A R TIC L E S Leadership of Academ ic Li braries: A Literatu re Review By Sharon Gray Weiner Vanderbilt University Abstract This review synthesizes what is known about the characteristics and leadership style of university l ibrari­ ans and academic l ibrary d i rectors. I t is the leadersh ip of the l ibrary that determines whether a phi losophy and vision are articulated and to what extent they are implemented . Leadership influences a l ibrary's ef­ fectiveness, institutional role, and adaptabil ity. Publ ications on recruitment, leadersh ip potential identifica­ tion, career development, roles and responsibi l ities, and characteristics and management style were in­ cluded. Introduction The purpose of this review is to synthesize What is now known about the characteristics and leader­ ship style of university l ibrarians and academic l ibrary d i rectors. Each of the 2487 four-year post­ secondary institutions in the United States ("Almanac," 2003; 2) either have their own l ibraries or provide l ibrary services through an outside insti­ tution. The phi losophy, missi on, and functions of these l ibraries strongly influence access to infor­ mation resources and related services critical to teaching and research. They affect the abi l ity of the students and faculty to identify and effectively search for the most relevant information for thei r needs. It is the leadership of the l ibrary that deter­ mines whether a ph i losophy and vision are articu­ lated and to what extent they are implemented . Leadership affects a l ibrary's effectiveness, its role in the academic institution, and its adaptabi l ity to new functions and initiatives. The academic l ibrary has been greatly affected by rapid and d iscontinuous changes in its professional environment. Those changes include: d ramatic increases in the cost of materials while budgets decreased; new d ig ital formats and communication technologies; improvements in information avail­ abi l ity; growth of interdiscipl inary research; issues with the commercial scholarly publ ishing industry; Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 and expectations that the l ibrary will secure some funding through development and g rants. (Travica, 1 999; 1 8 1 ) (Renaud & Murray, 2003; 1 64 ) (Winston & Dunkley, 2002) Othe r trends are: in­ creasing turbulence; an information-based , ser­ vice-oriented society; patron expectation of h igh qual ity l ibrary services; stakeholder expectation of shared responsibi l ity with the l ibrary; more complex organizations; and the need for a proactive ap­ proach. (Jurow, 1 990; 62) L ibraries are at a critical juncture due to new demands in information tech­ nology, the increase in the number of d istance education programs, new models of support for research and teach ing , and a decl ining resource base. These factors " have forced the significant questioning of longstand ing principles and prac­ tices throughout l i brary services and operations, " so the abi l ity to anticipate and manage change is critical . (Martin, 1 997; 49) Even more, i t is neces­ sary to undergo a "fundamental rethinking and re­ design of l ibrary roles, services, and operations in universities which are also undergoing great change." (Ferguson & Metz, 2003; 96) Internal organizational structures of l ibraries are different from in the past. This is very l ikely a result of occurrences in the external environment. Hierar­ ch ies are flattened , middle management has been reduced, departments are becoming integrated, and new functions have been incorporated . 5 (Travica, 1 999; 1 8 1 ) Greater accountabi l ity is ex­ pected, and there is increased competition. Team­ based decision-making and participative manage­ ment are common, and the "learning organization" model is being introduced . (Winston & Dunkley, 2002) As a resu lt, there has been much d iscussion about the role of the l ibrary and about what leader­ ship characteristics wil l successful ly transform, propel, or at the very least, sustain the academic l ibrary. " Few professions can be said to have spent as much time contemplating its present and future role as have academic l ibrarians." (Renaud & Murray, 2003 ; 1 64) Another perspective was shown as a result of a survey of d i rectors of large l ibraries. (Cottam, 1 994; 1 7) It was conducted to contrast roles and responsibilities in 1 994 as compared with the pre­ vious five and ten year periods. The find ings showed that there had been change, but there was not a consistent pattern of change among the re­ spondents. Traditional managerial roles were prevalent and much of the work was similar to what was done in the past, but there was a new empha­ sis on fundraising . Di rectors continued to be in­ volved with cooperative projects, to collaborate with computer personnel, to submit grant propos­ als, to incorporate Total Qual ity Management, and to engage in g lobal ization initiatives. In bontrast, a 1 999 survey of l ibrary d i rectors showed that their organizational priorities were to focus on qual ity of services, to train patrons in search techniques, to provide materials in any format, to encourage em­ ployee innovativeness, and to develop electronic del ivery tools along with the print c9llection. (Travica, 1 999 ; 1 90) This review of the l iterature on academic l ibrary leadership in the United States includes publ ished research stud ies, theories and models, literature reviews, books, and journal articles publ ished be­ tween 1 980 and 2003. Omitted are editorials, con­ ference proceedings, and opinion pieces as well as information about two-year colleges or special ized academic l ibraries, such as law and medical . Cita­ tions were identified by exhaustive searches of the ERIC, Education Abstracts FuiiText, L ib rary Litera­ ture, General BusinessFi le ASAP, Ps yclnfo, Dig ital Dissertations, and WorldCat databases. Relevant concepts included : leader characteristics, leader­ ship methods and strategies, vision, innovation, influence, mentoring, organizational outcomes, management style, effectiveness, power, persua­ sion, job satisfaction, and career paths. Bibl iogra­ phies of those resources were examined to garner additional references. Key authors were identified Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 and searches for their works were performed. Websites of primary publ ishers of l ibrary science books were searched. This introduction is fol lowed by sections on: Recruitment, Leadership Potential, and Career Development; Roles and Responsibi l i­ ties; and Characteristics and Management Styles. Table One shows that most of the publ ications cited were surveys. Recruitment, Leadership Potential, Career De­ velopment " Leadership of tomorrow's academic l ibraries is not for the faint of heart." (Matthews, 2002) There is concern that there is a shortage of l ibrarians capa­ ble of providing effective leadership du ring these turbu lent times. (Renaud & Murray, 2003; 1 64 ) ·One study o f academic l ibrarians revealed that they tended to score lower than normative