





































Education, Language and Sociology Research 

ISSN 2690-3644 (Print) ISSN 2690-3652 (Online) 

Vol. 5, No. 1, 2024 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elsr 

138 
 

Original Paper 

An Ecocritical Study of Gary Snyder’s Translation of Han Shan 

Poetry 

Hongyue Ding1 

1 School of English Studies, Xi’an International Studies University, Xi’an, China 

 

Received: February 11, 2024     Accepted: February 28, 2024     Online Published: March 17, 2024 

doi:10.22158/elsr.v5n1p138      URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/elsr.v5n1p138 

 

Abstract 

Gary Snyder, a contemporary American ecological poet, is deeply influenced by East-West ecological 

wisdom, forming his own unique ecological philosophy. Gary Snyder’s ecological philosophy influences 

his selection of poems to translate and translation methods in his English translation of Han Shan poetry. 

In turn, Gary Snyder’s translation also promotes the formation of his ecological philosophy to a certain 

extent. Faced with the increasingly serious ecological crisis, this study attempts to examine Gary 

Snyder’s translation of Han Shan poetry from the ecocritical perspective, exploring its ecological 

connotations and values from three aspects: translation selection, translation methods, and translation 

impact. The ecocritical study in this article aims to insert an ecological dimension to the study on English 

translation of poetry, and give advice to the strategy “Chinese Culture Going Global”, especially 

“Chinese Ecological Culture Going Global”. 

Keywords 

ecocriticism, Gary Snyder, English translation of Han Shan poetry 

 

1. Introduction 

1.1 Gary Snyder and Han Shan Poetry 

The poet Han Shan and his poems have long been neglected by the world in the history of Chinese poetry. 

In 1958, when the young American poet Gary Snyder published 24 translated poems of Han Shan in 

Evergreen Review, the poet Han Shan was instantly sought after by the young generation in the United 

States, and Han Shan poetry were more widely disseminated in the United States. 

Gary Snyder is a famous American ecological poet, ecological thinker, translator, Zen believer and 

environmentalist in the 20th century. His outstanding ecological writing has attracted wide attention in 

the American literary circle. Snyder is the most effective American poet to translate Chinese ancient 

poetry after Ezra Pound and Kenneth Rexroth. During his studies at the University of California, Berkeley, 

he began to study classical Chinese literature under the guidance of the famous Sinologist Shih-Hsiang 



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Chen, thus beginning a period of trans-temporal relationship with Han Shan. Snyder has made an 

indelible contribution to the translation and dissemination of Han Shan poetry, and it is precisely because 

he met Snyder that Han Shan was able to “travel” all over the world. Ou Hong (1994, p. 33) once analyzed 

that Snyder’s translation of Han Shan Poetry was the most far-reaching, perhaps because his own actions 

and thoughts at that time were an American Han Shan. Gary Snyder has long been regarded as the Beat 

poet with the greatest creative achievements since the break up of the Beat, and is almost the only Beat 

voice who has a say in “today” (Zhao, 2003, p. 73). 

1.2 Ecocriticism 

As a green research method and perspective, ecocriticism focuses on the relationship between man and 

nature. It has its roots in literary studies as “criticism of the relationship between literature and the natural 

environment” (Glotfelty & Fromrn, 1996, p. 106). Ecocriticism is defined by Scott Slovic as “the 

examination of ecological implications and the relationship between man and nature in literary texts or 

other texts” (2000, p. 160), which makes clear that the scope of ecocriticism is not limited to literature. 

Later, the scope of ecocriticism was extended to cultural criticism. As a kind of literary and cultural 

criticism, ecocriticism has the main task of showing its ontological characteristics and unique value, that 

is, to review human culture and conduct cultural criticism through literature—to explore how human 

thought, culture and social development model affect and even determine human attitude and behavior 

toward nature, and how to lead to environmental deterioration and ecological crisis (Wang, 2002, p. 49). 

We can explore “the relationship between man and nature in all areas of cultural production” (Garrard, 

2012), and obviously, translating is one of them. Translation studies from the perspective of ecocriticism 

use ecological discourse to explain some translated texts, behaviors, phenomena or problems, and explore 

the relationship between human and nature involved in translation. Ecocriticism is the green reading of 

“value reconstruction” of literary or other artistic texts and cultural products, which will inevitably re-

evaluate the texts and re-evaluate the works. Of course, such a re-evaluation and reading does not mean 

denying history, but giving a new interpretation of its contemporary value. 

