves 

the problems the learners face. 

 

Benefits of Equipping Learners with Entrepreneurship Skills 

Du Toit and Gaothobogwe26  stated that the purpose of technology in the senior phase is 

for "learners to gain skills, knowledge, competencies and confidence that equip them to explore 

entrepreneurial initiatives. Entrepreneurship skills include being creative and innovative, having 

investigative skills, working as a team, meeting due dates, working within a given budget and 

having market experiences and initiatives. this implies resilience, practical working skills and 

compelling needs identification, collection and working with available resources thus equipping 

learners with entrepreneurship skills. McGuigan 27 stated that entrepreneurship education 

contributes to the entrepreneurial thinking and behaviour of learners to exercise their everyday 

activities and new experiences. Consequently, learners will develop skills that include identifying 

and investigating, making critical decisions and inventiveness, work effectively as individuals 

and as a group. Thus, learners can coordinate and manage their activities responsibly and 

effectively by collecting, analyzing, evaluating scenarios, and communicating effectively 28 

Lotulung et al. 29 declared that exposing learners to entrepreneurship is only through an 

awareness of entrepreneurship around them as an essential building block to their careers and 

society. With entrepreneurship, learners can design something new and different through 

innovative and inventive activities to establish opportunities in facing life's challenges. For 

example, du Toit & Gaothobogwe 30 stated that learners could be able to investigate (do 

research, analyse products, and make comparisons), draw (sketch and develop ideas) and design 

(identify and select appropriate materials, methods, and finishes). Furthermore, they evaluate 

(judge quality, compare, and adjust to fit the consumer's needs more closely) and communicate 

(present findings and products to a target market) when they are equipped with entrepreneurial 

 
26 Adri Du Toit and Michael Gaotlhobogwe, “Benchmarking the Intended Technology Curricula of Botswana 
and South Africa: What Can We Learn?,” African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and 
Technology Education 21, no. 2 (2017): 148–158, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18117295.2017.1328834. 
27 Lisa Powell and Nicholas McGuigan, “Teaching, Virtually: A Critical Reflection,” Accounting Research 
Journal (2020). 
28 Du Toit and Gaotlhobogwe, “Benchmarking the Intended Technology Curricula of Botswana and South 
Africa: What Can We Learn?” 
29 Chirsant Lotulung, Nurdin Ibrahim, and Hetty Tumurang, “Effectiveness of Learning Strategy and Learning 
Style on Learning Outcomes,” Proceedings of the International Conference of Science and Technology for the 
Internet of Things (EAI, 2019), http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.19-10-2018.2281392. 
30 Du Toit and Gaotlhobogwe, “Benchmarking the Intended Technology Curricula of Botswana and South 
Africa: What Can We Learn?” 



 
 
 

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skills. Therefore, opportunities to develop an interest in entrepreneurial activities will be 

increased in our societies, reducing youth unemployment. 

 

The Preparedness of Technology Senior Phase Teachers in Implementing the 

Curriculum 

Numerous scholars have different meanings for the term 'curriculum.' In a more 

simplified way, du Toit and Gaothobongwe 31 described the curriculum as principles, content, 

and processes to support learning. They mentioned that curriculum could be described as what, 

why, how, and when learners should learn. The curriculum includes all the organised, prepared, 

and unintended experiences utilised to reach learning outcomes 32. Thijs and Van den Akker 33 

mentioned that there are three forms of curriculum: the “intended curriculum, which is the ideal 

envisioned curriculum that is formalised on paper as a document; the implemented curriculum, 

referring to how the intended curriculum is recognised and used in practice by teachers; and the 

attained curriculum, which encompasses the experiences and learning outcomes of the 

learners”. Therefore, a curriculum can be defined as a plan for attaining goals. Marques and 

Albuquerque 34 argued that “economic growth and community-oriented progress require 

entrepreneurship education, effective curriculum, competent teachers and clear learning 

intentions”. They explained that entrepreneurship education requires applicable content, an 

effective curriculum, and competent teachers to support its implementation. Technology in 

Senior Phase is based on innovation (practical skills) and design skills incorporated into its 

curriculum, presenting opportunities for learners to make products (models), resulting in future 

producing income-generating products (du Toit & Gaothobongwe, 2017). Therefore, combined 

Technology curricula and entrepreneurship education can develop learners’ preparation as 

entrepreneurs 35. However, trained teachers and a practical curriculum are needed to support 

curriculum effectiveness. Mulenga and Luangala 36 stated that teachers are demand assets of any 

education system. Teachers play a crucial role in facilitating learners' acquisition of desirable 

knowledge, abilities, beliefs, and perspectives. The quality of teachers is critically acknowledged 

and significant for effective learning to occur in schools. 