groups on managerial talent. " I t would appear that aca­ demic l ibrarians, no matter by what route they come to the field, tend to fit a certain personality profi le and that, when it comes to managerial tal­ ent, they are generally not as able as people in other occupations." (Moore, 1 98 1 ) Potential Leaders What characteristics should aspiring l ibrary d i rec­ tors need to have or develop? One l ibrary school dean looked for knowledge, ambition, common sense, and character in student leaders. (Wedgeworth, 1 989; 4 1 -2) Potential leaders should be innovative and creative risk takers; flexible; have the cognitive abi l ity to deal with complex sce­ narios; have effective skills in deal ing with people; have technical expertise; and be wil l ing to learn. (Martin, 1 997; 57) In an organization that has a flat hierarchy, leadersh ip opportunities can "occur at al l levels of the organization since authority is dis­ persed and layers of management and supervision have been reduced . . . university l ibraries with flat organizations might be more successful than those with h ierarch ical structures in producing future leaders, since they expose a broader range of l i­ brarians and staff to managerial chal lenges. " (Renaud & Murray, 2003; 1 70-1 73) A study of characteristics of potential leaders was conducted by comparing a selective group of aca­ demic l ibrary managers in the UCLA Senior Fel­ lows Program with a randomly-sampled control g roup of members of the Association of College and Research Libraries. The study showed that the Senior Fellows were more than twice as visible, nearly twice as mobi le, and three times more l ikely to assume management and leadership positions 6 in comparison with the control g roup. The Fellows achieved al l educational deg rees and professional positions at younger ages; they had higher de­ grees, more publ ications, and greater organiza­ tional activity. (Anderson, 1 985; 331 ) A survey of d i rectors of the Council on State Uni­ versity L ibraries found a trend toward women ob­ taining d i rector positions as external candidates and men obtaining positions through internal pro­ motion. (Hatcher, 1 997; 42) Hammond addressed the delicate issues related to being a successful internal candidate for a l ibrary leadership position. The person h i red interna l ly has the advantages of knowing the organization, the chal lenges, the budget, pol itics, and key people. But relationsh ips with some people in the organization may become awkward . Those who are h i red internally must convey their new role immediately and consis­ tently. They can neg otiate support from those who did not agree with the search committee's choice and channel the d issatisfaction into activities that wi l l use strengths and best serve the organization. (Hammond , 2003; 1 88-9) Trends In 1 994, Rooks analyzed trends identified from a classic 1 973 study of decreasing lengths of tenure for academic l ibrary d irectors. Some of the trends in society and hig her education d iscovered in the original study were growth of enrol lment, changes in the college presidency, changes in education and research, the information explosion, econom­ ics, planning and budgeting , technology, chang in,g management theories, unionization, and increasing control by state boards. The 1 994 study added to the l ist l ifestyle changes and ethnic and gender influences. The position of d i rector for a major re­ search l ibrary has become more demanding. The 1 973 study identified three major qual ities requ i red of a d i rector: flexibi l ity, adaptabi l ity, and a wil ling­ ness to accept change as a way of l ife; a stable temperament and the abi l ity to maintain an emo­ tional balance under constant tensions; and en­ durance. In 1 994, "certainly these qual ities have only increased in value." (Rooks, 1 994) There was concern about whether excellent l ibrarians would continue to be interested in d i rector positions be­ cause of the inherent d ifficu lties. Simi lar to aca­ demic deans and provosts, term appointments for l ibrary d i rectors or institutional appointment options could be considered so l ibrary d irectors cou ld re­ turn to a position within the l ibrary once their ad­ ministrative appointment ended . Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 In a l iberal arts college, there is a strong relation­ ship between the ind ividual and the col lege com­ munity. (Cle mmer, 1 997; 75) Directors of l iberal arts col lege l ibraries who had worked previously in research institutions had high expectations of the col leges. They "anticipated relief from the man­ agement difficu lties of large instjtutions, an intimate work environment in which one can deal with the major players on a face to face basis, and more involvement in the teaching learning process, in­ cluding closer contact with faculty and students . " (Clemmer, 1 997; 78) The di rectors found that it was possible for them to make an impact on the entire institution and it was easier to accompl ish th ings than in a research university. " In the smal ler community, the playe rs attribute a h igher level of competence to each other based on famil iarity and are less l ikely to depend on an institutional impri­ matur." (Clemmer, 1 997; 79) Di rectors had easy access to decision-makers and turf battles were almost non-existent. "Directing the l iberal arts col­ lege l ibrary can provide much personal satisfac­ tion . " (Clemmer, 1 997; 86) It is not clear from the l iterature whether a second master's degree or doctorate is necessary for those who aspire to a d i rector position. A su rvey of l iberal arts col lege l ibrary d i rectors showed that 40 percent of the d irectors had second master's de­ grees and 20 percent had doctorates. The author bel ieved that degrees "cannot replace administra­ tive aptitude, creativity, and knowledge in a suc­ cessful col lege or university l ibrary d i rector. " (McCracken, 2000) Ho wever, some l ibrary direc­ tors advised those they mentor to pursue a Ph .D . (McNeer, 1 988; 3 1 ) Wi l l iams believed that l ibrary d i rectors who do not have a doctorate are at a d is­ advantage, but that more important than degrees is a program that is " interesting , dynamic, innova­ tive, and especial ly responsive to the needs of the l ibrary's cl ientele." (D. E . Wi l l iams, 1 998; 51 ) The research l iterature is a valuable decision­ making tool for leaders and can influence the think­ ing and behavior of a group . Understanding re­ search methods and statistical analysis is key to informed decision-making and organizational suc­ cess. (J . F. Wi l l iam s & Winston, 2003; 401 ) Library administrators are actively publ ishing research stud ies: sixteen per cent of the first authors of re­ search studies in the five l ibrary journals that have the hig hest impact factor were academic l ibrary administrators. Seventy-seven per cent of the re­ search studies published in College and Research Libraries were written by academic l ibrary adminis­ trators. (J . F. Wi l l iams & Winston, 