TITLE OF THE PAPER.

INTERVENTION OF AUTOGENOUS TRAINING TECHNIQUES FOR

PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESS OF SPORTS SCHOOL

STUDENTS

Helēna Vecenāne¹, Žermēna Vazne²

1Liepaja University, researcher of Liepaja University Institute of Educational Sciences, Latvia
2Latvian Academy of Sports Education, Department of Sports and Training Theory,

Pedagogy, Psychology and Pedagogical Practice, Latvia²

Abstract. Athletes' success in sports is linked not only to good physical, technical and tactical preparedness, but

also to psychological fitness. In sports psychology there are two basic types of psychological preparation,

namely general psychological preparation and special psychological preparation. Just as comprehensive

physical preparation is the basis for an athlete's special, technical, tactical fitness, so comprehensive

psychological preparation is the basis for an athlete's mental toughness both during the training and competing.

Regardless of the stressors, the athletes with higher levels of mental toughness can overcome more easily the

negative effects of stress. In order to gain mental toughness skills, it is necessary to develop basic psychological

skills at the same time as starting sports activities, and this process should continue in parallel with the entire

training process. The aim of the study: to explore the intervention benefits of autogenous training (AT)

techniques for improving the psychological skills of young women volleyball players. Research method: a survey

was employed for obtaining the athletes' feedback. Results: Statistically significant changes were found in the

self-assessment of athletes' well-being after autogenous training. The self-assessment results show that athletes

reach different AT acquisition levels as the result of a two-month AT intervention: 7.7% of athletes do not have

difficulty with AT techniques, for 30.8% AT come easy, but not always, 53.8% of athletes sometimes manage to

feel warmth in different parts of the body, relax, concentrate, focus attention on breathing and repetition of the

target formulas, but for 7.7% of athletes the acquisition results of AT techniques are poor.

Keywords: autogenous training techniques, psychological preparation, athletes

To cite this article:

Vecenāne, H. & Vazne, Ž. (2022). Intervention of Autogenous Training Techniques for Psychological

Preparedness of Sports School Students. Education. Innovation. Diversity, 1(4), 57-63. DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17770/eid2022.1.6806

Introduction

The athletes' success in sports is linked not only to good physical, technical and tactical

preparedness, but also to psychological fitness. The aim of the athlete's psychological

preparation is to help the athletes achieve optimal development, experience, and performance,

while the coaches must not only be the process managers of the respective sport, but also

provide the athletes with psychological support (Vealey, 2007).

Exploring the recommendations and methodical materials elaborated by Volleyball

Federation (FIVB, n.d.), in the section on the required qualities of volleyball players, the

following indicators can be identified: mental states required for the players to learn

volleyball techniques and tactics; mental states and qualities related to winning or losing

competitions. The athlete qualities, such as self-confidence, positive thinking, willpower or

determination, the ability to think and make decisions independently are also important.

There are two types of psychological preparation: general and special. General

psychological preparation is characterized by focusing on formation and development of

universal (comprehensive, versatile, multipurpose) psychological skills, which, being

important in sports, are valued in many other areas of human activity and form the basis for

psychological preparedness. In turn, special psychological preparation means focusing on the

formation and development of athletes' mental abilities and personality traits, promoting

success in specific conditions of sports activity (Ahatov & Rabotin, 2008).

https://doi.org/10.17770/eid2022.1.6806

The aim of the general psychological preparation is to improve the athlete's

psychological skills, including the acquisition of stress management strategies, and it is a

multifaceted process (Weinberg & Gould, 2019). Just as general physical preparedness is the

basis for an athlete's specific, technical and tactical fitness, so the general psychological

preparedness is the basis for athlete’s mental toughness both during the training process and

during competing. Regardless of the stress factors, the athletes with greater mental resilience

can overcome more easily the negative effects of stress. In order to achieve such

psychological resilience, for an athlete it is necessary to develop basic psychological skills at

the same time as starting sports activities, and this process should continue in parallel with the

entire training process (Kaiseler et al., 2009).