The teacher’s competence to clarify, arrange and carry out a curriculum by implementing 

the procedure requires ensuring learning objectives 37. Thus, “teachers need to have the 

 
31 Du Toit and Gaotlhobogwe, “Benchmarking the Intended Technology Curricula of Botswana and South 
Africa: What Can We Learn?” 
32 Edward Ebert, Christine Ebert, and Michael Bentley, The Educator’s Field Guide: From Organization to 
Assessment (and Everything in Between) (Corwin Press, 2011), http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452275154. 
33 Nienke Nieveen, Jan van den Akker, and Frans Resink, “Framing and Supporting School-Based Curriculum 
Development in the Netherlands,” Schools as Curriculum Agencies (BRILL, 2010), 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789460912818_017. 
34 J T Blummer, “Life Style Characteristics of the Hunter,” Amer. Assoc, for Conservation Information. 
Albuquerque. New Mexico 10 (1971). 
35 Du Toit and Gaotlhobogwe, “Benchmarking the Intended Technology Curricula of Botswana and South 
Africa: What Can We Learn?” 
36 Regina M. Mulenga, Selestine Nzala, and Wilbroad Mutale, “Establishing Common Leadership Practices 
and Their Influence on Providers and Service Delivery in Selected Hospitals in Lusaka Province, Zambia,” 
Journal of Public Health in Africa (2018). 
37 Sila Kiprotich et al., “Moderating Effect of Social Networking on the Relationship between Entrepreneurial 
Orientation and Performance of Small and Medium Enterprise in Nakuru County, Kenya” (2015). 



 
 
 

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pedagogy content knowledge of a specific area of study” 38. Besides, teachers need continuous 

training so they can be able to manage new challenges of the curricula changes 39. Thus, pre-

service education and in-service education are crucial for effectively implementing curricula like 

Technology. Professional teacher training is the education that materialised before teachers 

enter the line of work and/or employment in various educational institutions 40, which is critical. 

Hugh 41 pointed out “that implementing the curriculum changes and the continuance of new 

approaches depend not on teachers' retraining but rather expertise, competence and 

perspectives approved during the professional training of teachers”. In-service teacher training 

is an ongoing development of expertise and individual improvement 42. Daresh and Playko  

stated that in-service teacher training is ensuring that programmes are aimed at meeting the 

demands of teachers and teachers are courageous to find the need for retraining. Also, they 

indicated that in-service training would be effective if teachers have professional education in 

subjects of expertise and pursue up-skilling. Therefore, it is evident that the Technology 

curriculum in the Senior Phase was rushed as teachers in the service had not received pre-service 

training before its introduction. As the Department of Education (2003:31) declared “while 

educators in South African schools are qualified to teach a variety of subjects, many of the 

educators of Technology are uncomfortable with the pedagogy of Technology." Therefore, 

most of the teachers received in-service training that was not good enough for implementing a 

curriculum of this magnitude, such as Technology. 

 

Method 

Research Design 

Creswell 43 view a research design as a method or form of enquiry that applies to various 

scenarios, including a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methodology for the sake of giving 

direction within a given study.  Sekaran and Bougie 44 stated that “a research design is a plan 

that is built to collect, measure and analyse the collected data which is used to provide answers 

to the outlined research questions within a study”. On another note, Saunders et al. 45 view the 

“research design as a plan that paves the way towards answering given research questions within 

a study”. This study uses an exploratory qualitative research design to understand the role of 

the basic education system in promoting entrepreneurship skills at this level and if teaching and 

learning of the technology senior phase impart skills in learners to become entrepreneurs.  

 
38 Collins Kasoka Masumba and Innocent Mutale Mulenga, “Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge for 
Teaching Computer Studies in Rural Zambian Secondary Schools of North-Western Province.” (2019). 
39 P A Kafu, “Planning for Instruction: The Secret of Effective Teaching,” Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. 
African Educational Research Journal 9, no. 2 (2010): 591–599. 
40 Masumba and Mulenga, “Teachers’ Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Teaching Computer Studies in 
Rural Zambian Secondary Schools of North-Western Province.” 
41 James R Sheffield, “Curriculum and Reality in African Primary Schools. Hugh Hawes,” Comparative 
Education Review 24, no. 2, Part 1 (1980): 279–280, http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/446125. 
42 John C Daresh and Marsha A Playko, “Mentoring for Headteachers: A Review of Major Issues,” School 
Organization 12, no. 2 (1992): 145–152. 
43 John W Creswell, “Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method Aproaches,” SAGE 
Publications (2007). 
44 Uma Sekaran and Roger Bougie, Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach (John Wiley & 
Sons, 2016). 
45 Mark Saunders et al., Strategic Human Resource Management: Contemporary Issues (Pearson Higher Ed, 
2007). 