2003; 398-9) 7 Nicholson and West Model The N icholson and West model of transition cycles can be appl ied to the process of becoming a ch ief l ibrarian in an academic institution. "Preparation" is the first stage during which the aspi rant prepares psycholog ically; assesses personal competence, and values; engages in professional development; actively networks; and gathers information about institutions and trends. The second stage is the "encounter" stage, wh ich encompasses the time from the job interview to the first few weeks of em­ ployment. Success in the next stage, "adjustment," involves integrating informal social ization and al­ ready-developed skills with newly-acqu ired knowl­ edge of the organization. A mark of the "stabi l iza­ tion" stage is the development of a constructive relationsh ip with the supervisor: "true leadersh ip, ach ievement, and work performance wil l be ach ieved and assessed . " (Matthews, 2002) Learning Leadership One can learn informal ly about leadership by learn­ ing on the job, by taking every opportunity to learn and to grow, by developing an understand ing of the academic community, by knowing who are the leaders and who are the fol lowers, and by associ­ ating with leaders and learning from them. A leader shou ld become adept at publ ic speaking and written communication and be able to work with groups and to bui ld consensus. Leaders need to be decisive and to understand the politics, pur­ pose, and history of the institution. (Riggs & Sa­ bine, 1988; 114-6) One should find employment in a l ibrary that has a sense of excitement, is l ikely to stretch one's abi l ities, has a sense of community or unity of purpose, and employs people who are in­ terested in their work and ded icated to doing it wel l . (Riggs & Sabine, 1988; 121) People ski l ls are essential because " if you're not effective in han­ d l ing people, you won't be effective in handl ing the operation . " (Riggs & Sabine, 1988; 103) Librarians can develop thei r visionary abi l ity by working on projects that involve organizational analysis and abstract th inking. (Jurow, 1990; 67) It is d ifficult to learn how to inspire others, but know­ ing the ideas and ideals held in common by a group is an important beginning. A visionary mes­ sage must be repeated in different ways to d iffer­ ent groups. Examples shou ld be credi ble, viv id , positive, and passionate. Leaders related that the best ways to develop self-confidence were to take courses and to participate in projects and task forces. (Jurow, 1990; 68, 70) Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 Development and fund raising are increasingly im­ portant in the job responsibil ities of senior l ibrary administrators. Obtaining these skil ls can be chal­ lenging . "Although academic l ibrarians are l ikely to develop expertise in some areas that appear to be important with regard to development responsibi li­ ties, such as managing staff and written, oral , and interpersonal communication, issues such as cu lti­ vation of relationsh ips with donors and previous development experience are not l ikely to be part of the responsibi l ities of those l ibrarians progressing th rough the professional ranks. " (Winston & Dunkley, 2002) Mentoring Leaders must actively develop successors. Exten­ sive mentoring should take place and participation in professional development activities should be encouraged. (Renaud & Murray, 2003; 170) Men­ toring means " identifying talented new ind ividuals and attracting them into an ever-changing and ex­ panding profession, helping those with traditional credentials and experience to develop the qual ities necessary for success in an environment of ambi­ gu ity, and p roviding productive learning experi­ ences that bui ld on existing strengths and minimize weaknesses. " (Battin, 1998; 274) Mentoring also means surrounding oneself with the most intel l i ­ gent colleagues, u rging others to develop their po­ tential, delegating and being avai lable to work through problems together, selecting opportunities for ind ividuals that require them to stretch , bui ld ing on strengths and improving the weaknesses, and encourag ing the development of new abi l ities. (Battin, 1998; 276) Mentoring was identified as the single most significant factor in the career ad­ vancement of women academic l ibrary d i rectors. (Kirkland , 1997; 382) McNeer suggested that good supervision at the beg inning of a career is a form of mentoring. H igh ly placed mentors can provide entree to restricted forums. (McNeer, 1988; 27 -28) Negative experiences can be analyzed to serve as examples of how something could have been done better. Mentors look for leadership potential when screening mentees: energetic, capable l ibrarians who are wil l ing to grow into positions of responsi­ bi l ity; self-directed, imaginative people with a sense of humor, analytical ski l ls, interpersonal abi l­ ity, and the fortitude to make difficult decisions. Administrators advised mentees to look for new chal lenges, assume tasks that would h igh l ight their competence, gain ski l ls in working with g roups, publish, and be involved in professional organiza­ tions. " Mentoring wi l l occur more often in open l i­ brary organizations where responsib i lities are 8 delegated , management is participatory and staff committees work on problems." (McNeer, 1 988; 3 1 ) Library leaders can use a variety of strategies to create a cl imate that encourages leadership devel­ opment in their organizations. Some of those are: the use of task forces and committees; coordinator positions; promotion and reward systems; the or­ ganizational design itself (matrix models, flat h ier­ arch ies, qual ity circles); projects, "acting" positions, job rotations, internsh ips, formal staff development programs, and the strategic planning process. ( Iannuzzi , 1 992 ; 22-7) Roles and Responsibi l ities The fol lowing roles and responsibi l ities of aca­ demic l ibrary leaders have been d iscussed in the l iterature: garnering financial resources, strategic planning, perceptions of leader and l ibrary effec­ tiveness, functions and chal lenges of the leader, and knowledge of organizational culture. L ibrary leaders need to formulate goals and objectives for the l ibrary and then create a construct, or a mental image, of what their l ibraries should become. The vision should accurately reflect the current situation and clearly articu late a future d i rection. The leader needs to translate this vision into real ity and� com­ municate it to the l ibrary and the university fre­ quently and consistently. (Riggs, 1 998; 60) (Clemmer, 1 997) (Gertzog , 1 989b; 32) To be effec­ tive, a leader must be inspirational. They should try new organizational models. Risk-taking and ex­ perimentation should be encouraged . L ibraries need leaders who can succeed within a g lobal arena. They need to develop partnersh ips and coal itions to support their services while maintain­ ing a secure infrastructure for operations. ( Iannuzzi, 1 992; 20- 1 ) Budget