The process of acquiring psychological skills is linked to systematic and consistent

practice of psychological skills in order to improve the athlete's performance, increase well-

being or achieve greater satisfaction from participation in sports and physical activity

(Weinberg & Gould, 2019). The experience of sports psychology specialists shows that

athletes sometimes have to wait a long time before the positive effects of the learned stress

management techniques appear, and sometimes it can even lead to a decrease in the athlete's

initial performance. Better results appear when psychological preparation tools and strategies

are integrated and have become an athlete’s natural way of thinking, feeling and behaving

(Uneståhl, n.d; Bunszen & Uneståhl, 1997). Traditionally, the most commonly used methods

for improving psychological skills in sports are guided imagination, relaxation, goal setting,

inner self-talk, biofeedback learning, performance profiling and behavioural management

techniques, of which four methods are used most frequently: guided imagination, goal setting,

thought management, and relaxation/arousal regulation (Vealey, 2007).

A study by Kaiseler et al. (2009) shows that athletes with higher mental toughness

more easily overcome the negative effects of stress. In order to achieve such psychological

toughness it is necessary to develop basic psychological skills throughout the entire training

process. Molina et al. (2018), studying the emotional reactions of young athletes during

competitions, conclude that it is necessary to teach athletes from an early age to reinterpret

cognitively situations, because uncontrolled emotional reactions divert attention and

concentration during competitions. Therefore, the athletes must learn to manage regularly the

intensity of emotional reactions from the first years of competing, as well as to understand

their emotional states, because, as the research data indicates, the young athletes often

suppress emotions during the competition. By blocking emotional reactions, the opposite

results are observed, increasing tension and anxiety.

That is why it is so important to start the psychological preparation of young athletes in

a timely manner, promoting the athlete’s psychological resilience, as it is a dynamic process

characterized by a positive adaptation pace in the context of significant difficulties (Fletcher

& Sarkar, 2012).

For the psychological preparation of athletes, one of the well-tested training methods is

autogenous training (AT). AT was first mentioned in 1932 by German psychiatrist Johannes

Heinrich Schultz. It consists of structured self-inspiration techniques and positive inner self-

talk formulas. The term "autogenous" is derived from the Greek words "autos" and "genos"

and can be translated as "self-exercising" or "self-induction therapy". AT is a conceptually

designed system that has a physiological basis, and self-hypnotic (self-suggestive)

recommendations are woven in the form of an intervention that connects the "mind" and the

"body" (Linden, 2007).

Autogenous training is a psychophysiological technique of self-control, which aims at

physical and mental relaxation and consists of automated verbal suggestions by which

individuals learn how to change certain psychophysiological functions, initially with minimal

intervention of another person, but when the technique is mastered – without any intervention

of another person (Gunter, 1996).

Thus, AT is a comprehensive system with a broad philosophical basis, and its

assumptions and goals are shared by other methods of relaxation and meditative practice.

Meditative experience and concentration are rooted not only in psychology but also in

neuroscience and neurobiology. It affects not only the level of functional activity of the brain,

but also affects structural changes in the grey and white matter, especially in the areas of the

brain and networks related to attention and memory, interoception and sensory processing, as

well as self-regulation and automatic regulation. These areas of central nervous system

activity include the regulation of emotions and stress, which, in addition to the integration of

the central autonomous regions, includes the limbic system, endogenous motivation and

reward centres, thus reducing anxiety and ‘stress sensitivity’ as well as improving the ability

to learn and remember (Schlamann et al., 2010; Esch, 2013). Already in 1986, Lindemanis

(1986) writes that with the help of AT, the athletes can overcome the pre-start fever and

tension during competitions, the tension caused by inferiority complex and expectations of

approaching competition, general nervousness and develop the ability to use all their

resources to improve the performance and mobilize unused resources. According to Ortigosa-

Márquez, Carranque-Cháves & Mendo (2015), the AT technique positively modulates an

athlete's pre-competition self-confidence and subjective vitality level, while research of

Mohammadi, Ziabari & Treur (2019) indicates the effectiveness of autogenic training in

regulating an individual's tension and emotions.

