





































Education, Language and Sociology Research 

ISSN 2690-3644 (Print) ISSN 2690-3652 (Online) 

Vol. 5, No. 4, 2024 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/elsr 

85 
 

Original Paper 

The Translator’s Dilemma: Howard Goldblatt’s Translation 

Strategies in “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” 

Bofeng Li1 

1 Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan, China 

 

Received: October 2, 2024   Accepted: October 25, 2024    Online Published: November 11, 2024 

doi:10.22158/elsr.v5n4p85        URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/elsr.v5n4p85 

 

Abstract 

Since the 21st century, under the backdrop of the “going global” strategy of Chinese culture, the 

international influence of Chinese literary works has been growing. Among them, Howard Goldblatt’s 

translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” is an outstanding representative of the English 

translation of contemporary Chinese literature. The translator Howard Goldblatt’s masterful translation 

of the original work’s national culture, linguistic form, and special structure is key to the success of the 

translation in overseas markets. This paper studies specific translation examples from Goldblatt’s 

English version of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” and analyzes the translator’s translation 

strategies from the perspective of Polysystem Theory. It also explores the reasons from several angles, 

including the translating subject, content, strategy, and sponsors. The study finds that the translator 

Howard Goldblatt has seized the opportunity of Chinese culture “going global” and skillfully combined 

domestication and foreignization in the translation process of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” 

effectively conveying Chinese cultural elements to readers while considering their reading interests and 

cultural backgrounds, thus making the translation more appealing to target language readers and 

promoting its effective overseas dissemination. 

Keywords 

Polysystem Theory, Howard Goldblatt, “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” English Translation, 

Translation Strategies 

 

1. Introduction 

“Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” is one of the representative works of Chinese writer Mo Yan, a 

novel that showcases the tremendous social and historical changes in China from the 1950s to the early 

21st century. In 2012, Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the first Chinese 

writer to receive this prestigious honor. “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” is a structurally complex, 



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linguistically rich, and strongly regional work, the translation of which is a huge challenge. The English 

translation by American translator Howard Goldblatt is considered exquisite and has the greatest 

influence. As “the best translator of contemporary Chinese literature in the English-speaking world” 

(Julia, 2006, p. 196), Goldblatt is one of the most important disseminators of Mo Yan’s works in the 

English-speaking world. 

Since the release of the English translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out,” this translated work 

has attracted widespread attention from the academic community and has sparked numerous scholars to 

discuss from perspectives such as translator subjectivity, rhetoric, ecological translation studies, and 

postcolonialism. The field of translation studies has taken a cultural turn at the end of the twentieth 

century, which is of great significance in the theoretical research and development process of translation 

studies. As Xu Jun said: The increasing awakening of translational cultural consciousness and the gradual 

establishment of translational cultural views have pushed translation studies to new heights and depths, 

resulting in a number of important outcomes. (Xu, 2002, p. 223) In the novel “Life and Death Are 

Wearing Me Out” Mo Yan closely links elements of magical realism with Chinese cultural details. 

Translator Howard Goldblatt, through the precision and creativity of his translation, enables English 

readers to understand and appreciate this work. 

Polysystem Theory, introduced by Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar in the early 1970s and 1980s, is 

applicable to translation studies and has constructed a framework for understanding translation as an 

activity within cultural and literary systems. The theory refers to a multi-layered ensemble composed of 

various interconnected factors, which change and evolve through their interactions (Liu, 2009, p. 330). 

For Even-Zohar, a polysystem can be viewed as a heterogeneous, open structure. Thus, it is not a single 

system but a polysystem, composed of several different systems that intersect, partially overlap, offer 

different options at the same time, are interdependent, and operate as an organized whole (Even-Zohar, 

2000, p. 20). Even-Zohar also proposes three pairs of opposing concepts that sustain the operation of this 

system: the opposition between canonized and non-canonized, the opposition between center and 

periphery, and the opposition between primary and secondary activities (Liao, 2004, p. 49). These 

relationships are not inherently existent but are artificially constructed by “sociocultural” and 

“ideological” factors and can transform into one another (Munday, 2008, p. 51). Even-Zohar particularly 

emphasizes the inclusion of translated literature within the literary polysystem, arguing that it has a 

significant impact and role in the synchronic and diachronic development of specific literatures (Edwin, 

2001, p. 116). Placing translated literature in its corresponding historical and cultural context to study the 

translator’s strategies is a fundamental approach of Polysystem Theory in translation studies. The theory 

posits that a system’s behavior is related to its position within the polysystem. For instance, the position 

of translated literature within the polysystem can influence the translator’s strategies. Even-Zohar 

suggests that when translated literature is at the center, it often participates in creation, even breaking the 

host country’s traditional norms, focusing the translation strategy on “adequacy”; whereas when 



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translated literature is at the periphery, it often follows established patterns in the host country’s literature, 

focusing the translation strategy on “acceptability” (Even-Zohar, 2002, p. 19). 

This paper will analyze Howard Goldblatt’s translation strategies for “Life and Death Are Wearing Me 

Out” from three aspects: national cultural characteristics, linguistic forms, and special structures, 

combined with specific examples from the English translation. It will also analyze the English translation 

process of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” from the perspective of Polysystem Theory. Finally, it 

will analyze the successful factors of the English translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” 

from several angles of interest to Polysystem Theory, including the translating subject, content, strategy, 

and sponsors. 

 

2. Everything Starts with the Reader: A Study of the Translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing 

Me Out” from the Perspective of Polysystem Theory 

2.1 Local Flavor: The Selection and Omission of National Cultural Characteristics 

“Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” is a lengthy masterpiece by the renowned Chinese author Mo Yan. 