Obtaining and al locating financial resources is a key role of a l ibrary d irector. A 1 987 study found that l ibrary d i rectors understood budget allocation processes at their institutions, but were not as in­ volved in planning and budgetary decision-making as they perceived they should have been. Those who were successful in obtaining institutional sup­ port for projects d id so by stressing the importance of the l ibrary to the advancement of the institution as a whole. (Hyatt & Santiago, 1 987; 9) Tal b ot proposes changes to the budgeting process. " I f l ibraries are to continue to be a vital part of the academic enterprise . . . Librarians must begin to see the budget for what it really is-the fiscal reflection Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 of institutional intent. . . It is no longer sufficient to regard the budget merely as a source of funds; it is a tool for implementation and decision. " (Talb ot, 1 982 ; 35) Strategic Planning Development of a long range plan is a responsibi l­ ity of the d i rector with the participation of the presi­ dent and academic vice president. The plan should take the university's mission into account; have a strategy for collection development; include plans for technology and bibl iographic instruction; ad­ dress facil ity changes; collaboration with other in­ stitutions; special collections; and a development program. (Adamany, 1 985; 8-1 1 ) During the strateg ic planning process, a dynamic leader will ensure that the l ibrary's strateg ies are magnetic and adhesive. The director should in­ volve staff in the process, provide motivation, me­ diate confl icts, and ensure an orderly integration of change. (Riggs, 1 998; 59) "The big chal lenge fac­ ing us is how much of the traditional practices of academic l ibraries can be discontinued in order to bring forth a new way of doing things." (Riggs, 1 998; 6 1 ) Di rectors must be self-motivated , credi­ ble, and results-oriented . Subord inates must be loyal and supportive; they should have pride and a sense of accompl ishment; they should feel that they are an important part of a worthwhile en­ deavor. "The relationsh ip between leaders and followers has to be one of strong , effective interde­ pendence. " (Riggs, 1 998; 62-3) With the changes that are anticipated in l ibraries and technology, creativity and innovation will become common and the l ibrary wil l become a learning organization. (Riggs, 1 998; 6 1 -4) Director's Effectiveness The perceived effectiveness of the l ibrary d irector and of the l ibrary are closely connected . (J . R. Euster, 1 986; 1 72) Whether a president commits adequate resources to the l ibrary is determined primarily by "whether the president has confidence in the l ibrary leadership, whether the l ibrary's plan is being carried out with demonstrable results, and whether the l ibrary real locates substantially to meet internal change even when the l ibrary as a whole is in a steady state. " (Adamany, 1 985; 1 0) The col lege president's evaluation should be based on the l ibrary's strategic plan which would include measures and methods for evaluating l i­ brary performance. "Many fine institutions with h igh ly productive faculties have relatively und istin­ gu ished l ibrary operations. If the l ibrary cannot serve faculty needs as effectively as it should , the 9 diversion of funds . . . may be better than putting sti l l more money into a mediocre, but entrenched, l i ­ brary management staff." (Adamany, 1985; 17-9) Kazlauskas' . study of the relationship between leadersh ip practices and employee job satisfaction determined that autonomy at work affected the job satisfaction of l ibrarians more than leadership prac­ tices. Associate un iversity l ibrarians were less sat­ isfied with their jobs than other academic l ibrarians. Her premise was that l ibrary leaders were respon­ sible for employee job satisfaction . (Kazlauskas, 1993; x, xi, 7, 8) Functions Chief academic officers and l ibrary d i rectors were surveyed about the roles and responsibi l ities of the l ibrary, its org anizational structure, and inclusion in governance, and fundraising and development roles. Perceptions of the future of the l ibrary dif­ fered among l ibrary d i rectors themselves and be­ tween directors and ch ief academic officers. Direc­ tors believed it was important to be proactive but had not developed strategies to accomplish this. They preferred a team-based organizational model. Directors wanted to be included in strategic institutional planning but admin istrators did not perceive this as important. (Deekle & De Klerk, 1992; 73) A number of authors have suggested that d i rectors must focus their energy and activities both on in­ ternal l ibrary operations and on exter . nal activities. They also should experiment with new manage­ ment techniques. (Carg i l l & Webb, 1988; 60) (Deekle & De Klerk, 1992; 73) (Clemmer, 1997) (J . R. Euster, 1987) Library d irectors did not agree on whether a tradi­ tionally structured or a .functionally integrated ap­ proach to l ibrary organ ization is better. (Buttlar & Garcha, 1992; 15) They thought the best reasons to reorganize staff were economics and to provide a more cl ient-centered l ibrary. Their conclusion is that there is not one s ingle organ izational model that is best for all l ibraries. (Buttlar & Garcha, 1992; 16) "Library leadersh ip is situational . The success of a l ibrary leader is contingent on many factors, including skil ls that match the l ibrary's needs at a particular time." (Riggs, 1998; 56-7) T o succeed, l ibrary d i rectors must " recognize that d ifferent stages in the organization's l ife cycle will requ i re different emphases; accept the idea that the same person may not be the appropriate leader for al l organizational circumstances. " (J . R. Euster, 1987; 1 09) Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 Challenges I n 2002, a study examined challenges that were perceived by academic l ibrary directors and by their supervisors. Both ranked user satisfaction and serials as the greatest challenges. Yo unger and newer d i rectors perceived that organizational change, crime in the l ibrary, ah,d train ing were also challenges. (McElrath, 2002) Due to changes in information tech nology the " l i­ brary d i rector must be both an active and an effec­ tive advocate for the l ibrary on campus and a ful l participant in the l ife of the academic community. Librarians must participate in planning for the use of electronic technologies on campus, work col­ laboratively with computer professionals and oth­ ers on campus, retrain staff, secure funding for both infrastructure development and operations, understand intellectual property issues, and learn to work in an environment in which change is a constant. . . The l ibrary d i rector is responsible for making the case for this level of participation on campus in the face of administrators who believe that others more effectively represent the future. " (D . E . Wil l iams, 1998; 42) To alter the impression that it is