










































 

EDUCATIO : Journal Of Education 
Volume 9 , Number 2, November 2025 

 ISSN : 2579-8383 (Print) ISSN : 2579-8405 (Online)  

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The perception of Students about Teaching Practice in the 

Foundation phase in South 

 
Agyeman NYB 

Walter Sisulu University 

nagyeman@wsu.ac.za    

 

Accepted: 

10 August 2025 

reviewed:  

5 September, 2025 

Published:  

20 November 2025 

 

Abstract: Teaching practice is a crucial program that provides aspiring student teachers with 

practical teaching experience to prepare them for the challenges of teaching in school settings. 

Teaching practice in the foundation phase is fundamental for the education and development of 

student teachers. Teaching practice enables them to apply their theoretical knowledge in real 

teaching scenarios. A recent study examined student teachers' perspectives during their practice in 

the foundation phases, revealing a range of responses. The study explored student teachers' 

perceptions of teaching practices using a qualitative research method with a case study design. Six 

student teachers were purposively selected and interviewed using semi-structured interviews. The 

findings highlighted the importance of dedicating enough time to teaching practice for professional 

development. Also, they shed light on the challenges teachers face, such as handling large 

classrooms and balancing university coursework with teaching practice. Furthermore, the findings 

underscored the need for improved classroom management and support systems. Schools must 

address student teachers' challenges during teaching practice while providing adequate support 

systems to help them maximise their experiences in teaching in the foundation phase. The study 

recommends that schools and teacher training institutions offer support and resources to help 

student teachers enhance their professional skills. 

 

Keyword:  Teaching practice, student teachers, classroom management, foundation phase, 

teaching method, lesson plan, inclusive practices 

 

Introduction 

Teaching practice is a critical program that equips aspiring teachers with practical school-

based and classroom experiences. Teaching practice helps students develop the requisite skills and 

competencies to become effective instructors. More importantly, teaching practice in the 

foundation phase of schools is fundamental for the development of student teachers and the 

moulding of children. Teaching practice empowers new teachers to translate theoretical knowledge 

into authentic teaching experiences and hone instructional skills in an authentic classroom context 

(Adeoye et al., 2024). The experiential learning student teachers benefit from schools that help to 

bridge the gap between academic preparation and the possible challenges they confront in the 

school context. The foundation phase of school, in the context of South Africa, includes grades R 

to 3, which is a critical stage in the education of pupils (Dlamini, 2022). This phase ensures effective 

teaching and contributes to the professional growth of future teachers. However, it is observed 

that student teachers are faced with various challenges that adversely impact their experiences in 

mailto:nagyeman@wsu.ac.za


  
 

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schools.  As a result, this study aims to investigate students' teachers' perspectives of their 

experiences during teaching practice in the foundation phase in South African schools. 

Numerous studies have been conducted to explore teaching practice and highlight its role 

in enhancing instructional skills. According to Philips and Condy (2023), teaching practice helps 

to bridge the theory and practice gaps by preparing teachers for practical challenges in schools. 

Teaching practice has been described as a structural training period where student teachers are 

expected to use their theoretical understanding in a classroom context (Wolff et al., 2021). This 

usually takes place under the supervision of an experienced teacher or mentor. Teaching practice 

offers critical students a critical transition from professional training and fosters adaptability and 

confidence in the school and classroom settings (Resch & Schrittesser, 2023). According to Stromg 

and Viesca (2023), the acquisition of practical experience by students in the school context equips 

them to support teaching and learning. Student teachers use teaching practice placements to 

enhance their practical teaching and classroom management skills (Mahmood et al., 2023). De 

Clercq and Phiri (2018) observed that teaching practice and teacher development have evolved in 

accordance with teachers' responsibilities, professional growth, and societal demands.  

In South Africa, the government emphasises school-based experience as a critical 

component of the professional development of aspiring teachers. This position is strengthened by 

the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) policy, which is the 

fundamental framework regulating the teaching profession (Singh & McDonal, 2025). The 

MRTEQ policy offers a structured framework for training and developing student teachers and 

ensures that they are prepared for the teaching profession in South Africa (MRTEQ, 2011). The 

policy was implemented in 2011 and revised in 2015 to create a criterion for teacher qualification 

in South Africa (Nakidien et al., 2021). The primary goal of this policy is to facilitate the preparation 

of student teachers and ensure that qualified teachers are equipped with the essential skills in South 

African schools (Zongozzi, 2022). In spite of the important role of the MRTEQ policy in 

developing student teachers, concerns have been raised about its effectiveness. Singh and 

McDonald (2025) found that most new teachers do not cope with the school environment and 

managing student discipline. This shows a gap existing between the policy intentions of MRTEQ 

and its implementation in supporting teachers.  