The novel, centered around the process of the wrongfully deceased landlord Ximen Niao experiencing 

the six realms of reincarnation, tells a story of joy and sorrow that spans over fifty years in the Northeast 

Township of Gaomi City, Shandong Province. It incorporates the writing technique of magical realism, 

presenting to readers a complex, noisy, and tribulation-ridden narrative of rural China that spans half a 

century and involves the fates of several generations. The renowned American Sinologist and chief 

translator of contemporary Chinese literature, Howard Goldblatt, published the English translation of 

“Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” in 2008, which has made an outstanding contribution to the 

international dissemination of Chinese literature. Indeed, there is a significant cultural gap between the 

plot, character relationships, and usage of words and allusions in Mo Yan’s novel and the cultural 

background of readers in the English-speaking world. As a Sinologist who is well-versed in Chinese 

culture, Howard Goldblatt was influenced by the ideological and poetic concepts of the target language 

culture as well as the sponsors in his translation work, while also demonstrating the passion and 

autonomy of a translator with a strong sense of responsibility. He effectively resolved the contradictions 

between the source language culture and the target language culture in the translation, allowing the 

translated work to be accepted by readers from different cultural backgrounds. In this section, the paper 

will analyze Howard Goldblatt’s translation strategies from three aspects: the translation of personal 

names, the translation of pronouns, and the translation of culture-loaded words. 

Mo Yan’s “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” is renowned for its vast structure and vivid narration, 

as well as its pungent and dramatic linguistic style, long considered a “feast of vocabulary.” The book 

encompasses dialects, colloquialisms, idioms, and antithetical phrases, as well as onomatopoeic words 

among various rhetorical techniques. In particular, the extensive use of vulgar expressions, pejorative 

terms, archaic Chinese usages, and contemporary popular expressions significantly influence the unique 

linguistic style of the novel, but all these present additional challenges for its translation. In Howard 



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Goldblatt’s English translation, he faithfully reproduces the humor, satire, and rich linguistic style of the 

original text, but there is a conscious use of domesticating, foreignizing, and hybrid translation methods 

on the linguistic level. This is because, as a translator, he needs to combine his own “writing” style with 

consideration for the reading preferences and acceptance of the target readers. 

Firstly, the novel involves a multitude of characters, including peasants, intellectuals, women from the 

old society, and even many nicknames for animals. Most of the names used have a distinct temporal mark, 

reflecting the era’s background and the various relationships between people, posing a certain difficulty 

for translation. 

 

Table 1. Example (5) 

Example Original Translation 

1 蓝脸 Lan Lian(Blue Face) 

2 蓝解放 Lan Jiefang 

3 黄瞳 Huang Tong 

4 黄互助 Huang Huzhu 

5 黄合作 Huang Hezuo 

 

In Table 1, Lan Lian, known as the “Blue Face,” is one of the most important characters in the novel. He 

was originally a cottier farmer for the landlord Ximen Nao and continued to work alone after liberation, 

becoming the only single household farmer in all of China who persisted to the end. Lan Lian is a 

hardworking and simple farmer who only knows how to cultivate and make a living on the land. After 

the land reform, he married the landlord’s concubine, Yingchun. In Peking Opera, the blue facial makeup 

represents unyielding, brave, and loyal characters, and the image of this character in the book is similar 

to the image represented by the “blue face” characters in Peking Opera. “Colors are used to distinguish 

the identities of different characters” (Feng, 2009, p. 80). Howard Goldblatt, in the main character list at 

the beginning of the novel, translates this character as “Lan Lian (Blue Face),” which not only allows 

Western readers to understand the pronunciation of the main characters in Chinese but also highlights the 

differences between Chinese pinyin and English phonetics, bringing Western readers closer. At the same 

time, the translation “(Blue Face)” meets the needs of readers who have some understanding of Chinese 

culture and hope to read more authentic Chinese literary works. In the main text, the character’s name is 

simply translated as “Lan Lian,” making the translation more coherent and smooth, avoiding the impact 

on the reading experience caused by explanatory and annotative translation methods. 

In Example 2, Lan Jiefang is the child of Lan Lian and Yingchun. His life is full of ups and downs. At 

several critical junctures in the novel, he chooses to follow his heart, demonstrating the humanistic 

brilliance of loving life and is the epitome of idealism in this book. Howard Goldblatt translates it as 

“Lan Jiefang,” using a simple transliteration technique that avoids the profound meaning of the word 



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“Jiefang” in this character’s name: it not only indicates the character’s birth date (the evening of January 

1, 1950) but also reflects the logic of ordinary peasant families naming their children at that time, a 

unique social phenomenon of that era. The same translation method is also reflected in Examples 3 and 

4, where Goldblatt translates Huang Huzhu as “Huang Huzhu” and Huang Hezuo as “Huang Hezuo.” 

This translation method omits the era background reflected in the names, reducing the reading threshold 

and comprehension difficulty for the target language readers, and improving the acceptability of the 

translation. 

In Example 3, Huang Tong is a negative character in the work. Mo Yan, through the description of Huang 

Tong’s various actions across the entire timeline, depicts a character who is opportunistic, bullying the 

weak, lazy and gluttonous, and living off others’ labor. In Chinese culture, there is a way of giving people 

insulting and discriminatory nicknames or names by exaggerating their physical defects and certain 

prominent features to belittle and mock them. Mo Yan’s naming of this character as Huang Tong, to some 

extent, adopts this method, implying contempt and disdain for the character. Howard Goldblatt translates 

Huang Tong as “Huang Tong,” using the same transliteration method, which reduces the reading 

difficulty for readers of the target language. Moreover, in modern Chinese, such insulting names are 

considered extremely disrespectful and discriminatory, and are unacceptable in modern society. The 

translator’s approach is undoubtedly modern in today’s linguistic context. 

Secondly, the novel involves a multitude of personal pronouns, including many complex local 

expressions, dialects, and colloquialisms. The language in the novel “Life and Death Are Wearing Me 

Out” has a distinct characteristic of regionalism (Wang, 2012, p. 65). There are quite a few differences 

in the structure of interpersonal and family relationships between Chinese and Western societies, 

especially between Chinese and English cultures. These differences are clearly reflected in language 

expression, particularly in the use of personal pronouns. Chinese personal pronouns place great emphasis 

on expressing the hierarchy of social relationships and the closeness or distance between people, often 

using specific terms of address rather than general “he” or “she.” In contrast, English tends to be simpler 

when referring to family members, using common terms without distinguishing between generations or 

degrees of closeness. Additionally, in the use of third-person pronouns, English mainly relies on gender 

and number to differentiate. In summary, Chinese personal pronouns reflect the deep recognition of 

family relationships and social hierarchy in Chinese culture, while English expresses a simpler and more 

egalitarian communication style characteristic of Western culture. These differences are not only 

reflected in language but also profoundly influence the different manifestations of social interaction, 

family values, and social structure in the two cultures. The differences in personal pronouns between 

Chinese and English are even more complex in “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out,” posing a certain 

challenge to the translator Howard Goldblatt. 