Chinese traditional culture contains rich ecological thoughts. Under the influence of this culture, Chinese 

ancient poetry undoubtedly has the imprint of ecological poetics. Therefore, it is necessary to apply 

ecocriticism to the study of Chinese poetry translation to explore the relationship between man and nature. 

In the face of the increasingly serious ecological crisis, this paper probes into the foreign translation of 

ancient poetry, analyzes Snyder’s Han Shan poetry from the perspective of ecocriticism, and explores its 

ecological connotation and value from three aspects: translation selection, translation method and 

translation impact. 

 

2. Literature Review 

As a kind of literary and cultural criticism, “ecocriticism” originated in the 1970s, took shape in the mid-

1990s in the United States, and gradually spread and developed in many countries around the world. In 

1978, William Rueckert was the first to use the critical term ecocriticism in his paper Literature and 



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Ecology: Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism, and he was the first to apply ecology 

and concepts related to ecology to literary research (Rueckert, 1978, p. 75). Since then, the concept of 

ecocriticism has been continuously developed and expanded in the United States, with increasing 

prosperity and influence. 

The concept of ecocriticism was born in the background of the increasingly serious global environmental 

crisis, aiming to explore the relationship between literature and natural environment. Therefore, Wang 

Nuo (2009, p. 65) believes that its task is to enrich the ecological meaning of literature and reveal the 

ecological limitations of literature, so as to promote the establishment of ecological literary concepts and 

ecological aesthetic concepts, promote the formation and strengthening of ecological consciousness, and 

promote the construction of ecological civilization. Starting from its connotation, literature, as a result of 

human wisdom, promotes the formation of ecological consciousness and ideas, which is highly 

coincident with the traditional Chinese philosophical concept of “harmony between man and nature”. 

The relationship between heaven and man in Chinese philosophy contains rich and complex contents, 

but its most basic meaning is the relationship between man and nature (Fang, 2003, p. 211). In the view 

of Chinese philosophy, nature is a living organism, with the creation of life as its fundamental mode of 

existence and performance, while life is interdependent and constitutes a harmonious organic system 

(Meng, 2010, p. 7). Therefore, the introduction of traditional Chinese philosophy into ecocriticism has 

theoretical applicability. 

Wang Nuo (2002, p. 52) pointed out that Chinese scholars have unique advantages in the development 

trend of ecocriticism, which provides a rare opportunity for Chinese scholars to enter the world academic 

forum. In the Chinese literature translation, the translation of Han Shan poetry in the United States is 

particularly special. Han Shan was a reclusive poet in the 7th century. His poems showed the joy of 

mountain forests and the idea of transcendence from the world, and embodied the traditional philosophy 

of China. Gary Snyder is an English translator of Chinese literature, and his translation of Tang poetry, 

especially Han Shan poetry, has had a wide and far-reaching influence in the English world, occupying 

an enduring literary classic status. The 24 Cold Mountain poems selected by Gary Snyder are basically 

zen poems about the unity of heaven and man, with profound philosophical colors (Bao, 2014, p. 67). 

Snyder’s translation of Han Shan poetry has both Chinese philosophical characteristics and Western 

influence. However, there are few studies on Snyder’s translation of Han Shan poetry from the 

perspective of ecocriticism. Therefore, with the help of ecocriticism, Snyder’s Han Shan poetry are 

appreciated from the perspective of ecocriticism, which presents a unique translation value. 

 

3. Translation Selection 

Compared with other major translators of Han Shan poetry, such as Arthur Waley, Burton Watson, Red 

Pine, and Robert Henricks, Gary Snyder has chosen to translate the smallest number of Han Shan poems, 

but his influence is probably the most far-reaching. His choice of Han Shan poetry text are “The path to 

Han-shan’s place is laughable”, “In a tangle of cliffs, I chose a place”, “In the mountains it’s cold”, “I 



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spur my horse through the wrecked town”, “I wanted a good place to settle”, “Men ask the way to Cold 

Mountain”, “I settled at Cold Mountain long ago”, “Clambering up the Cold Mountain path”, “Rough 

and dark - the Cold Mountain trail”, “I have lived at Cold Mountain”, “Spring water in the green creek 

is clear”, “In my first thirty years of life”, “I can’t stand these bird songs”, “Cold Mountain has many 

hidden wonders”, “There’s a naked bug at Cold Mountain”, “Cold Mountain is a house”, “If I hide out 

at Cold Mountain”, “Most T’ien-t’ai men”, “Once at Cold Mountain, troubles cease”, “Some critic tried 

to put me down”, “I’ve lived at Cold Mountain - how many autumns”, “On top of Cold Mountain the 

lone round moon”, “My home was at Cold Mountain from the start”, and “When men see Han-shan”. 