Existing studies on teaching practice show the importance of teaching practice in moulding 

student teachers' profession. Teaching practice helps student teachers to apply their theoretical 

knowledge to authentic teaching and learning experiences (Stavridis & Papadopoulou, 2022; 

Franklin & Harrington, 2019). According to Kwatubana and Bosch (2019) such experiences 

influence the professional judgement of students through attitudes, emotions and practical 

experiences. Kiggundu and Nayimuli (2019) assert that the effective school-based practice ensures 

classroom management, supports critical thinking and encourages learner progress. In spite of the 

extensive studies about teaching practice, there is a gap in knowledge about the experiences of 

student teachers and how they implement pedagogical approaches to enhance teaching and 

learning in the foundation phase teaching in South Africa. Most of the past studies use a wider 

scope of methodology to focus on this critical phase of education. The current study contributes 

to this gap by focusing on the perspectives of student teachers about their experiences and 

challenges in this phase. This study investigates student teachers’ perceptions about teaching 

practices in this phase and their nuanced insights. The study will contribute to the formulation and 

implementation of education policies and the reforms in teacher training programs. 



  
 

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Methods 

The present study explores student teachers' perceptions about teaching in the foundation 

phase schools during teaching practice. This study uses a qualitative approach to understand 

student teachers ' perceptions about teaching in the foundation phase during teaching practice. A 

qualitative approach was preferred to gain an in-depth insight into the lived experiences, 

perspectives and their meaning concerning a phenomenon (Lame, 2019). This approach allows 

research to explore complex issues in their context and obtain rich and comprehensive data that 

quantitative methods do not consider (Abuhama et al., 2021). This study approach was 

complemented by a case study design to explore the research objective of the study. Case study 

design assists the researcher in understanding a phenomenon that occurs within a particular setting 

(Renjith et al., 2021). A case study design permits an in-depth insight into complex issues through 

a detailed assessment of a particular case (Tomaszewski et al., 2020). 

The study population comprised foundation phase schools, teachers, student teachers, and 

pupils. The research sample consisted of six student teachers who were purposively selected 

because they were attached to the selected school and were teaching in the foundation phase. 

These participants were used because they were the only participants who were attached to the 

selected school. This makes them the most relevant and accessible sources of in-depth information 

for the study. According to Hennink and Kaiser (2022) and Vasileiou et al. (2018), a smaller sample 

in a qualitative study allows for in-depth and rich insights to be gained as opposed to generalised 

findings. Similarly,  McDermott (2023) and Abuhama et al. (2021) argue that a smaller sample 

allows for an intensive engagement with participants and enables the researcher to explore 

complex experiences of and meanings in daily life. The limited sample size was deemed appropriate 

to facilitate a thorough examination of the experiences and perceptions of the selected participants.   

For the sake of maintaining anonymity, the participants were given pseudonyms. Female 

participants were designated as PF1, PF2, and PF3, while male participants were designated as 

PM1, PM2, and PM3. Semi-structured interviews were used in the study to gather data from 

participants regarding their teaching experiences in the foundation phase. This data collection 

instrument is associated with qualitative research and provides a balance between flexibility and 

structure (Rutledge & Hogg, 2020).  According to Adeoye-Olatunde and Olenike (2021), semi-

structured interviews offer the researcher a guide for the interaction with participants, which allows 

for the generation of themes and insights from participants. The interviews were conducted at a 

specific time as agreed upon by the student teachers and the researcher.  

The researchers communicated with the participants to arrange a mutually convenient 

interview location. The researchers ensured ethical compliance by acquiring ethical clearance from 

the university before conducting the interviews. Additionally, the researcher sought the school 

leadership's permission to conduct the study within the school premises and interview the student 

teachers. Prior to the interviews, students were requested to provide consent for participation. The 

participants were briefed on the study's objective and told that their identities and any information 

they supplied would be treated confidentially and not disclosed to any other entity. Participants 

were also allowed to withdraw from the study if they experienced undue discomfort over their 

involvement.  