 

 

 



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Table 2. Example (18) 

Example Original Translation 

6 老嫂子，大喜了！(莫言, 

2012: 299) 

How happy you must be!( Goldblatt, 2012: 299) 

7 老嫂子，怎么没看到蓝大

哥呢？(莫言, 2012: 299) 

Why isn’t Lan Lian here?,ma’ma?( Goldblatt, 2012: 299) 

8 嫌老娘迷人，那你就去弄

瓶镪水，给老娘点上一脸

麻子(莫言, 2012: 27) 

If you are afraid of I am too attractive to men,go get some 

sulfuric acid and ruin my face.( Goldblatt, 2012: 29) 

9 你这是拿老娘开涮呢，一

百元就想打发我！(莫言, 

2012: 564) 

“You no-account prick!”she cursed.”You’re not getting 

away that easy,not for a measly hundred yuan!”( Goldblatt, 

2012: 533) 

10 

 

兴盛烧酒锅的掌柜田贵

(莫言, 2012: 31, 192) 

Tian Gui,the onetime manager of a flourishing liquor 

business( Goldblatt, 2012: 33) 

11 掌柜的，你迟早要败在这

个妖精手里。(莫言, 2012: 

40) 

You’re the head of the household,she said angrily,but one 

of these days that witch is going to be your 

undoing!( Goldblatt, 2012: 43) 

12 掌柜的，别跟人家叫板。

(莫言, 2012: 62) 

You’re the man of the house,but why must you always 

sing a different tune than the others?( Goldblatt, 2012: 69) 

13 老掌柜的心地良善，怎么

能生出这么一个歹毒的

儿子呢？ ( 莫言 , 2012: 

183) 

“How,” he wondered, “could the landlord, a good and 

decent man, sire an evil son like that?”( Goldblatt, 2012: 

201) 

14 烧酒锅的掌柜田贵(莫言, 

2012: 192) 

Tian Gui,who had run the distillery.( Goldblatt, 2012: 

209) 

15 “问问老掌柜的去吧。”(莫

言, 2012: 522) 

“Go ask the old gentleman.”( Goldblatt, 2012: 491) 

16 “老掌柜的” 许大爷说(莫

言, 2012: 522) 

“Sir, ” Master Xu said( Goldblatt, 2012: 491) 

17 老掌柜的，你确实是冤死

的啊！(莫言, 2012: 537) 

Old Master, you shouldn’t have died the way you 

did( Goldblatt, 2012: 503) 

18 “掌柜的，你也去吧。”(莫

言, 2012: 543) 

“You can go too, Master. ”( Goldblatt, 2012: 510) 

 

All the examples mentioned are Chinese terms of address found in the novel. Since there are no 

equivalent expressions in English, from the perspective of polysystems theory, Howard Goldblatt mostly 



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adopts a domestication strategy in translation, applying established patterns of address from his own 

country, focusing on the acceptability of the translated text. 

In Chinese, the term “老嫂子” has several different uses, and who it specifically refers to depends on the 

context and regional culture. In traditional northern dialects, “老嫂子” is often used to address someone 

else’s wife, especially a married woman who is older or of a higher generation than oneself. The character 

“老” here carries a sense of affection and respect, and does not necessarily indicate age. In some social 

contexts, “老嫂子” might also be used as a casual, even somewhat affectionate term for “elderly women,” 

similar to colloquial expressions like “big sister” or “auntie.” There is no direct equivalent in English that 

can accurately correspond to the usage of “老嫂子” Within specific communities, there might be similar 

affectionate terms among acquaintances, but these are related to the culture and habits of the community 

and are not expressions commonly used in English. In Table 2, Goldblatt simply translates “老嫂子”as 

“you,” using a domesticating translation method that indicates only the personal relationship in the 

dialogue and omits the speaker’s cheerful tone present in the source language. Subsequently, in Example 

7, the translator creatively uses the term “ma’ma,” expressing the intimate relationship between the two 

individuals. 

The term “老娘” in Chinese has a unique usage and carries certain emotional connotations, which are 

closely related to the context and the person it refers to. Some women might use “老娘” as a self-

reference, expressing confidence, self-reliance, or even with a tone of self-mockery or deliberate 

exaggeration. In this context, “老娘” conveys a strong sense of self-identification. There is no direct 

equivalent in English for the term “老娘.” In English, women might use “I” to refer to themselves. Of 

course, in informal or specific situations, they might use expressions like “this girl” or “yours truly” to 

convey independence or confidence in a self-deprecating or exaggerated context. To express emotions 

and attitudes similar to “老娘,” English speakers might rely more on context and tone to convey the 

message. Therefore, when translating or finding equivalent expressions in English, it is necessary to adapt 

according to the specific context and tone. In Example 8, Howard Goldblatt continues to adopt a 

foreignizing translation strategy, only translating the personal relationship and omitting the speaker’s 

strong sense of pride in the original language. In Example 9, the translator creatively uses the term 

“ma’ma,” expressing the intimate relationship between the two people, avoiding the untranslatability 

caused by cultural differences. 