It can be seen that most of the 24 Han Shan poems that Snyder selected to translate were poems that 

recited life in the mountains and depicted the natural scenery of the cold rocks. However, in Han Shan 

poetry, Snyder chose not to translate many poems of urging the world, advocating filial piety and a large 

number of common sayings full of fun. 

In 1991, Snyder wrote in the introduction to Beneath a Single Moon: “My interest to creation led me to 

20th century modernism and Chinese poetry; My thinking about nature and wilderness led me to Zen. 

My growing understanding of Zen was also intertwined with the discovery of Chinese landscape painting. 

I studied ancient Chinese with Peter Budeburg and Shih-Hsiang Chen at the University of California, 

Berkeley. From Professor Chen’s lectures, I learned about the poet Han Shan and made some translations” 

(Johnson & Paulenich, 1991, p. 4). It can be seen that Snyder’s choice of Han Shan poems is related to 

his own natural ecological view and his study of Zen. It is Snyder’s natural ecological view that leads 

him to learn Zen and get closer to Han Shan as a poet. 

Snyder’s selection of texts is intentional, and he purposefully selects poems that are in line with his own 

ecological thoughts and poetics. In order to satisfy the young generation’s desire for a different culture 

in American society at the time, Snyder incorporated his own life experience and imagination in the 

mountains of California. Snyder says in the preface to the translation that “this makes him a contemporary 

of Du Fu, Li Bai, Wang Wei, and Bai Juyi. More than 300 of his poems have survived, written in the 

colloquial language: plain and fresh. He and his partner Shi De became the favorite Zen paintings of later 

generations—volumes, brooms, tangled hair and laughter. They became immortals, and today you 

sometimes meet them in America’s slums, orchards, homeless jungles and loggers’ camps.” (Snyder, 

1965, p. 33). It can be seen that Snyder seeks the fit with Han Shan from the poor working people living 

in the bottom society of the United States, and also seeks the fit between himself and Han Shan. 

 

4. Translation Method 

Through close reading of the translated poems, we find that Snyder’s translation method has an ecological 

orientation, showing the ecological poetics features of seeing things in terms of things, and the integration 

of nature and man. It is deeply influenced by the organic view of nature in Eastern poetics, the thought 

of “anatman”, and the ecological concept of “everything as the same”. Although the translation differs 

greatly from the original, it will inevitably be accused of “disloyalty”, but from the perspective of 



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ecocriticism, it has unique ecological connotation and significance. On this point, we can learn from the 

relevant statements of “the subjectivity of human being” and “the agency of material” in ecocriticism. 

4.1 Aesthetics of Relinquishment 

Anthropocentrism is an ideological system fundamentally opposed to ecologism, and it is an anti-

ecological idea that ecocriticism and the whole ecological trend of thought should be criticized first. 

Dehumanization requires us to reflect on human subjectivity and subvert the rule logic of “natural 

instrumentalism” and “human possessing nature” in the usual thinking. In response to this, eco-critic 

Buell pointed out the “aesthetics of relinquishment” in environmental writing, the most fundamental 

manifestation of which is the abandonment of the desire to rule oneself and the abandonment of human 

spiritual and physical alienation from nature (Buell, 1995, p. 143), that is, the abandonment of human 

subjectivity. Since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment in the West, primitive pantheism and animism 

have been suppressed by humanistic reason, capitalized “Man” has become the only subject in literature 

and art, and the subjectivity of nature has been dispelled. The “aesthetics of relinquishment” is to set the 

arrogant “Man” back to nature in literature and art, and let him re-experience the emotions of an ordinary 

member in the ever-changing nature, so as to realize the limitations of himself and return to nature with 

reverence. 

Original Text: 杳杳寒山道，落落冷涧滨。 

啾啾常有鸟，寂寂更无人。 

淅淅风吹面，纷纷雪积身。 

朝朝不见日，岁岁不知春。 

Translation: Rough and dark—the Cold Mountain trail, 

Sharp cobbles—the icy creek bank. 