 
 
 

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Research Paradigm 

Creswell and Creswell 46 refer to research paradigms as worldviews or a general 

philosophical view of the world as well as the type of research the researcher undertakes. The 

various forms of research philosophies include positivism, critical realism, interpretivism, 

postmodernism and pragmatism. This study adopted a social constructivism paradigm which 

puts forward that reality is constructed through social interaction in which social actors create 

partially shared meanings and realities. Therefore, this means that it is necessary as a researcher 

to study a situation in detail, including historical, geographical, and sociocultural contexts to 

understand what is happening or how realities are being experienced 47. 

  

Research Strategy 

A case study was employed as the research strategy in four schools in the Malelane 

Circuit, Mpumalanga Province; two grade seven Technology teachers, four grade eight 

Technology teachers and four Grade nine Technology teachers from four schools (two schools 

are combined schools with Grade R-9, and two schools are high schools with Grade 8-12).  A 

case study design involves exploring an "abounded system," or undertaking detailed single or 

multiple cases, data collection that is in-depth from multiple sources of data for the sake of 

describing, organising, as well as interpreting a given scenario at hand 48. Schram49  defined a 

case study as "a way of conceptualising human behaviour or merely as a way of encapsulating 

it; its strategic value lies in its ability to draw attention to what can be learnt from the single case.  

A case study design allows focusing on one issue or entity and collecting detailed data using 

different ways to have a deeper understanding 50. 

 

Population and Sample of the Study 

The target population is a specific population needed for a study 51. The target 

population for this study was senior phase technology teachers in Malelane Circuit, Mpumalanga 

Province; two grade seven technology teachers, four grade eight Technology teachers, and four 

grade nine technology teachers from four circuits. A sample comprises elements or a subset of 

the population considered for actual inclusion in the study. It can be viewed as a subset of 

 
46 John. W. Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Methods: Choosing among Five Approaches (Thounsand 
Oaks: CA: Sage, 2013). 
47 Mark N K Saunders and Keith Townsend, “Choosing Participants,” The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative 
Business and Management Research Methods: History and Traditions (SAGE Publications Ltd, 2018), 
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781526430212.n28. 
48 Yin Cheong Cheng, “Quality Assurance in Education: Internal, Interface, and Future,” Quality Assurance in 
Education 11, no. 4 (2003): 202–213. 
49 Dirk Morschett, Hanna Schramm-Klein, and Joachim Zentes, Strategic International Management, 
Strategic International Management, 2010. 
50 Rob Walker, “Reviews : The Art of Case Study Research, Robert Stake. London: Sage, 1995. 208 Pp. £29.50 
(Hbk); £12.95 (Pbk). ISBN: 0-8039-5766-1 (Hbk); 0-8039-5767-X (Pbk,” Evaluation 2, no. 2 (1996): 231–235, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/135638909600200211; Robert K Yin, “Case Study Research: Design and Methods 
4th Ed,” in United States: Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, vol. 2, 2009. 
51 Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, “Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology,” Qualitative Research in 
Psychology 3, no. 2 (2006): 77–101, http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa. 



 
 
 

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measurements drawn from a community we are interested in 52. In this study, the sample was 

purposively selected as technology senior phase teachers at four Schools in Malelane Circuit, 

Mpumalanga Province. Malelane Circuit has a population of 35 senior-phase technology 

teachers. Out of the 35 Technology teachers, two Grade seven (7), four Grade eight (8), and 

four Grade nine (9) Technology teachers were drawn as a sample of the study. The sample size 

for this study was ten (10) Senior phase technology teachers. 

 

Data Collection Methods 

Yin 53 stated that data collection methods depend on the research problem, objectives 

and questions, all of which suggest a suitable research design, philosophical worldview and data 

collection strategies and instruments. Researchers use different data collection methods in a 

study depending on which methods suit their research project. Furthermore, Yin 54 mentioned 

that qualitative research is designed to increase real-life phenomena. In this study, primary data 

collection was done through face-to-face interviews and secondary data collection was done 

through document analysis. This is further explained below respectively. 

 

Interviews 

Semi-structured interviews can be defined as those interviews that are centred on known 

areas of interest and have a moderate level of flexibility in scope (Dicicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 

2006:315). This study conducted ten in-depth semi-structured interviews with ten Technology 

teachers in the Senior Phase, one from each grade, 7-9 in four schools in the Malelane Circuit 

in Mpumalanga Province, to provide data needed to understand the phenomenon under study. 