The main possibilities of using AT in sports can be combined in three sets of exercises:

a "mobilizing set" for pre-start apathy and fatigue; a "calming set" for reducing increased pre-

start anxiety, as well as anxiety after competing; and a "somnolent set" used in cases of

increased negative tension and sleep disorders. These modifications focus on self-regulation

of respiratory and cardiac functions, as well as neuromuscular apparatus and ideomotor

training (Reshetnikov, 2018), which helps to effectively implement the psychological

preparation process of athletes to improve the performance in competitions (Bidzan-Bluma,

Pielak, & Budnik-Przybylska, 2017).
The aim of this study is to explore the benefits of AT interventions to improve the

psychological skills of young volleyball players.

Methodology

The research was carried out according to ethical rules, and a research group –

volleyball players of the School of Sports Games, 16-18 years young women (n =13), was

established. The parents of the young athletes were informed about the participation in the

study in accordance with the provisions of the data protection law. All athletes had not

previously practiced autogenous trainings, as well as they had not previously undergone

psychological training sessions. A total of eight autogenous training sessions were designed

and conducted, which included seven AT exercises, and the sessions took place once a week

during the two-month period.

The research method – survey was employed for obtaining athletes' feedback. The

survey consists of four questions that reveal the athletes' self-assessment of the acquisition

quality of AT techniques and acquired skills for the improvement of their psychological

preparedness. Additional two questions describe the athlete's well-being on a scale from 1-10

before and after acquisition of AT techniques (Cronbach's Alpha α = 0.924), but T-test is used

for a comparative analysis of the results and determines the differences in the related samples.

There are also two open-ended self-assessment questions for the evaluation of performance

quality of AT exercises: “Which exercises were successful?” and “Which exercises caused

you difficulty?”. The performance of AT techniques was assessed on a scale from 1-10, based

on the following criteria: very high acquisition level (10 – "outstanding", 9 – "excellent");

high acquisition level (8 – "very good", 7 – "good"); medium acquisition level (6 – "almost

good", 5 – "mediocre", 4 – "almost mediocre"); low acquisition level (3 – "weak", 2 – "very

weak", 1 –"very, very weak"). The athletes completed the survey in writing immediately after

the AT sessions.

For holistic and comprehensive development of the athlete's personality, the classical

exercises of AT techniques were summarized according to J.H. Schultz (Linden, 2007). When

working on the cognitive or educational component, it is taken into account that these young

women athletes previously did not have any information about AT, and when compiling the

set of AT techniques, an explanatory part – a mini-lecture was included, as well as

explanatory and educational work was performed at each AT session.

The assessment of performance quality of AT techniques also includes the personality

development component, which generally reflects the person's worldviews and attitudes that

leads a person to action. In this case, the determining factors are the attitude and the ability to

assess one's activities.

By perfecting the emotional and willpower components, the acquisition of AT

techniques, like any other new exercise, requires willpower, patience and emotional return.

Psychophysiological components – AT techniques include exercises, during which one can

get a feeling of heaviness and warmth in the limbs, regular deep breathing, a feeling of

warmth in the area of solar plexus, a feeling of coolness in the area of the forehead.

Summarizing the set of AT techniques, the recommendations of Reshetnikov

(Reshetnikov, 2018) on the components of psychomuscular part of AT in sports were taken

into account: the ability to relax muscles; the ability to visualize the content of AT formulas

as vividly as possible with a strong power of imagination but without mental strain; the ability

to maintain attention to the chosen object; the ability to influence oneself with an appropriate

verbal formula. This approach is intended for actualizing such psychological skills necessary

for the athletes as concentration, self-control, relaxation, visualization, positive self-talk, self-

esteem and self-confidence, and self-regulation of emotional manifestations caused by stress.