not important to involve the l ibrary or that the l ibrary does not have anything to contribute takes "dues-paying, thick-skinned advocacy and general tenacity designed to portray the l ibrary or­ gan ization as a savvy participant in campus deci­ sion making that understands the campus, the tra­ d itions of scholarship it pursues, and the technolo­ g ies req uired to sustain and advance it." (D. E. Wil­ l iams, 1998; 43) Directors must integrate the l ibrary into the teach­ ing and research efforts of the university. They must ensure that the l ibrary is associated with things that are valued by the institution. (D. E. Wil­ l iams, 1998; 48) "To make this association , the l ibrary d i rector must assume the role of change agent with in the university and must transform the l ibrary into an organ ization that facil itates institu­ tional change whi le maintaining its bridges to the traditions of the academy . . . Directors must present the l ibrary as a place that is both faci le at dealing with the polit ics of the campus and above the kind of d ivisions that take place between colleges and departments." (D. E. Wil l iams, 1998; 48) Organizational Culture Understanding organizational cu lture is crucial to effective leadership . (Iannuzzi, 1992; 92) The ele­ ments of a l ibrary's culture include organizational values, management styles, norms, patterns of communication , and ph ilosophy of service. The 10 degree to which staff share in these elements de­ termines the l ibrary's cu ltural maturity. ( Iannuzzi , 1 992; 3'1 ) Leadership of a tribal col lege l ibrary is an example of a d ifferent situational structu re. The authors of a survey of l ibrary d irectors and staff in tribal college l ibraries focused on attitudes of" tribal college staff about their work. More l ibrary d irectors than non­ di rectors said that ties to a tribal community or tribal college affected their employment decision­ making . They saw their jobs as a means to a ca­ reer goal and as an opportunity for personal g rowth . Pragmatic factors such as salary, benefits, and location were equally important to ·both groups. The d i rectors "noted that the reality of their job fel l short of their expectations . . . because of the unexpected range of job responsibil ities, financial and infrastructure constraints, and the negative influence of tribal pol itics and col lege administra­ tors . " However, they believed that the remote loca­ tions, non-competitive salary, and low benefits were offset by the chance to help others, a strong sense of purpose, and the opportunity to become a more well-rounded individual. (Di levko & Gottl ieb, 2002; 306) Characteristics and Management Style Power, d iversity issues, leaders as change agents, and management styles are characteristics that influence the effectiveness of academic l ibrary leaders. The research l iterature suggests a con­ sen'sus about effective leadership styles. The most effective ones are those that combine boldness, informed risk-taking , widespread consultation, and consensus-bui ld ing . They are good l isteners, are accessible to staff, have strong public speaking skil ls, and are consistent and self-confident. (Sheldon, 1 992; 394-400) Leaders need "acute powers of analysis, abundant common sense, vi­ brant creativity, reasoned judgment, and a pas­ sionate commitment to the mission and goals of the extended higher education community . " (Battin, 1 998) Hernon et al . , reported the result of a recent Delphi study. These are the attributes that Association of Research Libraries d i rectors should be adept at: • Managing-maintains a productive work envi­ ronment, is results-oriented and commited to service • Leading-can function in a political environ­ ment, can manage and shape change, bui lds a shared vision, bui lds relationsh ips, thinks "out- Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 side the box," advocates for the l ibrary, en­ gages in fundraising and donor relations • Planning-sets priorities • Deal ing with others-has cred ib i l ity with facu lty and administration, is even-handed and self­ confident • Personal traits-is comforta,ble with ambigu ity, committed to job and profession, handles stress, is honest, energetic, intel l igent • Individual leadersh ip traits-has good judg­ ment, is innovative, articulates d i rection for l i­ brary, is enthusiastic The director should play an extensive role outside the l ibrary, serve as a change agent when neces­ sary, and rely on a team for internal management. (Hernon, Powel l , & Youn g , 2002) (Hernon, Powel l , & Young , 200 1 ) Jurow identifies five leadership characteristics: vi­ sion, communication, trust, risk, and empower­ ment. (Jurow, 1 990; 59) The knowledge and skil ls that leaders need are: abi l ity to make choices and focus energy; understanding of g roup dynamics and strong interpersonal ski l ls; wil l ingness to take risks; abi l ity to make a commitment to a course of action and focus the organization on accomplish­ ing that goal; understanding of what motivates in­ dividuals and groups; and can bui ld on the strengths of others. (Jurow, 1 990; 63) Wedgeworth states in a panel p resentation on leadership that knowledge is a characteristic that is usually rated low but that a certain level of knowl­ edge and understanding is assumed in a leader­ ship position. It is a working tool necessary to exert leadership. (Wed geworth, 1 989; 37) A d i rector's authority should be pred icated on knowledge. (Riggs & Sabine, 1 988; 1 09-1 0) (Gertzog , 1 989b; 32) (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 62) Euster reviewed the leadership and management l iterature in 1 984 stat­ ing that there had been no comprehensive investi­ gation of the characteristics of l ibrary leaders. She stated that successful l ibrary d i rectors must " rec­ ognize that different stages in the organization's l ife cycle wil l require d ifferent emphases; accept the idea that the same person may not be the ap­ propriate leader for all organizational circum­ stances; and util ize the dual concept of manage­ ment and leadership as essential and related func­ tions." ( J . R. Euster, 1 984) Leaders need to estab­ l ish credibi l ity with col leagues. A leade r needs to l isten, make the best judgment, and bui ld consen­ sus. (Riggs & Sabine, 1 988; 1 09-1 0) Wiegand reported the reasons why academic l i­ brary leaders were selected for a biographical 11 handbook: unrecognized accomplishments; belief in the role of research l ibraries as promoting civic virtue; scholar-librarian; leadership of professional organizations; championing intellectual freedom and faculty status for l ibrarians; expert on l ibrary bui ld ings; improvement of a l ibrary system; influen­ tial publ ications; focus on intellectual aspects of l ibrarianship; management innovations; and devel­ oper of l ibrary surveys. (Wiegand , 1 983; 3-7) Euster's Two-Environment Model relates the leader to the internal and external environment of the organization. The model shows the l ibrary leader as the intermediary