To ensure the reliability of this study, member checking was ensured by sharing transcripts 

and interpretations of participants' experiences with them to ensure the accuracy of the data 



  
 

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collected (Motulsky, 2021). An audit trail was ensured by keeping detailed records of the data that 

were collected during the data collection process, which included raw data, notes, codes, and 

theological changes (Carcary, 2020). The transparent process in this study allows for querying how 

data was gathered, analysed and interpreted (Barcellos et al, 2022). This approach ensures that 

appropriate measures were taken to ensure the dependability and trustworthiness of the study. A 

major limitation in this study was the use of a smaller sample size, as it can affect the generalizability 

and adaptability of the findings to a larger population (Safari et al., 2023). 

 

Result And Discussion 

Table 1: The summary of findings and discussions of student teacher experiences 

Table 1 shows the summary of themes that emerged for student perceptions of their 

experiences during teaching practice in foundation schools. The findings integrate participants' 

responses with current literature findings to show the opportunities, challenges, support 

mechanisms, mentoring relationships and professional development during teaching practice. The 

synthesis of these findings focuses on personal reflections and the wide systemic themes resulting 

from school-based placements. 

 

Source: Author (2025) 
Teaching practice in the foundation phase provides students and teachers with practical 

experiences that support professional and personal growth. Students gain practical skills in the 

delivery of lessons, managing classrooms and implementing curriculum. This deepens their 

instructional skills and contributes to active classroom engagement. In spite of these varied 

Theme Key Findings Participant Views 
Supporting 

Literature 

1. Opportunities for 

Professional Growth 

and Development 

Teaching practice enhances 

pedagogical skills, classroom 

management, and confidence. 

PF1: Gained strategies and improved 

classroom management. PM1: Gained 

confidence engaging with learners. 

PF2: Reported limited teaching 

opportunities. 

Dlamini (2022); 

Munna & Kalam 

(2012); De Clercq & 

Phiri (2018) 

2. Challenges Faced 

by Student Teachers 

Student teachers struggle with 

large classrooms and 

balancing coursework with 

teaching practice. 

PM2: Large class size reduced 

teaching effectiveness. PF3: Found 

balancing coursework and practice 

difficult. PM3: Developed time 

management skills despite workload. 

Homer et al. (2018); 

Dlamini (2022) 

3. Mentoring 

Dynamics with 

Student Teachers 

Mentoring improves planning, 

confidence, and teaching 

quality. Inadequate feedback 

hampers development. 

PF2 & PM1: Reported strong mentor 

support and valuable feedback. PF3: 

Experienced distant mentor and poor 

feedback. 

Mbhiza et al. 

(2024); Mtyakado 

(2024) 

4. Support Systems 

During Teaching 

Practice 

Access to resources, peer and 

mentor support improve 

teaching experience. Lack of 

support isolates student 

teachers. 

PM2 & PF1: Benefited from school-

provided resources and peer support. 

PM3: Felt sidelined and unsupported. 

Aglazoe (2017); 

Franklin & 

Harrington (2019); 

Hew et al. (2020) 

5. Student-Teacher 

Professional 

Development 

Opportunities 

Workshops, collaboration, 

and mentorship deepen 

understanding of teaching. 

Limited opportunities hinder 

growth. 

PF3: Gained insight from workshops. 

PM1: Broadened perspective through 

collaboration. PF2: Saw limited 

development opportunities. 

MRTEQ (2011); 

Niser et al. (2019); 

De Clercq & Phiri 

(2018) 

 



  
 

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experiences, most student teachers report benefits. PF1 mentioned that teaching practice assists 

in enhancing instructional approaches and strengthening strategies for classroom management. 

PF1 stated. "I learned a lot of new pedagogical strategies for foundational phase teaching and 

improved my classroom management skills during my stay in the school. This has made me to be 

effective in teaching in this phase (PF1)”. PM1, on the other hand, explained how teaching practice 

experience in the foundation phase has built his confidence by saying that, PM1: "I get the 

opportunity to engage with real pupils, which has helped to boost my confidence about facilitating 

teaching and learning in the foundation phase classroom (PM1)". PF2 had a contrasting view about 

teaching practice and how it offers little exposure for professional development. PF2 assert that, 

“I have had limited opportunities to teach in the classroom, and I believe this does not allow me 

the exposure I need for my professional growth as a teacher (PF2)”. Teaching practice in the 

foundation phase provides student teachers with practical exposure that supports their 

professional and personal growth.  