Yammering, chirping—always birds, 

Bleak, alone, not even a lone hiker. 

Whip, whip—the wind slaps my face, 

Whirled and tumbled—snow piles on my back. 

Morning after morning, I don’t see the sun, 

Year after year, not a sign of spring. 

The original poem presents to the reader a scene of deep silence, cold, and rare human habitation, with a 

strong sense of picture. Snyder uses visual processing method to conceptualize the picture in his mind, 

reproduce the scene in the translation, and also rewrite it to a certain extent. For example, Snyder chose 

to translate the Han Shan poetry in free style, and re-created the sentence pattern, omitted the rhyme of 

the original poem, and even omitted the first connectives and predicate verbs in many places. Start with 

an adjective or participle (rough, dark, bleak, alone, yammering, chirping, whirled, tumbled), each image 

is preceded by an adjective describing its state, multiple images are juxtaposing, which undoubtedly 

caters to the American tradition of image juxtaposition and open and free poetics created since the new 

poetry movement and readers’ aesthetic habits inherited from it. 



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The reduplicated word “杳杳” in the original poem refers to darkness, which has been translated into 

“rough and dark”; “落落” refers to the appearance of silence and cold, which has been translated into 

“sharp cobbles”; and “淅淅” is an onomatopoietic word referring to the wind, which has been translated 

into “the wind slaps my face”, with creative changes. When the translator presents the picture of the 

original poem in his mind, he adds his own life experience, then the cold and quiet picture of the cold 

mountain in the ancient poem will add the familiar features of the rugged western mountains of the United 

States. The last sentence is the punchline, “朝朝不见日，岁岁不知春”. The translator reproduces the 

“intuitive environment” of the poem by literal translation, expressing the poet’s indifferent mood of being 

detached from the world and unaware of the cold and hot days in the world. While creatively rewriting 

the artistic conception of the original poem, the inner spirit expressed by the poem is also obvious. 

4.2 Emphasis of Agency 

The “aesthetics of relinquishment” aims at dispelling the human subjectivity in the text, while the non-

human nature subjectivity is highlighted, thus bringing about the rise of the “power of material” in 

ecocriticism. The new materialism feeds the rhetoric of material ecocriticism, emphasizing that “agency” 

is not unique to human beings, but is shared by material, and that both human and non-human nature are 

material (Tang, 2016, p. 116). “Agency” generally means the ability to take action. Cai Zhenxing (2019, 

p. 86) believes that material agency in ecological discourse refers more to a relationship in which people 

and others refer to and influence each other. The theory of “agency” changes the subjectivity of man into 

the intersubjectivity of man and nature, dispelling the idea of dualism from the root and counters 

anthropocentrism. 

In describing the “agency” of material, material eco-critics support the anthropomorphism approach to 

nature, because while demonstrating the diversity of life, it also allows us to recognize the commonalities 

of different physical forms in nature and culture, thus allowing us to listen to the voices of non-human 

nature and to feel the communion of material elements between human and non-human nature. Snyder 

intended to personify nature in his translations, such as “A hill of pines hums in the wind” in poem 1, 

“Woods in the dark ravines spitting mist’ in poem 3, “The pine sings, but there’s no wind” in poem 8, 

and so on. Of course, in the above cases, the original poem can also be regarded as using 

anthropomorphism, and the translator is only faithfully translating it. 

However, Snyder’s preference for anthropomorphism can be more clearly demonstrated by some 

translations that do not use anthropomorphism in the original text. For example, in the English translation 

of Han Shan Poem No. 9, “淅淅风吹面” is translated as “Whip, whip - the wind slaps my face”, and the 

original “风吹面” is personalized as “wind slaps my face”. It is precisely because of this personification 

that Zhong Ling points out that the words chosen in Snyder’s translation are “far stronger and bolder than 

the original” and are filled with Snyder’s own experience of life in the mountains of North America 

(Zhong, 1995, p. 25). 

For another example, in “The path to Han-shan’s place is laughable”, the poet gives an objective 

description of the rugged and difficult road in the mountains. The fifth sentence of the original poem “泣



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露千般草” is translated as “A thousand grasses bend with dew”, adding the anthropomorphic action 

image “bend”, which integrates the poet’s strong and repressed feelings in the description of the scenery. 