In the novel “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out,” the term “掌柜” is one of the most frequently used 

terms of address, with over thirty occurrences throughout the book, generally used to refer to respected 

middle-aged and elderly male figures. In Chinese, “掌柜” often refers to the person in charge or manager 

of a shop, inn, restaurant, or similar commercial establishment. For instance, the novel mentions “the 

shopkeeper of the distillery, Tian Gui” twice (Mo, p. 31, p. 192), and in these instances, Howard Goldblatt 

translates it as “manager of a flourishing liquor business” (Goldblatt, p. 33) and “who had run the 

distillery” (Goldblatt, p. 209). Sometimes, the character “old” is added before the term to express respect 

for the other party’s rich experience and seniority, a usage more common in dialects. For example, in this 



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novel, the term is mainly used among family members as a respectful address for husbands, fathers, and 

other venerable men. The characters Ximen Nao and Lan Lian best fit the aforementioned criteria. In 

Table 11, “Shopkeeper, you will sooner or later be ruined by this demoness.” (Mo, 2012, p. 40), the term 

“shopkeeper” here expresses Bai’s reminder to Ximen Nao to be cautious when taking concubines, 

emphasizing family values and serving as an admonition. Goldblatt emphasizes this meaning here, 

translating it as “You’ re the head of the household” (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 43), considering the cultural 

background of the target language readers and using a domesticating method to convey the implied 

meaning of the characters in the text. The same approach is seen in Table 12, “掌柜的，你迟早要败在

这个妖精手里。” (Mo, 2012, p. 62), which describes a time in the 1950s when China implemented the 

agricultural production cooperative system in rural areas, but Lan Lian insisted on refusing to join and 

continued to work alone. Faced with her husband’s behavior against the trend, Yingchun reminds him to 

prioritize the family’s interests. Here, Goldblatt translates it as “the man of the house” (Goldblatt, 2012, 

p. 69), conveying the author’s profound meaning and compensating for the lack of “collective 

consciousness” culture in the target language readers. Even more so, Goldblatt reflects the characteristics 

of the times through different translations of the term “掌柜” as seen in Examples 13, 17, and 18, all of 

which are Lan Lian’s addresses to Ximen Nao. “老掌柜的心地良善，怎么能生出这么一个歹毒的儿

子呢？” (Mo, 2012, p. 183), “老掌柜的，你确实是冤死的啊！” (Mo, 2012, p. 537), “掌柜的，你也

去吧。” (Mo Yan, 2012, p. 543). In the work, Lan Lian is a stubborn farmer who, in turbulent times, 

adheres to his own values. When addressing the former landlord Ximen Nao, he always includes respect 

and gratitude towards Ximen Nao. The three translations are respectively “How,” he wondered, “could 

the landlord, a good and decent man, sire an evil son like that?” (Goldblatt, p. 201), “Old Master, you 

shouldn’t have died the way you did.” (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 503), “You can go too, Master.” (Goldblatt, 

2012, p. 510). First, “landlord” simply points out Ximen Nao’s identity as a landlord, but because he had 

a good local reputation and never oppressed farmers, expressing regret for his death due to the tide of the 

times. Secondly, “master” simply points out the relationship between Ximen Nao and Lan Lian as 

landlord and tenant at that time, on the one hand, indicating Lan Lian’s missing for Ximen Nao, and on 

the other hand, also reflecting Ximen Nao’s good treatment of his tenants, further deepening the character 

images of both parties. However, in Examples 15 and 16, “问问老掌柜的去吧。” (Mo, 2012, p. 522) 

“老掌柜的，” Uncle Xu said (Mo, 2012, p. 522), the translator translates these two “shopkeepers” as 

“Go ask the old gentleman.” (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 491), “Sir, Master Xu said” (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 491). 

Here, it is the address of others to Lan Lian, and the story has advanced to the 1990s. The words “old 

gentleman” and “sir” only indicate respect without any other implications.  

Culture-loaded words are a concept in linguistics and translation studies that refers to terms which have 

rich, special, or unique meanings within a specific culture and context. These words are often difficult to 

translate directly into other cultural contexts because they carry a wealth of background knowledge, 

history, beliefs, customs, and values associated with the original culture. Due to its unique regional 

characteristics and Mo Yan’s writing style, the work “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” contains a 



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large number of Chinese culture-loaded words. According to Eugene Nida’s definition and classification 

of culture in translation, the culture-loaded words in the novel can be divided into material culture-loaded 

words, religious culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, and 

ecological culture-loaded words (Nida, p. 91). 

From the perspective of polysystems theory, dealing with culture-loaded words in the translation process 

is a challenge because a simple literal translation hardly conveys the deep meanings of the original text. 

Translators usually need to find corresponding or similar concepts in the target language culture, or 

convey the cultural connotations of the original text to readers through annotations and explanations. 

This approach not only tests the translator’s deep understanding of both cultures but also requires the 

skill to creatively find solutions. 

Table 19: 要是我的驴有个三长两短，咱们的事就没完没了。(Mo, 2012, p. 66) 

Translation: If anything happens to my donkey because of this, you’ll pay, and pay dearly. (Goldblatt, 

2012, p. 73) 

Polysystem theory posits that translation is not merely a correlation between source and target language 

texts, but rather an interaction involving multiple subsystems such as culture, history, and society. The 

Chinese idiom “三长两短” is primarily used to describe unexpected accidents, misfortunes, or life-

threatening situations, often serving as an euphemism for death or significant unfortunate events. This 

idiom originates from ancient funeral customs. In English, there are similar expressions, such as “kick 

the bucket.” The translator did not opt for this translation, demonstrating that the strategy is a specific 

manifestation of finding the best “secondary pattern” for foreign texts within the target literary system. 

The translator rendered “三长两短” as “If anything happens to my donkey,” which transforms the 

implicit worry and potential consequences in the original text into a more explicit and clear statement. 

This phrase is highly understandable in the English context and adopts a structure more in line with 

English expression habits. By omitting the culturally specific elements of the idiom, the translation 

focuses on the core meaning, which is the concern for potential unfortunate events that could happen to 

the donkey. The target readers are expected to understand the basic emotions and intentions of the original 

text without needing an in-depth understanding of culturally specific idioms. The translation not only 

conveys the potential threat but also strengthens the tone of the original text by emphasizing the severity 

of the consequences (“you’ll pay, and pay dearly”), making it more persuasive in the target language. 

Within the framework of polysystem theory, this translation successfully conveys the emotions and tone 

of the original text and ensures that the audience in the target culture can understand and feel the same 

message. 