The principle of gradualness was applied to acquisition of AT techniques. Therefore,

when planning AT sessions, a new element was gradually added to each AT session; and in

addition to the traditional two AT parts – calming and activating, an introductory part was

added with the task of breathing observation (10 breathing cycles), followed by the first

exercise (invoking the feeling of heaviness and warmth in the limbs and solar plexus area). In

the first three sessions, the classic AT techniques were included (except for “the heart beats

calmly and regularly”), a total of five exercises, and one exercise for exiting the state of

relaxation. The given AT techniques develop and perfect the athletes' bodily sensations,

concentration abilities, attention retention and relaxation skills, and starting with the fourth

session, another exercise was added – the target formula for the improvement of positive self-

talk, self-confidence and self-belief.

Research results and discussion

Prior to the execution of AT techniques, the average self-assessment scores of the

athletes' well-being on a scale from 1-10 are M= 7.3; SD = 0.5, and M= 7.8; SD =0.6 after the

execution of AT techniques. The analysis of the data obtained from the athletes' well-being

self-assessment before and after the intervention of AT techniques show reliable (p<0.05)

results – the well-being of the athletes improves after the execution of AT techniques (see

Figure 1).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Self-assessment of athletes' well-being on a scale from

1 to 10 before and after AT intervention

Before AT After AT

number of l essons

Figure1 Self-assessment of athletes' well-being on a scale from 1 to 10 before and after AT

intervention (n=13) (created by the authors)

Analysing and summarizing the participants' reflection on the acquisition process of AT

techniques, the obtained results indicate that the athletes managed to relax and feel the

warmth in some part of the body. In turn, the difficulties were experienced with invocation of

warm sensations in certain specific parts of the body, feeling coolness in the forehead and

with concentration on repeating the target formula.

The athletes' self-reflections show that the same techniques that came easy in one

session, can bring some struggles in another session. This suggests that learning AT

techniques requires more systematic practice and it would be advisable to motivate the

athletes to practice them independently on a daily basis in order to strengthen the skills

acquired in the training sessions.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Perfomance (score 1-10) 8 10 8 6 8 6 8 6 4 6 6 6 6

Parti cipant

Self-assessment of athletes' AT performance skills in

points from 1-10

Figure 2 Scoring of athletes' AT skills based on athletes' self-assessment (n=13)

(created by the authors)

When analysing the self-assessment of acquisition of AT techniques, it can be assumed

that AT techniques do not cause difficulties for 7.7% of athletes as they assessed them with

10 points. For 30.8% of respondents the AT techniques came easy but not always as rated

with 8 points. 53.8% of athletes succeed sometimes when performing the exercises and feel

warmth in different parts of the body, relax, concentrate, focus attention on breathing and

repetition of the target formulas, and assessed it with 6 points. In turn, 7.7% of athletes have a

poor AT technique acquisition score, rated with 4 points (see Figure 2).

The analysis of the research data undoubtedly indicates that the implementation of

psychological skills programmes makes a significant contribution to the performance of the

athletes in competitions and to the development of athletes' personalities (Dehghani &

Ebrahimi, 2017; Razali et al., 2017; Vesković et al., 2019). At the same time, studies also

indicate that short-term intervention does not provide reliable results, however, the acquired

knowledge on the benefits of psychological skills programmes and the positive experience

gained in the process of acquiring various mental techniques provide athletes with additional

motivation for further development of psychological skills (Kudlackova, 2011; Bryant, 2017;

Mohebi et al., 2022).

Conclusions

The self-assessments of athletes' well-being indicate that the athletes' well-being

improved after performing of AT techniques, and these changes are statistically reliable

(p<0.05).

The self-assessment results show that athletes reach a different AT acquisition level as a

result of the two-month long autogenous training intervention: 7.7% of athletes do not have

difficulty with AT techniques, for 30.8% AT come easy, but not always, 53.8% of athletes

sometimes manage to feel warmth in different parts of the body, relax, concentrate, focus

attention on breathing and repetition of the target formulas, but for 7.7% of athletes the

acquisition results of AT techniques are poor.

Athletes should continue to develop concentration, relaxation and visualization skills in

order to acquire persistent psychological skills and the ability to apply them in different

situations.

The results of this study show positive trends in the well-being self-assessment of the

respondents after repeated use of AT techniques, but due to the small number of respondents,

the results cannot be generalized. Preferably, the research study should be repeated including

a larger number of respondents.

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