Teaching practice in the foundation phase allows student teachers to gain practical 

competencies in the form of lesson presentation, implementing curriculum and ensuring discipline 

in the classroom. These skills assist in deepening classroom engagement, improving learning, and 

student achievement. Whilst some student teachers benefit from teaching practice, some seem to 

be faced with hindrances that limit their experiences during this period. Dlamini (2022) argued 

that active participation in teaching improves student teachers’ ability to facilitate learning. Munna 

and Kalam (2012) recommended placing students in schools where they can sharpen their skills. 

De Clercq and Phiri (2018) found that teaching practice helps student teachers build practical skills 

through real classroom tasks. While teaching practice offers valuable opportunities, student 

teachers need adequate support and resources to benefit fully. 

 

Theme 2: Challenges faced by student teachers 

Student teachers face various challenges during their time in foundation phase schools. Key 

issues include managing large classrooms, which demand significant time and attention. These 

difficulties limit their ability to make the most of school-based experiences and deliver lessons 

effectively. PM2 noted that handling large classes made it harder to manage the classroom well. 

PM2 said that, "In my school, I found managing a classroom challenging as the classes contain 

large numbers of pupils (PM2)”.  Similarly, PF3 also mentioned how focusing on coursework and 

teaching practice prevented him from benefiting from teaching practice in the foundation phase. 

PF3 pointed out that, "Having to focus on university coursework as a student and at the same 

time doing teaching practice was very difficult. This reduced the opportunity for me to fully benefit 

from foundation phase teaching and enhance my professional skills as a teacher (PF3). Participant 

PM3 had a different view from the other participants. The participant explained how, despite a 

heavy workload in the intermediate phase, it motivated him to improve his skills in dealing with 

pupils.  PM3 explained that, "Despite the workload, I was motivated to improve my time 

management and multitasking skills in the classroom (PM3)". These responses show that most 

participants struggle to find a balance when dealing with large classes and teaching demands. Few 

participants responded that they faced difficulties during teaching practice in the foundation phase. 

They used these challenges to develop professional skills such as classroom management, time 

management and multitasking.  

Literature review confirms the difficulties that student teachers encounter during teaching 



  
 

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practice periods in schools. Homer et al. (2018) stressed the importance of strengthening student 

teachers' classroom skills even in the face of the various contextual challenges they face in the 

classroom.  Conversely, Van Diggele et al. (2020) also recognised a significant obstacle that hinders 

student teachers' ability to manage their classrooms efficiently. The study found that student 

teachers' failure to use instructional technology and media limits their ability to create a 

constructivist classroom that actively engages learners. This finding suggests that without the 

integration of technology, student teachers may find it difficult to adjust to the demands of 

teaching and engage learners meaningfully. However, this finding may overlook critical factors 

such as the quality of teacher training and availability of resources that can influence classroom 

management. Dlamini (2022) contended that mentoring student teachers at the foundation phase 

can enhance their professional development. This finding suggests that mentoring assists student 

teachers' professional growth through the guidance and feedback they receive from experienced 

teachers. However, the effect of mentoring may vary depending on the mentor's experiences and 

the consistency of support they provide student teachers. While teaching practice challenges 

provide valuable experiences for student teachers, students may also fail to benefit without the 

proper support from mentors. 

 

Theme 3: Mentoring Dynamics with Student Teachers 

Mentoring plays a crucial role in the professional growth of student teachers during the 

foundation phase. Mentors offer guidance, support, and constructive feedback to help student 

teachers make the most of their school experience. Participants expressed varied opinions on 

mentorship’s impact. PF2 emphasized the value she gained from her mentor, stating that, "My 

mentor was supportive and instrumental in my teaching practice in the school. He made sure to 

provide me helpful feedback that enhanced my teaching skills in the foundation phase (PF2)”. In 

support, participant PM1 also shared a similar view with PF2 by saying that, "I have a regular 

meeting with my mentor, and this has helped me to be more confident in preparing and planning 

lessons to teach (PM1)". Participant PF3 shared a contrasting view by explaining how the strained 

relationship with the mentor affected his teaching practice. PF3 said that "My mentor was distant 

and rarely provided constructive feedback during the teaching practice (PF3)". These findings 

show the importance of mentoring in influencing student teachers' competencies through the 

feedback and guidance they get from their mentors.  However, it seems the effectiveness of 

mentorship varies, as some student teachers had poor support, which affected their teaching 

practice.  