Polysystem theory proposes considerations for many factors in the translation process, including the 

various relationships between source and target texts, as well as the expectations of readers, social and 

cultural customs, and literary values in the target culture. The translation of the aforementioned terms 

fully considers the acceptability and readability in the target culture, transforming the cultural 

characteristics and artistic conception of Chinese into forms that English readers can understand and 



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accept through appropriate translation strategies. These translations not only achieve conversion at the 

linguistic level but also, while preserving the emotional hues and cultural features of the original text as 

much as possible, cater to the expectations of the target cultural environment. Therefore, it can be said 

that these translations are successful and effective. 

2.2 Seeking Common Ground While Resolving Differences: Adaptation and Reconstruction of Linguistic 

Forms 

There is a significant difference in expression between English and Chinese. For instance, Chinese 

emphasizes parataxis, where clauses are juxtaposed without explicit subordination, while English 

highlights hypotaxi (Xu, 2014, p. 135), which involves a clear subordination of clauses; Chinese stresses 

dynamic characteristics, whereas English accentuates rational and static features (Ge & Ma, 2023, p. 57); 

Chinese often employs short sentences, while English favors long ones. The following analysis of 

specific examples from the translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” will elucidate the 

particular translation strategies adopted by Howard Goldblatt under the perspective of polysystems theory. 

Example 20: 我继续喊叫着，话语重复，一圈圈轮回。阎王与身边的判官低声交谈几句，然后一

拍惊堂木，说:”好了西门闹，知道你是冤枉的。世界上许多人该死，但却不死；许多人不该死，

偏偏死了。这是本殿也无法改变的现实。现在本殿法外开恩，放你生还。” (Mo, 2012, p. 4) 

Translation: So I shouted, repeating myself, the same thing over and over, until one of the judges leaned 

over and shispered someting in Lord Yama’s ear. He banged his gavel to silence the hall. “All right, 

Ximen Nao, we accept your claim of innocence. Many people in that would who deserve to die somehow 

live on while those who deserve to live die off. Those are facts about which this throne can do nothing. 

So I will be merciful and send you back.” (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 5) 

This translation demonstrates the strategies adopted by the translator in dealing with the cultural and 

linguistic differences between Chinese and English: First, the translator adapts to the target language’s 

conventions, and in the translation, “一圈圈轮回” is rendered as “the same thing over and over,” which 

aligns with the habitual use of emphasis through repetition in English. This strategy ensures that the 

original intent is clearly conveyed in the target language while avoiding the confusion that a literal 

translation might cause. Second, the expression “一拍惊堂木” may be too unfamiliar to English readers 

who are not acquainted with Chinese culture; the translator transforms it into “He banged his gavel to 

silence the hall,” clarifying that “一拍惊堂木” is used to command attention or announce a verdict. Third, 

“阎王与身边的判官” becomes “Lord Yama and one of the judges” in the translation. Here, “阎王” is 

handled as “Lord Yama,” preserving a unique entity of Chinese culture while making it more 

comprehensible to readers from the target culture through the use of “Lord.” Meanwhile, “判官” is 

replaced with “judge,” which is in line with Western judicial terminology. Lastly, as there is no equivalent 

expression to “法外开恩” in English, the translator adds “So I will be merciful and send you back” to 

elucidate Lord Yama’s decision. By including “merciful” and “send you back,” the motive and outcome 

of the decision are made more explicit. The translator adopts adaptive strategies in dealing with the 

linguistic and cultural differences between Chinese and English in this paragraph, ensuring the fluency 



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and clarity of the translation in the target language while striving to retain the cultural style and 

information of the original text. These translation strategies are all based on an understanding of the 

expected habits and acceptance capabilities of readers in the target culture from the perspective of 

polysystems theory. 

Example 21: 看，看，看……那个拐着一双小脚、提着半筐土、歪着身子、三步一歇、五步一停

的女人，就是我西门闹的正妻白氏。(Mo Yan, 2012, p. 31) 

Translation: Look, look, look, that women with the bound feet carrying half a basket of dirt but having 

to stop and rest every four or five steps, that’s my formal wife, Ximen Bai. (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 33) 

From the perspective of polysystem theory, the translation strategies in the aforementioned examples 

involve considerations of culture, language habits, acceptability, and many other levels. First, the 

translator Howard Goldblatt adopts a simplification and omission approach. In the translation, “拐着一

双小脚” is simplified to “with the bound feet,” without detailed explanation of “小脚” or “缠足,” an 

ancient Chinese cultural custom. The concept of foot-binding may not exist in the target language culture 

but has some degree of awareness. The translator believes that not providing detailed explanations will 

not affect the understanding of the overall content, and this translation method can guide readers to delve 

deeper into this special and era-characteristic image in the source language culture, aiming to achieve the 

same reading effect as readers in the source language. Secondly, the translator adjusts the sentence 

structure and word order. The original text uses repetitive “看” and complex modifiers like “拐着一双

小脚、提着半筐土、歪着身子、三步一歇、五步一停.” In the translation, the translator chooses a more 

direct and fluent expression, avoiding excessive repetition and awkward syntax, making the translation 

more in line with English expression habits. Thirdly, the translator concretes “三步一歇、五步一停” 

into “having to stop and rest every four or five steps,” which clarifies the implied imagery of difficulty 

and effort in the Chinese original text. This specification in English helps convey the degree of difficulty 

of the situation and the state of the character. Lastly, the translation uses expressions like “formal wife, 

Ximen Bai” to explain and translate the special culture against the backdrop of the original text’s era, as 

there is no strict distinction between formal and informal wives in English-speaking cultures. Such 

translation helps readers understand the relationships and social status of the characters. In summary, the 

translator adopts strategies of simplification, adjustment, specification, and cultural adaptation in dealing 

with differences between Chinese and English languages, with the main goal of making the translation 

more fluent and reasonably conveying the content and emotional color of the original text while 

maintaining sensitivity and adaptability to the target culture. Such handling techniques are based on the 

understanding of the interaction between different systems and their impact on translation decisions 

within polysystem theory. 