between the control en­ vironment (administrators, boards, leg islatures) and the user environment (faculty, stu dents) . The d i rectors expended the greatest effort in entrepre­ neur activities. Changes in faci l ities and in the in­ ternal organizational structure were associated with h igh activity of the leaders. There was only a moderate association between longevity of the di­ rector and amount of change in the organization. (J . R. Euster, 1 989) A study of the academic l ibrary d i rector in an envi­ ronmental context showed that col leagues outside the l ibrary tended to evaluate d irectors more h igh ly than did internal subordinates. The leadership types that emerged were: The Energizer (h igh lev­ els of activity and change, h igh reputation� level) ; The Sustainer (high reputation, highly active, little organizational change) ; The Pol itician ( low leader activity, low organizational change, effective repu­ tation); The Retiree (inactive as a leader; organiza­ tion is unchanging ; not h igh ly regarded or d isre­ garded by col leagues). (Joanne Reed Euster, 1 986; 1 46) Evaluation of these profiles indicates that there is no single characteristic or combination . of characteristics that relate to effectiveness; rather, successful leader behavior is related to the organizational envi ronment. Characteristics of l ibrary d irectors of doctoral and comprehensive institutions d iffered from those of d irectors of smaller baccalaureate college l ibraries. Doctoral institution d irectors spend less time on internal roles; baccalaureate institution d i rectors spend more time with faculty and students and see technical skil ls as important to their jobs. (Mech , 1 990; 425) Library leaders interviewed for a book opined that leadership is not based on personal characteris­ tics. "Those persons who tend to do wel l in our field are able to get the ir work done through others and are able to keep focused on specific objectives and not get lost in the most current fad or the most Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 popular d i rection. They are the ones who are wil l­ ing to ignore conventional wisdom in terms of look­ ing at a problem and trying to strike out in a differ­ ent d i rection." (Riggs & Sabine, 1 988; 1 0 1 ) Power Power over setting objectives� and policy, leader­ ship style, role clarity, and expertise are signifi­ cantly related to d i rectors' perceived power. (Holmes, 1 983) Subordinates' ideas about what makes a l ibrary d i rector powerful d iffer from that of the d irectors and their superiors. They place as much emphasis on the importance of objectives and policy-setting as those of the other groups, but they also emphasize operations instead of strategy and budget. (Holmes, 1 983; 1 58) The powerfu l d i rector is seen "as a professional peer of senior status, a staff special ist with managerial duties." (Holmes, 1 983; 1 55) A survey of power relation­ ships in academic l ibraries showed no relationship between administrators' preferred power use, em­ powerment, and characteristics of the administra­ tors. Their preference was to use "expert" power, then "legitimate" and " information" power. (Evc;1ns, 1 997; 87) However, l ib rary leadership characteris­ tics identified in a study by Gertzog did not mention power. (Gertzog, 1 989b; 32) Holmes' dissertation on the perceived power of academic l ibrary d irectors suggested that d i rectors' power over strategic decision areas contribute most h igh ly to perceptions of their overall power. Expertise also contributes significantly to percep­ tions of the d i rectors' power. (Holmes, 1 983) "Per­ sons lead ing through position authority and per­ sonal power have a h igh potential of being effec­ tive d i rectors." (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 6 1 ) Position power is strengthened when leaders handle critical situations in a rational manner. Gertzog examined leader backgrounds and ca­ reers to determine what social resources and pro­ fessional activities were necessary conditions of leadership. Respondents most frequently selected leaders for their contribution of ideas and for their institutional affi l iations; least often for their innova­ tions and personal characteristics. Perceived lead­ ers participated actively in professional associa­ tions, published frequently in the professional press, and held h igh organizational positions. (Gertzog, 1 989a; ii) Matthews states that d i rectors must be able to deal with ambigu ity and function effectively when the rules and boundaries are not clear. "Adjustment is a continual process in dy­ namic organizations." (Matthews, 2002) 1 2 Diversity Issues Fisher questioned whether males actually domi­ nate the administrative ranks of l ibraries. His study of l ibrary d irectory entries showed that males had administrative positions in 64 percent of large aca­ demic l ibraries and 58 percent of med iu m-large academic l ibraries. (Fisher, 1 997; 234) A 1 99 1 study showed that the percentage o f female Asso­ ciation of Research L ibrary d i rectors had g rown from a few in the 1 970s to almost 30 percent in the late 1 980s. (Myers & Kaufman, 1 991 ; 252) How­ ever, Mobley states that "there seems to be some substance to the criticism that the current model of leadership is only relevant to white males." Women are missing from d iscussions about personality traits in leadersh ip and there is very little about minorities. (Mobley, 1 989; 44) A study of contemporary feminist theories in rela­ tion to career paths, work styles, and leadership practices of feminist l ibrarians examined the effects of feminism on their careers and personal l ives, the influence of other women, and the concepts and practices of feminist l ibrarians who had leadersh ip positions. The resu lts showed that their feminism influenced their work as wel l as personal l ives and that feminist l ibrarians have contributed to new approaches to l ibrary work and leadership styles. (Freedman, 1 984) Change Agents Hall studied the relationsh ips between educational ach ievement, professional involvement and change agent characteristics of selected academic l ibrarians. The characteristics were: educational attainment and continuing education activities, par­ ticipation in on-campus activities, professional or­ ganizations, publ ishing activities, and research activities. Resu lts showed that educational ach ievement was not significantly related to change agent characteristics; professional status was related significantly to two of the four meas­ ures. On-campus activities and research activities were the best predictors of change advocacy and leadersh ip skil ls. (Hal l , 1 984) Abil ity to influence is crucial because "there are very few power opportunities in our field." (Riggs & Sabine, 1 988; 1 0 1 ) The pol itical position is one in wh ich "decision-making is open to chal lenge by other parties wield ing equal or g reater influence, and where formal authority in l ibrary decision­ making is l iable to be usurped by other offices. " (Holmes, 1 