Participants had varied responses regarding mentoring during their school-based 

experiences. Most participants had positive perspectives that stress the need for mentoring, 

support, and feedback for student teachers. According to Mbhiza et al. (2024), mentorship and 

support help student teachers improve their teaching skills and build confidence in planning and 

delivering lessons. Some Participants agreed that mentorship played a key role in their professional 

development. However, some also reported negative experiences due to limited feedback and weak 

mentor relationships. These strained interactions reduced the impact of teaching practice. Mbhiza 

et al. (2024) support this, showing that effective mentoring enhances teaching methods, classroom 

management, and learner support. Mtyakado (2024) also highlights the mentor’s role as a 

professional model and support system. The findings stress that strong mentor-mentee 

relationships are essential for the growth and positive experiences of student teachers. It also 



  
 

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emphasises that effective mentorship empowers teachers with the appropriate pedagogical skills 

to teach effectively in the intermediate phase. However, there were variations in students' 

experiences with their mentors. This shows the inconsistencies in the quality of mentorship and 

the need for support for student teachers.  

 

Theme 4: Support Systems During Teaching Practice 

Support from schools and teacher training institutions plays a key role in the professional 

development of student teachers during teaching practice. Supervision, incentives, and access to 

resources help build confidence and strengthen teaching skills, making the school experience more 

productive and positive. PM2 noted the value of such support by stating that, "In my school, the 

principal and heads of departments provide us with the necessary resources and materials. This 

makes it easier to prepare for lessons (PM2)". Participant PF1, on the other hand, indicated how 

the support that mentors provide enhances their teaching practice by saying that, “My supervisors 

support me to go through the daily demands from the school and classroom. This engagement 

provides me with the opportunity to learn from different experienced teachers during teaching 

practice (PF1). PM3, on the other hand, shared a contrasting view by showing how challenging it 

was to get the support needed during the teaching practice period. PM3 mentioned that PM3: "My 

experience teaching in the foundation phase was hectic because I felt more sidelined and isolated 

in the school where I was practising. There was no support from the teachers (PM3)”.The 

responses indicate that while support from schools and mentors strengthens student teachers' 

professional skills, the absence of support for some student teachers contributes to isolation and 

a reduction in the benefits of teaching practice.  

Literature highlights the importance of support that is given to student teachers during 

school-based practice. Aglazoe's (2017) and Franklin and Harrington's (2019) studies confirm that 

strong support systems help student teachers to boost learner achievement and manage classrooms 

more effectively. In support, Hew et al. (2020) stress the need for comprehensive training to 

promote inclusive education, showing that well-supported student teachers play a vital role in 

shaping positive school environments. These findings suggest that effective support and training 

of student teachers not only enhance teaching skills but also lead to inclusive education practices. 

In contrast, Mbhiza et al (2024) emphasised that mentoring helps student teachers to develop 

appropriate instructional skills like lesson planning, classroom management and assessment. 

Similarly, Ntyakado (2024) found that mentors as role models provide feedback and practical 

guidance that equips student teachers with confidence and competence. These findings indicate 

that supporting student teachers is a critical factor in developing their instructional skills and 

confidence through feedback. This implies the need to emphasise skill acquisition and professional 

development during teaching practice in schools. 

  

Theme 5: Student-Teacher Professional Development Opportunities 

Teaching practice helps student-teachers enhance and refine their instructional skills 

professionally in schools. It allows student teachers to reflect on their instructional experiences, 

learn from mentors and reflect on feedback received from assessors and mentors. These activities 

reinforce the professional growth of student teachers in the foundation phase of teaching. 