Example 22: 我放下粪筐，把他挪动了一下，用手摸摸胸口，还有一丝热气，知道还没死，就脱

下棉袍，将他包裹起来。沿着大街，迎着太阳，手托着这冻僵的孩子往家里走。(Mo, 2012, p. 12) 



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Translation: I set down my dung baster and nudged the boy, then felt his chest. It was still warm, so I 

know he was alive. I took off my lined coat and wrapped him in it, then picked him up and carried him 

home. (Goldblatt, 2012, p. 12) 

This translation demonstrates the translator’s efforts to adjust sentence structures to accommodate the 

target language’s conventions while striving to preserve the original meaning and the scenes depicted. 

First, the translator restructures the sentences; the original text uses a series of actions to advance the 

narrative. The translator breaks these actions into several steps, using punctuation to mimic the sequence 

of actions, such as combining “把他挪动了一下” and “用手摸摸胸口” into “I set down my dung basket 

and nudged the boy, then felt his chest.” In dealing with the differences in sentence structure between 

Chinese and English, the translator analyzes and organizes the detailed descriptions in the original text: 

“我放下粪筐，把他挪动了一下，用手摸摸胸口，还有一丝热气，知道还没死，就脱下棉袍，将

他包裹起来。” In the translation, these actions are simplified into more concise key steps: “I took off 

my lined coat and wrapped him in it.” Such simplification strategies help target language readers better 

grasp the progress of the event and make the sentences more consistent with English expression habits. 

Secondly, the original text, “用手摸摸胸口，还有一丝热气” might be ambiguous, and the translator 

clarifies it as “It was still warm, so I knew he was alive.” This processing ensures the clear transmission 

of information, directly stating the purpose and result of the check. English is a hypotaxic language that 

values logical relationships within sentences. In the English translation, the translator reorganizes the 

information, such as modifying “沿着大街，迎着太阳，手托着这冻僵的孩子往家里走” to “I picked 

him up and carried him home,” which is more in line with the logic and directness of English expression. 

In summary, when dealing with the differences in Chinese and English sentence structures, the translator 

adopts strategies of simplification, clarification of meaning, reorganization of information, and 

supplementation of details. These translation strategies are designed to make the translated work conform 

to the target language’s expression habits and to make the content clearer and more direct while retaining 

the emotional and vivid descriptions of the original Chinese text. Within the framework of polysystem 

theory, translation is a creative transformation process between different cultural and linguistic systems, 

and the translator balances the need for fidelity to the original text with the adaptation to the target 

language culture through these strategies. 

2.3 Ingenuity in Translation: Poetic Adjustments of Special Structures 

“Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” is a chapter-novel divided into four parts based on the 

reincarnation process of the protagonist, Ximen Nao, comprising fifty-three chapters. Mo Yan 

deliberately imitates the traditional Chinese chapter-novels from the Ming and Qing dynasties, which 

feature parallel couplets as titles for each chapter. This writing technique, common in “Water Margin” 

and “Romance of the Three Kingdoms,” summarizes the main content of each chapter and entices readers 

to continue reading. Additionally, Mo Yan intersperses the book with nursery rhymes, doggerel, and 

tongue twisters, breaking free from traditional linguistic constraints and enhancing the novel’s readability. 

However, this characteristic of the source text increases the difficulty for translators. Upon careful 



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comparison of the translator’s handling of these aspects, it is observed that in most cases, Howard 

Goldblatt has effectively preserved the style of the original text. 

Example 23: 

单干是座独木桥，走一步来摇三摇，摇到桥下沉没了。 

人民公社通天道，社会主义是金桥，拔掉穷根栽富苗。 

蓝脸老顽固，单干走绝路。一粒老鼠屎，坏了一杠醋。 

金龙宝凤蓝解放，手摸胸口想一想。跟着你爹老顽固，落后保守难进步。 

(Mo, 2012, pp. 107-108) 

Translation: 

Stubborn old Lan Lian is not our firend; independent farming is a true dead end. A single mouse dropping 

ruins a vat of vinegar. Jinlong, Baodfeng, Lan Jiefang, put your hands over your hearts and think hard. 

Stay with your dad and you’re as good as dead; you will keep falling behind and can’t get ahead. 

(Goldblatt, 2012, p. 119) 

Polysystem theory posits that for texts closely related to culture and ideology, translators must weigh 

how to convey the cultural characteristics and contextual adaptability of the original text to the target 

readers. This doggerel reflects the political propaganda and socio-cultural phenomena of a specific 

historical period. Firstly, in terms of language style and rhythm, doggerel in Chinese usually has a clear 

rhythm and a distinct beat. The translator attempts to present this rhythm and beat through rhyming 

translation, such as “Stay with your dad and you’ re as good as dead; you will keep falling behind and 

can’t get ahead.” This phrasing maintains a certain rhythm and fluency, allowing English readers to 

experience the characteristics of doggerel. Secondly, in terms of cultural transmission, the translation 

must not only convey the literal meaning of the original text but also the cultural and political significance 

it carries. Expressions like “Stubborn old Lan Lian” and “independent farming is a true dead end” convey 

the ideological orientation and historical context of the original poem. Thirdly, in terms of the handling 

of imagery and metaphors, for example, “一粒老鼠屎，坏了一杠醋” is translated as “A single mouse 

dropping ruins a vat of vinegar,” preserving the metaphorical meaning of the original text while also 

expressing a similar idea with an idiom in the target language. Lastly, the translation needs to consider 

the political atmosphere and acceptability in the target language culture. The translator omitted the second 

line of the original text, avoiding the strong era characteristics of the original, although Western readers 

are likely not to have experienced the era mentioned in the text, the translation tries to convey the urgency 

and critical nature of the original meaning. 

Overall, the translation of this doggerel is relatively successful. The translator, through the adaptation of 

rhythm and beat, effectively recreates the style of the original text in the target culture. At the same time, 

the translator maintains the intention to be faithful to the original text when dealing with specific cultural 

imagery and metaphors, making it understandable to the target readers. Although the target readers may 

be completely unfamiliar with the historical background and contextual context of the original poem, the 

translator’s work allows them to perceive the ideological background of this poem. Therefore, from the 



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perspective of polysystem theory, this is a successful case of reconstructing the cultural characteristics 

of the source language within the target language system. 

Example 24: 

老顽固，小顽固，组成一个单干户。 

牵着一头蚂蚱牛，推着一辆木轱辘。 

最终还要来入社，晚入不如趁早入…… 

(Mo, 2012, p. 114) 

Translation: 

A headstrong man, a headstrong boy, choosing to farm apart. 