983; 1 55) Since expertise was a predic­ tor of d i rectors' power, the d i rector's power is influ­ ential rather than authoritarian. (Holmes, 1 983; Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 1 55) Future investigation of academic l ibrary d i rec­ tors' power should incorporate a pol itical model that would explore the l ibrary director's coalitions within the academic community and determine the nature of the influence. (Holmes, 1 983; 1 56) Influ­ ence can be developed through continuity, rel iabi l­ ity, and understand ing what oth�r people want. " I t's a matter of developing extensive relationsh ips, be­ ing able to work effectively with committees, but at the same time, being able to assert initiative and to state an unpopular position and back it up . " (Riggs & Sabine, 1 988; 1 0 1 -2) Di rectors must be sensitive to their larger environ­ ment and adjust when it changes. They must "edu­ cate staff about opportunities available and con­ straints imposed by the outside world ." (Carg i l l & Webb, 1 988; 60) They must appear confident and be reliable sources of information and advice. They interpret organizational situations. (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 62) They need to use rel iable judgment and have a genuine concern for staff. "Consideration for individual needs, however, cannot impair the striving for the ach ievement of overal l organiza­ tional goals or obscure present and futu re organ­ izational goals. Leadership impl ies responsibi l ity for one's actions." (Carg i l l & Webb, 1 988; 64) Library leaders must inspire trust in the futu re of the organization and create a sense of cohesion. (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 69) They need to be able to integrate people with d ifferent backgrounds into the organization by valu ing their diversity and en­ courag ing different approaches to problem solving. They work to develop each person's abi l ities. (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 73) Underlying problems must be identified and resolved with mutual trust and respect. Di rectors must convince employees to find long-term solutions acceptable to al l rather than short-term gain. (Carg i l l & Webb, 1 988; 73) They effectively delegate, think on their feet, and can anticipate the consequences of their decisions. (Carg i l l & Webb, 1 988; 79) Discipl inary actions are an important responsibi l ity. Expectations must be communicated clearly; "the employee who is either ignorant of expectations or is unwil l ing to change is creating the need for inter­ vention. Employees need to accept responsibil ities for their actions just as the manager needs to act on his or her responsibi l ity to address problems." (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 80) Staff training should be d i rected toward understanding and dealing with moving targets; many changes create unforeseen consequences and readjustments are necessary in goals and daily activities. (Cargi l l & Webb, 1 988; 90) 1 3 Management Styles Decision styles of d i rectors vary by type of institu­ tion, as assessed using the "Decision Style Inven­ tory." Most d i rectors in comprehensive and bacca­ laureate institutions employ the behavioral decision style, which impl ies a low tolerance for ambigu ity and an orientation toward people and social con­ cerns. Di rectors in doctoral institutions prefer the conceptual decision style. This ind icates a h igh tolerance for ambigu ity and also an orientation to­ ward people and social concerns. These d i rectors are future-oriented thinkers who have a system perspective. (Mech, 1 993; 379-83) Age is a factor in decision style used: those who have fewer years of experience tend to use the behavioral sty le more than those who have more administrative experience. More di rectors at private institutions use the behavioral style than those at publ ic insti­ tutions Lawson and Dorrell surveyed l ibrarians at the M is­ souri state academic l ibraries. In general , the l i­ brarians d id not think their d irectors practiced the management style they professed to practice. Staff did not always participate in decision-making. Di­ rectors d id stand by difficult decisions, encourage staff to achieve their potential , and support profes­ sional development. Staff perceived themse:ves to be more loyal to the d irectors than the d i rectors were to them. (Lawson & Dorrel l , 1 992; 1 9 1 ) Faerman's conceptual map of organizational and managerial leadership performance shows the re­ lationship between organizational performance and managerial styles and behaviors. She examines preferences in leadership style and their effect on deal ing with organizational change. She uses the competing values framework because l ibraries are organizations that have confl icting demands. She d iscusses user-centered organizations in terms of the rational goal model, the internal process model , and the human relations model . (Faerman, 1 993) A 1 994 study showed that research university l i­ brary d i rectors considered themselves to have transformational leadersh ip behaviors at a signifi­ cantly higher level than their subord inates. Di rec­ tors thought they cou ld encourage greater effort from their staff and that they were more effective than their subordinates did . Male d irectors exh ib­ ited h igher levels of non-leadership behavior than female d i rectors. Female d irectors exhibited h igher levels of transformational leadership behaviors, were perceived to be more effective, and were more satisfied than male d i rectors. Directors with Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 twenty years or less of experience used inspira­ tional leadersh ip more frequently and were per­ ceived to be more satisfied than those who had more than twenty years of experience. (Suwannarat, 1 994; 1 -2) A later study of transformation,al and transactional characteristics of l ibrary d i rectors suggested that perceptions of leadership behavior are associated with perceptions of satisfaction with the leader, effectiveness of the leader, and amount of extra effort by followers. Transformational leadership had a greater effect on leadership outcomes and dimensions of organizational effectiveness than did transactional leadership. (Albritton, 1 998; 78) It is "a measurable construct of identifiable behaviors such as the articulation of transcendent goals, demonstration of strong self-confidence and confi­ dence in others, setting a personal example for followers, showing h igh expectations for followers' performance, and the abi l ity to communicate one's faith in one's goals. Therefore, what is needed are training and education that promote self­ understanding, awareness, and appreciation of the range of potential leadersh ip behaviors used by effective transformational and transactional lead­ ers ." (Albritton, 1 998; 80) Conclusion Although some research has been done on identi­ fying l ibrary leadership potential , career develop­ ment, characteristics and management sty les of academic l ibrary d i