In contrast, the original poem only describes the dew on the grass like tears, and does not mean that the 

grass is bent by the dew. It can be seen that “bend” has the translator’s subjective feelings. 

In “Clambering up the Cold Mountain path”, the first six sentences of the original poem describe a series 

of images such as streams, grass, moss, pines, etc., and then lament how few people can go beyond the 

world, expressing the poet’s detached and open mind. The third sentence “溪长石磊磊” is translated as 

“The long gorge choked with scree and boulders”. The translated poem adds the anthropomorphic action 

image “choked”. One can feel Snyder’s strong reaction of being suffocated by the imprisonment of 

American thought at that time, obviously with strong subjective emotions. 

 

5. Translation Impact 

For Snyder, translation and his ecological thought show a close relationship that influences and constructs 

each other. His ecological philosophy influenced his translation of Han Shan poetry into English, and 

made his translated poems present unique meanings and values, which in turn contributed to the 

construction of his complex and diversified ecological philosophy. 

Snyder has admitted that he encountered Chinese poetry “through translation” when he was 19 years old, 

and according to relevant sources, Chinese poetry here is referring to Han Shan poetry. The 24 Cold 

Mountain poems he translated were popular in the United States, and Han Shan, a lonely poet, became 

as famous as Li Bai, Du Fu and Bai Juyi in the United States. Taking this as an opportunity, Snyder began 

to study Zen, the belief of Han Shan, to explore the source of the spiritual power of the Han Shan, and 

traveled to East Asia to learn Zen in the 1950s and 1960s. After returning to China, Snyder actively 

participated in the environmental protection movement and promoted the concept of ecological 

civilization, becoming the standard-bearer of ecological literature in the United States. It can be seen that 

Han Shan poetry has triggered and guided Snyder to change his concept of nature and finally join the 

ecological movement. 

In the winter of 1981, when the Chinese scholar Zhao Yiheng asked Snyder about the extent of Chinese 

culture’s influence on him, Snyder answered without hesitation: “In the 1950s and 1960s, it was 80 

percent”, and this was the period when Snyder translated Han Shan poetry and then tried to explore the 

inner world of Han Shan. Therefore, we have reason to believe that it is precisely under the catalyst of 

Han Shan poetry that Snyder firmly believes in the harmonious coexistence between man and nature, and 

vigorously criticizes the anthropocentrism of traditional Western culture, replacing it with the ecological 

civilization of harmonious coexistence between man and nature. 

Snyder has a deep admiration for classical Chinese culture. In the interpretation of his works, Snyder 

skillfully combines his personal views with Chinese Zen and the artistic conception of Chinese classical 

poetry, thus making his writing style unique and eye-catching in the American poetry circle.  



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Snyder translates “人问寒山道，寒山路不通” into “Men ask the way to Cold Mountain, Cold Mountain: 

there’s no through trail.” The “道” of Han Shan not only refers to the “road” of surface meaning, but also 

contains the “way” of deep meaning. Snyder replaces concrete words such as “path” and “trail” with 

“way” in the translated language, thus conveying the mystery and profoundness of the original “道” to 

the greatest extent, but it is not without regret. According to Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching, “Tao can be Tao, 

but it is very Tao”. “Tao” is unspeakable, and what is said is not Tao. Similarly, the Zen accumulation in 

Tao is also difficult to understand. Snyder integrated his Zen feelings into his translation, so that Han 

Shan poetry manifested its unique style and charm in the translation and dissemination process, which 

had a positive impact on the communication of Chinese culture to the outside world. 

 

6. Conclusion 

The academic community has been debating the fidelity and style of eco-poet Gary Snyder’s “ecological” 

poetry translation, but the author believes that Snyder has been immersed in Chinese culture for decades, 

has in-depth research and understanding of Chinese poetry, and many distortions and mistranlations are 

intentional by him. Hu Anjiang, a famous scholar, once praised Snyder as a “thoughtful” cultural envoy 

who “creatively ‘misread’ Han Shan on the basis of his own country’s cultural model and poetic tradition, 

so that Han Shan poetry, as an “other’, obtained a legal identity in the host country and became a classic 

in its literary system” (Hu, 2005, p. 67). It can be seen that although Snyder’s translated poems has the 

elements of rewriting and creation, they promote the rebirth and spread of the natural poetics and 

ecological wisdom of Chinese ancient poetry in the English-speaking world. 

 

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