Pulling an ox the size of an insect, pushing a wood-wheeled cart. 

Sooner or later you’ll have to join, and sooner is better than later to start...(Goldblatt, 2012, p. 125) 

The translation of this nursery rhyme requires consideration of the original text’s cultural, social, and 

historical context, as well as how these elements are conveyed into the target language’s cultural 

environment. Firstly, translating nursery rhymes particularly needs to take into account rhythm and 

rhyme, as these elements are its distinct artistic features. The translation maintains the original’s rhythmic 

structure, imitating the rhythm of the original poem through corresponding rhymes, such as “apart” and 

“cart,” “join” and “start,” making it smooth and natural in English. Secondly, the translation effectively 

conveys the original meaning, communicating a negative evaluation of the old and young stubbornly 

insisting on independent farming and urging the joining of cooperatives. “Pulling an ox the size of an 

insect, pushing a wood-wheeled cart” vividly describes the harsh conditions of farming, in line with the 

original’s artistic conception. Thirdly, the depictions, metaphors, and symbols in the translation are 

acceptable to target language readers while also perceiving the critical and satirical intent expressed in 

the original text. Direct expressions like “A headstrong man, a headstrong boy” may be more explicit 

than the original, but in English, they clearly convey the negative implications of stubbornness. Lastly, 

this poem reflects the social and economic policies and ideological orientation of a certain historical 

period, and the handling of this orientation in the translation is very subtle, reflecting the original’s 

historical context while gaining new interpretations and understandings in the new cultural context. In 

summary, from the perspective of polysystem theory, the translation of this doggerel is successful. The 

translation is not only faithful to the original’s imagery and tone but also adapts to specific expressions 

in the target cultural context, allowing the poem to maintain its vitality in the new cultural environment. 

Example 25: 锣鼓喧天群众入社 四蹄踏雪毛驴挂掌 (Mo, 2012: catalogue) 

Translation: Gongs and Drums Pound the Heavens as the Masses Join the Co-op 

Four Hooves Plod through the Snow as the Donkey Is Shod (Goldblatt, 2012: 31) 

In the original text, Mo Yan not only adopts the traditional Chinese chapter-novel structure with paired 

titles for each chapter but also imitates the writing style of couplets, a unique form in Chinese literature 

that requires the upper and lower parts to correspond in meaning, sound, and structure. These titles are 

rich in traditional Chinese cultural colors, and their charm lies in the specific cultural background and 



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imagery. When translating, it is necessary to convey the corresponding cultural atmosphere and 

traditional implications. Here, “锣鼓喧天群众入社” conveys a festive and lively scene, and although 

the English translation does not directly reflect the rhythm and antithesis of traditional Chinese couplets, 

it retains the main imagery of the original text. However, the translation of “Four Hooves Treading on 

Snow, Donkey with Shoes” is somewhat biased. According to the original text, “Four Hooves Treading 

on Snow” is a description of the donkey’s characteristics, which is also an external manifestation of the 

Chinese farmers’ perception of the donkey as Hard work, good characteristics of human nature. The 

translator has processed this noun as a depiction of the donkey struggling through the snow, possibly to 

avoid the cultural conflict that would arise from explaining this minor detail in the translation, which 

could affect the fluency and integrity of the title translation and the reader’s experience. “Donkey with 

Shoes” indicates the actual situation in rural northern China, where “shoes” usually refer to special hoof 

protectors for donkeys. The English “the Donkey Is Shod” effectively expresses this action. Considering 

the beauty and rhythm of the couplet, the translator also needs to reflect these characteristics well. 

Although it is difficult for the English translation to completely replicate the antithetical rules of Chinese 

couplets, the parallel structure “as the Masses Join the Co-op” and “as the Donkey Is Shod” in the 

translation to some extent reproduces the style of the corresponding upper and lower parts in Chinese. In 

summary, from the perspective of polysystem theory, the translation of this couplet is successful in 

conveying the main imagery, maintaining cultural colors, social background, and basic functions. 

However, due to the differences in language structure and cultural background, it is challenging to fully 

reproduce the beauty and rhythm of the original text. Therefore, although the translation effect is not 

perfect, it can be considered acceptable and has well maintained the overall meaning and emotional color 

of the original text. 

 

3. From the Perspective of Polysystem Theory, the Successful Factors of the English Translation 

Strategy of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” 

“At the Fifth Plenary Session of the 15th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held in 

October 2000, the ‘going global’ strategy was explicitly proposed for the first time.” (Yang, 2014, p. 186) 

As a vehicle of culture, the translation of literary works is one of the important means of spreading 

Chinese culture. However, the situation of the international dissemination of contemporary Chinese 

literature is not optimistic. “Chinese writers have to look up to Western literature, and in the end, they 

have to be recognized by the ‘West’ to enter the ranks of ‘universality’” (Wang, 2012, p. 166), “Chinese 

literary works are considered ‘successful’ if they sell two to three thousand copies in Europe and America,” 

“Nobel Prize in Literature judge Ma Yueran once said: ‘Chinese literature should have gone global a long 

time ago, but there are too few works translated into foreign languages.’” (Zhu, 2015, p. 131) 

In 2012, Mo Yan won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and Howard Goldblatt’s translation work was widely 

recognized. Mo Yan also publicly expressed his appreciation for Goldblatt’s translation contributions, 

pointing out that Goldblatt’s translations played a key role in his winning the Nobel Prize in Literature. 



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Through Goldblatt’s translations, several of Mo Yan’s works have been able to cross linguistic and 

cultural barriers and reach a broader global readership. It can be seen that translation is a cross-cultural 

communication behavior. By using polysystem theory, we can focus on studying and interpreting 

translation practices, revealing the role of political and cultural factors behind them, expanding new fields 

for translation studies, and providing reference significance for the introduction of Chinese literature. 