rectors, and their roles and re­ sponsibi l ities, it is clear that many aspects have not been addressed and that a comprehensive body of cohesive, evidence-based research is needed. . There is a dearth of publ ished studies or disserta­ tions that relate leadership to effectiveness of l i­ brary d i rectors, their organizations, or outcomes. Although "character'' is a current topic of d iscus­ sion and research in the business and education leadership l iterature, it has not been related to education l ibrary leadersh ip . Transformational ver­ sus transactional leadership have begun to be ad­ d ressed, but other models have not. Within the framework of education l ibraries, the effects of d if­ ferent leadership styles on employee productivity and job satisfaction have not been stud ied ; nor has it been determined which leadersh ip sty les and characteristics are most effective in which envi­ ronments. Professio nal networking , social skil ls that are important for development and fundrais­ ing, relationsh ips with university administrators, aspects of influence, and the effectiveness of d if­ ferent internal organizational models are areas that 1 4 need to be explored. To have data in these areas, particularly as they relate to education l ibraries, wou ld inform professiona l development programs, mentoring initiatives, and would provide university administrators with conclusive information when making h i ring decisions. · References Adamany, D. W. ( 1 9 85). Research l ibraries from a presidential perspective. In P. Spyers­ Duran & T. W. Mann (Ed s. ) , Issues in aca­ demic librarianship: Views and case stud­ ies for the 1 980's and 1 990's (pp. 5-20). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Albritton, R. L. ( 1 998). A new paradig m of leader effectiveness for academic l ibraries: An empirical study of the Bass ( 1 985) Model of Transformational Leadership . In T. F. Mech & G . B. McCabe (Eds. ) , Leadership and academic librarians (pp. 66-84 ) . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Almanac. (2003). The Chronicle of Higher Educa­ tion, L( 1 ) . Anderson, D. J . ( 1 985). Comparative career pro­ fi les of academic l ibrarians: Are leaders different? Journal of Academic Librarian­ ship, 1 0(6), 326-332 . Battin, P. ( 1 9 98) . Leadership in a transformational age. In B. L. Hawkins & P. Battin (Eds . ) , The mirage of continuity: Reconfiguring academic information resource.s for the 2 1 st century (pp. 271 -277). Wash ington, DC: Council on L ibrary and Information Resources Association of American Uni­ versities. Buttlar, L. J . , & Garcha, R. ( 1 992). Organizational structuring in academic l ibraries. Journal of Library Administration, 1 7(3), 1 -2 1 . Cargi l l , J . , & Webb, G. M . ( 1 988). Managing librar­ ies in transition. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Clemmer, J. G. ( 1 997). The l iberal arts college li­ brary d i rector and the colleg iate myth. 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Hammond, E. D . (2003). Rising to the top: The pecu l iar leadership chal lenges for the suc­ cessful internal candidate. I n C. E . Regen­ stein & B. I. Dewey (Eds.) . Leadership, higher education, and the information age (pp. 1 8 1 -1 89) . New York: Nea i -Schuman. Hatcher, K. A. ( 1 997). Succession paths for aca­ demic l ibrary d i rectors. Journal of Library A dministration, 24(3), 3 1 -46. Hernon, P. , Powel l , R. R . , & Young , A. P. (2001 ) . Un iversity l ibrary d irectors in the Associa­ tion of Research Libraries: The next gen­ eration, part one. [Electronic version]. Col­ lege & Research Libraries, 62(2), 1 1 6 - 145 . Hernon, P. , Powel l , R . R . , & Young, A. P. (2002). U niversity l ibrary d irectors in the Associa­ tion of Research Libraries: The next gen­ eration , part two. [Electron ic version] . Col­ lege & Research Libraries, 63(1 ) , 73-90. Holmes, R . C. ( 1 983) . The academic library direc­ tor's perceived power and its correlates. 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College & Re­ search Libraries, 63(2), 1 71 -82. Sharon Gray Weiner is Di rector, Peabody Library, Vande rbilt Un iversity. Emai l : s.weiner@vanderbilt.edu Figure 1 . Study characteristics of publ ications included in review. Authors Method/Model Studl£ Date # Res�ondents I nstitution Tl£ �e Albritton (1998) Survey N/A 23 ACRL, ARL Libraries Anderson (1984) Comparison by random N/A 229 UCLA Senior Fellows sample & match g roup Buttlar ( 1 992) Survey N/A 93 state college/universities Clemmer (1997) Telephone interviews N/A 9 Directors of Oberlin Group l ibraries Cottam (1 994) Survey N/A 30 Directors of large l ibraries or l ibrary systems Deekle, deKierk (1 992) Survey 1 991 250 Small/medium private col- leges/ universities Dilevko, Gottlieb (2002) Survey 2001 33 Tribal college library staff Euster (1986) Survey N/A 42 ARL or ACR L l ib. directors Euster (1 989) Two Environment Model Evans (1997) Correlational, Surveys N/A 75 Masters 1/1 1 public colleges east coast, South Fisher (1 997) Record review N/A N/A All l ibrary directors Freedman (1 984) I nterview N/A 20 Feminist l ibrarians Gertzog (1 989) Survey I 1987 313 Library administrators /educators Gertzog (1 989) Survey I I 1 987 385 Library administrators /educators Hall (1 984) Survey N/A 222 Assn. of Southeastern R esearch Libraries Hatcher (1 997) Survey N/A 21 Council on State Univer- sity Libraries Hernon, et al (2001) Content analysis, 1 999-2000 1 5 ARL directors interviews Hernon, et al (2002) Delphi study 1 /2001 20 ARL .directors Hernon , et al (2002) Delphi study 4/2001 29 ARL asst., assoc. , deputy d irectors Holmes (1 983) Survey 1 981 583 Carnegie 1 &2 liberal arts & comp. colleges/univ. Hyatt, Santiago (1987) Case study N/A 4 Princeton, U. IL , NYU, U . Georgia Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 1 7 Kazlauskas (1 993) Surveys (3) N/A 1 64 Florida State University system librarians Kirkland (1 997) Survey I N/A 50 Women librarians Kirkland (1 997) Survey I I N/A 61 Women academic l ibrary directors Matthews (2002) Nicholson & West N/A N/A Academic l ibraries Transition Cycles Model McCracken (2000) Survey N/A 80 BaccalaL ' freate I colleges McElrath (2002) Content analysis; survey 1 999 72 Masters 1/1 1 public univer- sities in south McNeer (1988) Survey 1985 1 6 Female ARL directors Mech (1 990) Survey 1989 354 Midwest academic l ibrary directors Mech (1 993) Survey & Decision Style 1 990 370 Academic l ibrary directors Inventory Mitchell (1 989) Fiedler's Contingency N/A 209 Academic l ibrary depart- Model of Leadership ment heads Moore (1 981 ) Comparison study N/A Myers, Record review 1 989 1 ,798 ARL directors Kaufman (1991 ) Sheldon (1 992) Interviews N/A 61 Directors, deans, state l ibns., org. exec. directors Suwannarat (1 994) Survey N/A 1 73 ARL dir. & subordinates Travica (1999) Survey N/A 205 Academic l ibrary directors Williams, Bibliometric analysis N/A N/A N/A Winston (2003) Winston , Content analysis N/A N/A Academic l ibraries Dunkley (2002) Education Libraries Volume 26, No. 2 Winter 2003 1 8