Interviews were conducted with different participants on various days, and the duration varied 

per interviewee as they had different perceptions and views of the phenomenon under study. 

The researchers presented the data collected as units of data, and some quotes from the 

participants contain vernacular language (IsiSwati). This was done to make participants feel 

comfortable and express their opinions in an environment that they were familiar with. 

 

Document Analysis 

Documentary analysis involves studying existing documents to understand the content 

to have a clear meaning on any given topic under study 55. This study used public documents, 

including teacher files, learner files, policies, Annual Teaching Plan (ATP) and CAPS for the 

Technology Senior Phase. This was done to see if what is supposed to be done in class is covered 

satisfactorily. The researchers requested the participants' files for analysis. Another reason was 

to check if monitoring tools were there to monitor the work progress of the teachers in the class 

by the school departmental head. The researcher also checked their lesson plans for compliance 

with the departmental expectations. 

 
52 Jonathan Parker, “Book Review: Unrau, Y.A., P.A. Gaoborand and R.M. Grinnell, Jr (2007) Evaluation in 
Social Work: The Art and Science of Practice, 4th Edn. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530-
806-9, Pbk, Xxvii + 468 Pp,” International Social Work 51, no. 1 (2008): 117–119, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00208728080510011104. 
53 Robert K Yin, “Studi Kasus Desain & Metode,” Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada (2014). 
54 Yin, “Studi Kasus Desain & Metode.” 
55 Jane Ritchie et al., Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers 
(sage, 2013). 



 
 
 

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Result and Discussion 

During the investigation, the participants clearly understand what entrepreneurship 

education can offer in one’s life and to the country's economy. The participants outlined that 

through entrepreneurship education, learners can be equipped with skills that are critically 

needed in the world of work, and some will become entrepreneurs. Most participants stated that 

learners in Senior phase technology are taught basic skills through the Min-Pat project. 

However, some participants pointed out that there is a need for the effectiveness of the basic 

education system to ensure that learners are equipped effectively and as it will mould learners 

with entrepreneurial skills. In addition, the lack of curriculum implementation is a challenge that 

detracts from the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning in the Technology Senior 

Phase. Based on the findings, little was done to prepare learners to be participants in the 

economy. There is minimal participation of learners. The challenge is the lack of learning 

materials. Participants pointed out that they require schools to provide them with basic policies 

such as the CAPS document. Schools must provide each learner with the materials needed to 

carry out activities in a Technology class. Another view is that there is no clear direction to what 

learners expect to achieve as Technology in most schools is done up until grade 9. Learners in 

this phase are likely not mature enough to know their future. However, Lourdes Carcamo-Solis 

et al. 56 claimed that entrepreneurial abilities could be developed at the foundation and 

intermediate school levels.   

The participants also explained how Technology teaching and learning brought about skills 

acquisition in learners. As a result, it was noted that learners acquire artistic skills in putting their 

ideas in sketches and making skills when they are required to present a model of the solution 

they have come up with. Skills of this nature can see one venturing into various fields of career 

path (such as working with recyclable materials, fixing electrical appliances, mechanics, and 

architecture, just to mention a few) in the sense that they are dealing with different concepts 

such as structures and materials processing. In order words, learners are exposed to different 

kinds of knowledge in which they must innovatively and creatively make a model that solves a 

particular problem in one of these fields. Such learning will bring some of these learners to 

become entrepreneurs. However, most participants stated that the challenge is that more needs 

to be done when making models (prototypes) in schools. Poor participation in these activities 

was evident from the responses that la ack of resources and a conducive environment contribute 

to learners not striving to give their best in making these models. Learners rely on working with 

any available materials to make their models thus resulting in no value on what they are trying 

to do, make or design. 

In addition, the participants stated that learners need to be more motivated to make 

models because they are oriented around getting marks to progress to the next grade rather than 

developing skills for the learner. Furthermore, the participants stated that there are very few 

exhibitions or competitions organised for learners to showcase their talents or skills. Based on 

the findings, more needs to be done about the effectiveness of teaching and learning Technology 

to impart entrepreneurial skills to the learner as activities are focused on awarding marks. This 

is evident when learners are presented with a scenario to identify a problem and develop ideas 

to solve the problem. Most learners produce a model that does not really show how the model 

 
56 Cárcamo-Solís et al., “Developing Entrepreneurship in Primary Schools. The Mexican Experience of ‘My 
First Enterprise: Entrepreneurship by Playing.’” 