According to polysystem theory, the subject of translation, the translator, in the translation process, 

Howard Goldblatt believes that he has well handled how to cater to the aesthetic interests of English 

readers. British sinologist Gerhard also said that translation is best done into one’s mother tongue because 

readers have a higher level of trust in translators with the same cultural background. “And Howard 

Goldblatt’s translations are carried out in collaboration with his wife, Lin Lijun” (Wang H. & Wang Y., 

2023, p. 35). In addition to providing translations, the translator also acts as a cultural exchange 

intermediary among the original author, editors, sponsors, etc., and uses their influence to expand the 

influence of the translation in the target country. After completing the translation, Goldblatt uses his 

influence to find more authoritative publishers. In summary, the translator can not only determine the 

quality of the translation but also has a significant impact on the distribution, dissemination, and 

translation effect. From Goldblatt’s translation approach, it is clear that an excellent translation subject 

can not only make appropriate bilingual conversions during the translation process but also increase the 

acceptability of the translation. Therefore, a good translation subject should be a collaboration between 

local translators and foreign sinologists, so that Chinese literary works can not only be “translated out” 

but also truly “go out” with Chinese culture. 

Polysystem theory holds that most of the time, translated literature will be on the periphery of the target 

language’s literary system. Therefore, blindly exporting literary works oriented by one’s own culture 

without considering the social conditions, cultural needs, and acceptance of the target country will 

definitely not be satisfactory. When selecting content for translation, it must conform to the poetic 

attitudes and market demands of the target country, arousing the target language readers’ interest in the 

source language culture. After the translated literature gradually enters the center of the target language’s 

literary system, more content containing more source language culture can be translated. “In Mo Yan’s 

works, there are two conflicting local forces, one is nostalgia for local legends, and the other is ruthless 

exposure of reality” (Xiong, 2014, p. 78). At the same time, in “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out,” 

the shadows of Marquez and Faulkner often appear, so this work also has a strong magical realist style. 

Therefore, this work has both the heterogeneity of Chinese literature and the universality of world 

literature, conforming to the poetic preferences of mainstream Western literature. In summary, when 

selecting content for translation, it is necessary to choose excellent and valuable works with a long-term 

development perspective to achieve better translation effects. 

Compared with the dominant Western culture, Chinese literature is on the periphery of the world literary 

system, and the translation of Chinese literature in the Western literary system is even more so. From the 

perspective of polysystem theory, there is a “time lag” and a “language difference” behind the translation 



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of Chinese literature “going global” (Xie, 2014, p. 8). The acceptance of one nation’s culture by another 

nation is a long process of evolution and development. Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works can be 

divided into three periods: from 1993 to 2000, Goldblatt used domestication translation methods in the 

translation of “Red Sorghum Clan” and “The Republic of Wine,” deleting most of the vocabulary with 

special historical background in the original text, and using the established literary models of his own 

country to avoid reading obstacles caused by the lack of cultural background. Starting from 2008, when 

translating “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” and “Frog,” Goldblatt used a combination of 

domestication and foreignization translation methods. On the one hand, he considered that readers have 

a certain understanding of Chinese culture, and on the other hand, he stimulated readers’ interest in 

actively learning Chinese culture. Later, when translating “Frog,” Goldblatt even stated that the 

translation of the work was “unchanged.” In summary, when dealing with the translation of Chinese 

culture, it is necessary to consider the status of translated literature in the target language’s literary system 

at different times, so as to retain the Chinese elements in the original work and meet the expectations of 

foreign readers. 

In the polysystem, the factor of “patron” plays a significant role in the translation process. “Patron” can 

to some extent restrict the position of translated literature in the target language’s literature. In the process 

of translating “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out,” Goldblatt also used his influence to cooperate with 

the overseas authoritative publishing institution Arcade Publishing, using its professional opinions to 

cater to the needs of overseas readers, allowing this work to enter a broader international market and 

meet English-speaking readers. 

 

4. Conclusion 

This article takes Howard Goldblatt’s English translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” as an 

example, and from the perspective of polysystem theory, discusses its English translation strategies. 

Through comparative text analysis, the author believes that Goldblatt has effectively overcome the 

barriers between the two languages and cultures, making the aesthetic value and artistic image of the 

translation almost identical to the original. Goldblatt has done his best to build a cultural bridge, 

connecting the author Mo Yan with readers from foreign countries across the ocean, conveying Chinese 

cultural elements to them well, while also considering the readers’ reading interests and cultural 

backgrounds. He skillfully combines domestication and foreignization translation methods, making the 

English translation of “Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out” a well-loved translation by readers. 

Great classic literary works often possess extraordinary universal value, capable of resonating deeply 

with readers and motivating them to actively explore the profound meanings of the works. These literary 

masterpieces not only showcase the common emotions and thoughts of humanity but also provide a clear 

mirror in which readers can discover their reflections and spiritual counterparts. In this vibrant literary 

ecosystem, translated literature plays a crucial role. It serves not only as a bridge for cultural exchange 

between different cultures but also provides a stage for readers from different linguistic backgrounds, 



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allowing them to interpret and appreciate these classics from their unique perspectives and 

understandings. Through translation, literature transcends the boundaries of language and geography, 

spreading more widely and allowing more readers to access and experience these great works. Therefore, 

translated literature is not only an important medium for cultural dissemination but also a vital tool for 

inspiring readers’ creative interpretations. It enables the wisdom and beauty of classic literature to cross 

time and space, continuously inspiring and enlightening generations of readers, enriching their spiritual 

lives and cultural identity. The importance of translation work lies not only in converting words from one 

language to another but also in giving these words new life, allowing them to shine uniquely in different 

cultural contexts. 

Goldblatt’s successful translation of Mo Yan’s novels into the Western literary world has not only paved 

the way for the international dissemination of Chinese literature but also provided a replicable example. 

We should understand the mechanisms of the relevant systems according to the dynamic relationship 

between the “center” and “periphery” within the literary polysystem and grasp the timing of translation 

and optimize translation strategies based on this. With a flexible attitude towards the translation of literary 

works, this can pave the way for Chinese literature to move from a relatively marginalized state to the 

central position in the international literary system and find the most suitable translation model for the 

overseas promotion of Chinese literary works. As China’s national strength grows increasingly strong, 

the Chinese literary polysystem will also increasingly move towards the center of the global polysystem. 

 

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