Participant PF3 indicated that the importance of complementing teaching practice with seminars 

and workshops by saying that, "Attending education workshops and seminars provides me with 



  
 

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an in-depth understanding of the teaching profession, pedagogical approaches and current trends 

in the teaching profession (PF3)”. Likewise, participant PM1 shared how working with 

experienced teachers helps student teachers to develop a broader understanding of the teaching 

profession. PM1 said, "Collaborating with experienced teachers broadened my understanding of 

professional development (PM1)”. In contrast, PF2 observed that few opportunities for growth 

existed in schools during the teaching practice period. PF2 pointed out that, "There are very few 

professional growth and development opportunities available in schools. There isn’t enough 

support to address the challenges and issues that exist in the classroom (PF2). Though the various 

participants held divergent perspectives on the professional prospects,  they acknowledged the 

importance of how student teachers derive their practical teaching experience.  

Literature shows the need for opportunities to be created for student teachers during 

teaching practice to enhance the professional development of students.  According to Niser et al. 

(2019), school authorities must prioritise teachers' professional development by offering essential 

assistance and training. In support of this claim, De Clercq and Phiri (2018) argue that establishing 

a conducive school atmosphere enables student instructors to observe and acquire knowledge 

from their mentors. These findings suggest the need to prioritise professional development and 

create a supportive school environment for student teachers to be effective. This shows the critical 

role that professional development and a supportive school environment play in improving the 

practical skill acquisition of student teachers. In contrast, Munna and Kalam (2021) argue that 

practical teaching experiences need to be combined with inclusive strategies and a classroom 

environment that allows students to participate in class actively.  Similarly, Hew et al. (2020) 

underline the need for schools to offer comprehensive training to student teachers to be able to 

adapt to student-centred teaching in the classroom. This finding shows how blending a practical 

teaching method with an inclusive and participatory strategy can support student teachers in 

engaging learners in the classroom. The importance of empowering student teachers with training 

is considered to foster adaptable, learner-focused teaching practices in schools. 

 

Conclusion 

Teaching practice in the foundation phase schools in South Africa is pivotal in the 

professional training and development of student teachers. Teaching practice provides student 

teachers with the opportunity to apply their conceptual and theoretical understanding in a practical 

learning environment in the school. This exposes them to a variety of teaching experiences and 

support systems. The majority of participants regard teaching practice as an important avenue to 

empower them with professional training, which complements their university training. The 

practical experience acquired equips them with appropriate teaching skills like classroom 

management, instructional planning and learner participation. School-based support and 

mentorship contribute to improving the professional trajectory of student teachers. In addition, 

the opportunity to access mentorship, guidance, teaching resources and collaboration fosters the 

development of student teachers. This shows that when student teachers are equipped with 

professional skills and competencies, teachers can effectively prepare foundational phase learners 

to excel.  

In spite of the benefits of teaching practice to student teachers, the study found challenges 

that prevent them from being effective facilitators and instructors in the foundation phase. Among 

these challenges are large classrooms, balancing academic work and teaching practice duties, 



  
 

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limited opportunities for practice and a lack of mentorship. These challenges undermine the 

professional development of student teachers and their ability to acquire practical skills relevant to 

foundation phase teaching. These challenges hinder student teachers' professional growth by 

limiting their ability to develop practical teaching skills, confidence, and instructional effectiveness 

in the foundation phase. Many student teachers had unclear expectations and a lack of feedback 

from assessors and mentors. This constraint had an adverse influence on student teachers' 

developing confidence and competence to facilitate effective teaching in the foundation phase. 

There is a need for teacher training programs and schools to address this gap by strengthening 

mentorship and opportunities for practical training.  

This study finds teaching practice in the foundation phase schools to be a critical component 

for shaping the professional development of student teachers. Teaching practice empowers 

student teachers with the requisite skills, confidence and pedagogical skills. In spite of the benefits 

of teaching practice for student teachers, challenges like a lack of practical exposure, mentorship, 

and support systems obstruct the full benefit of teaching practice. As a result, this study 

recommends allocating instructional opportunities and strengthening mentorship for student 

teachers. In addition, student teachers should be empowered with the allocation of instructional 

resources, teaching opportunities, supervision and support from mentors and assessors, and 

organising workshops and seminars for the professional development of student teachers. A major 

limitation of this study is its small sample size of six participants. This restricts the generalisability 

and potential bias of the study. Future studies should incorporate a bigger sample size. This will 

enhance the reliability of the study's findings and contribute to the body of knowledge of student 

teachers' experiences in the foundation phase schools during teaching practice 

 

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