 
 
 

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solves the problem at hand. In most cases, learners do not even try to get their ideas in sketches 

(graphic drawings), let alone make a model. The literature revealed that the goal of 

entrepreneurship education can be to target how to perform entrepreneurial activities rather 

than focusing on what theories and knowledge the learner must learn from in conventional 

educational viewpoints 57. 

The participants were engaged in trying to find out the challenges, and it was noted that 

most teachers teaching Technology had limited content knowledge and expertise to ensure 

quality teaching and learning practices, which will, in turn, ensure that learners are equipped 

with relevant entrepreneurial skills. Failure to implement the Senior phase technology 

curriculum on teaching and learning was visible. The essential weakness stressed is the minimal 

training the Technology teachers received on the content knowledge related to Technology 

education (pedagogical content knowledge). It is evident that three of the participants are 

holders of degrees with Technology as a major subject, and only one has a diploma. On the 

other end, two participants have no professional training, and four hold degrees in other major 

subjects rather than Technology. Based on the findings of the study, it can be revealed that 

teachers' lack of content knowledge contributes to the challenges faced in teaching innovation 

and creativity in the Technology senior phase. The literature stated that teachers must have the 

pedagogy content knowledge of a specific study area. Another statement mentioned that 

implementing education innovation requires quantity building of personnel in specialised 

content knowledge. 

 

Conclusions 

This section gives an outline of the conclusions identified from the related literature 

review and primary data of the study. The study's primary research explores the basic education 

system’s role in promoting entrepreneurship skills in Senior phase technology teaching and 

learning. One hundred percent of the participants of this study indicated that a lack of resources, 

learning environment conditions and the teacher’s content knowledge of Technology Senior 

Phase content are the most contributing factors to poor learner performance in the Technology 

subject. The same was shown by literature. Therefore, both data sources agree that the basic 

education systems promote entrepreneurship skills in the Senior Phase of Technology. 

However, implementing its practices hinders the system's effectiveness in the phase. It was 

concluded that Technology is not taught as per policy but rather for compliance in most schools. 

The learning environment does not permit Technology teaching and learning, as teaching and 

learning materials are scarce. The models (prototypes) are made primarily out of materials that 

are of reach to learners. In other words, learners rely on improvisation to make models. It was 

also concluded that training and recruitment of technology education teachers are needed to 

practise comprehensive Technology teaching and learning. Such moves can lead to learners 

partaking in activities that will put them in the competitive world of innovation and creativity 

in solving real-life problems, and such teaching and learning will eventually alleviate youth 

unemployment. 

 

 

 
57 Kassean et al., “Entrepreneurship Education: A Need for Reflection, Real-World Experience and Action”; 
Gibb, “Creating an Entrepreneurial Culture in Support of SMEs.” 



 
 
 

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Limitations of the study  

This study was limited to the following limitations: Four schools in the Malelane Circuit, 

Mpumalanga Province. The limited literature on the role of the basic education system in 

promoting entrepreneurship skills. The latest books and journals related to the study are limited.  

 

Recommendations 

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made to 

address the challenges faced by Technology senior phase teachers teaching grades 7-9 for 

effective teaching and learning to take place. It is recommended that the technology classroom 

be prepared to meet the requirement stated in the CAPS document, and models must be done, 

completed in class, and displayed to enhance the innovation and creativity of the learner. 

Promotion of Technology Subject: Based on the important role that the Technology subject 

plays in terms of imparting relevant skills that our society needs, it is important that the DoE 

during the “Education Indaba” programmes and workshops advocate for the importance of 

technology subjects. This will make a difference in our society. It is believed that once society 

is interested in the subject , the children at school will have more interest, just as learners are 

interested in Mathematics and Physical science. Review of allocated teaching time for 

Technology: Based on the findings of this study, time allocated for Technology grades 7-9 seems 

not to be enough for teaching and learning. It is recommended that the teaching Technology 

senior phase needs to be reviewed by the curriculum developers. Additional time is needed 

because the teachers need to supervise learners during the make-skill activities to be able to give 

guidance to learners. Provision of materials and tools: It has been highlighted by the participants 

that some learners do not participate in making models because of a lack of resources in schools. 

Technology content needs the learner to have all the necessary resources for effective teaching 

and learning to take place. This may assist in lessening the burden on both the teachers and 

learners. 

 

Areas of Further Research 

It is recommended to conduct a study using either mixed or quantitative research 

methodology to investigate the basic education system's role in promoting entrepreneurship 

skills within the Senior Phase concerning Technology education teaching and learning. 

Quantitative studies use a bigger sample size than qualitative ones, which covers a huge area, 

giving a higher chance of collecting more meaningful data than a qualitative study.     

 

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