Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color Journal website: http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/ Manuscript received: 31/1/2024 Facebook: /EPAAA Revisions received: 27/3/2024 Twitter: @epaa_aape Accepted: 15/6/2024 SPECIAL ISSUE Research on Teachers of Color and Indigenous Teachers education policy analysis archives A peer-reviewed, independent, open access, multilingual journal Arizona State University Volume 32 Number 59 September 24, 2024 ISSN 1068-2341 Policies and Practices for Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color Desiree Carver-Thomas Learning Policy Institute Margarita Bianco University of Colorado, Denver Ramon Goings University of Maryland, Baltimore County & Maria E. Hyler Learning Policy Institute United States Citation: Carver-Thomas, D., & Bianco, M., Goings, R., & Hyler, M. E. (2024). Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 32(59). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.32.8123 This article is part of the special issue, Research on Teachers of Color and Indigenous Teachers, guest edited by Conra Gist, Travis Bristol, and Saili Kulkarni. Abstract: Despite growing interest and investment in building a more racially and ethnically diverse teacher workforce, increases in the share of teachers of color nationally have stalled in recent years. Even with more new teachers of color entering the profession each year, about 80% of the teacher workforce has been white since 2015. This trend highlights the need for researchers and policymakers to view the recruitment and retention of teachers of color as http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/ https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.32.8123 Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 2 interrelated and critically important to increase the diversity of the teacher workforce. This paper synthesizes what we know about policies and practices at the national, state, and local levels that support recruiting and retaining teachers of color: access to comprehensive teacher preparation, access to mentoring, and supportive teaching conditions. The paper also provides a series of policy recommendations that can improve recruitment and retention for teachers of color based upon the literature. Keywords: teacher diversity; recruitment; retention; policies and practices Políticas y prácticas para reclutar y retener maestros de color Resumen: A pesar del creciente interés y la inversión en construir una fuerza laboral docente más diversa racial y étnicamente, los aumentos en la proporción de maestros de col or a nivel nacional se han estancado en los últimos años. Incluso con más docentes de color nuevos ingresando a la profesión cada año, alrededor del 80% de la fuerza laboral docente ha sido blanca desde 2015. Esta tendencia resalta la necesidad de que los investigadores y formuladores de políticas consideren la contratación y retención de docentes de color como algo interrelacionado y de importancia crítica. aumentar la diversidad de la fuerza laboral docente. Este documento sintetiza lo que sabemos sobre las políticas y prácticas a nivel nacional, estatal y local que apoyan el reclutamiento y la retención de maestros de color: acceso a una preparación docente integral, acceso a tutorías y condiciones de enseñanza de apoyo. El documento también proporciona una serie de recomendaciones de políticas que pueden mejorar el reclutamiento y la retención de maestros de color según la literatura. Palabras-clave: diversidad docente; reclutamiento; retención; políticas y prácticas Políticas e práticas para recrutar e reter professores de cor Resumo: Apesar do crescente interesse e investimento na construção de uma força de trabalho docente com maior diversidade racial e étnica, o aumento da percentagem de professores de cor a nível nacional estagnou nos últimos anos. Mesmo com mais novos professores de cor entrando na profissão a cada ano, cerca de 80% da força de trabalho docente é branca desde 2015. Esta tendência destaca a necessidade de pesquisadores e formuladores de políticas considerarem o recrutamento e a retenção de professores de cor como algo inter-relacionado. e criticamente importante aumentar a diversidade da força de trabalho docente. Este artigo sintetiza o que sabemos sobre políticas e práticas nacionais, estaduais e locais que apoiam o recrutamento e a retenção de professores de cor: acesso à preparação abrangente de professores, acesso à orientação e condições de ensino favoráveis. O documento também fornece uma série de recomendações políticas que podem mel horar o recrutamento e a retenção de professores de cor com base na literatura. Palavras-chave: diversidade docente; recrutamento; retenção; políticas e práticas Policies and Practices for Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color Despite growing interest and investment in building a more racially and ethnically diverse teacher workforce, increases in the share of teachers of color nationally have stalled in recent years. Even with more new teachers of color entering the profession each year, about 80% of the teacher workforce has been white since 2015 (Carver-Thomas et al., forthcoming). This trend highlights the need for researchers and policymakers to view the recruitment and retention of teachers of color as interrelated and critically important to increase the diversity of the teacher workforce. Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 3 Teacher Diversity Context The need to diversify the educator workforce has recently garnered attention at both the national and state levels. State departments of education, researchers, policymakers, teacher preparation programs, and school districts all have an interest in understanding and responding to the stagnant share of teachers of color in the workforce, which has not kept pace with the growing population of people of color in the United States. Based on data from the 2020–21 National Teacher and Principal Survey, just 20% of teachers were teachers of color, marking a slight decrease since 2017–18 when teachers of color made up nearly 21% of the workforce. The proportion of teachers of color has nearly doubled since 1987 (from about 12% to 20%), and more new teacher hires are teachers of color today than were 30 years ago (Carver-Thomas et al., forthcoming). However, the increasing ranks of teachers of color have not kept pace with the growth of the teacher workforce overall. Between 2018 and 2021, the teacher workforce grew by nearly 5.6%, an estimated 200,000 teachers (see Table 1). These additional teachers included new teachers as well as teachers re- entering the workforce after time away from the classroom. Based on estimated counts, a full 92% of all the additional teachers entering the workforce during this time were white teachers, whose overall numbers grew by 6.5%. Meanwhile, during the same period, the ranks of teachers of color only grew by 2.2% overall and lost Black, Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, Native American/Alaska Native, and multiracial teachers. Table 1 Percent Change in the Estimated Total Number of Teachers by Race/Ethnicity, 2017–18 to 2020–21 Latino/a Black Asian American Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander Native American/ Alaska Native Multi- racial White Total Workforce Teachers of Color Change in estimated no. of teachers, 2017–18 to 2020– 21 (%) 6.6** -4.7 16.3** -28.7 -14.4 -2.9 6.5** 5.6** 2.2 Notes: Sample included teachers who are full-time, part-time, or itinerant in public schools. Total number of teachers by race/ethnicity were estimated using survey weights (standard errors are used to construct the 95% confidence intervals, not reported). The change was calculated using the estimated total number of teachers by race/ethnicity in each year, and the statistical significance was calculated using the standard errors of the differences to compare each racial group as well as teachers of color overall, with white teachers. NCES race/ethnicity categories are as follows: American Indian includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified. *p < .05, **p < .01. Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS), “Teacher Questionnaire, 2017–18” and “Teacher Questionnaire, 2020–21.” Teacher workforce trends between 2018 and 2021 suggest that teacher diversity has stagnated for at least two reasons. First, additional teachers entering the profession were much more likely to be white than teachers of color. Second, large numbers of existing teachers of color left the profession. Relatively greater diversity among first-year teachers was not sufficient to outweigh the effects of these conditions. Recent attention may suggest to some that this is a new development; Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 4 however, researchers have been studying the lack of educator diversity for decades (Villegas et al., 2012). By better understanding recruitment and retention trends, researchers, policymakers, and practitioners can develop policies and practices to address the current critical educator diversity gap. This paper synthesizes what we know about policies and practices at the national, state, and local levels that support increasing teacher diversity efforts through both recruitment and retention efforts. Part I of this paper details the experiences and conditions that influence the recruitment and retention of teachers of color. We begin with a description of the research on the role comprehensive teacher preparation has in both recruiting and retaining teachers of color. Next, we describe federal, state, and district policy opportunities that relate to recruiting teachers of color. Part I ends with a synthesis of research on the impact mentoring and teaching conditions have on teacher retention. Part II of this paper provides recommendations on policy changes that can improve the recruitment and retention for teachers of color based on the literature. Part I: How Policy Shapes Support for Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color Prior research has demonstrated that a host of factors influence the recruitment and retention of teachers of color (Gist & Bristol, 2022). Researchers, for example, have highlighted the value of developing student interest in the teaching profession from a young age (Lac, 2022; Lightfoot & White, 2022); diversifying teacher preparation programs (Robinson & Gonzalez, 2022); designing teacher preparation to improve the experience of candidates of color (Chávez-Moreno et al., 2022); cultivating a culture of justice and equity both in teacher preparation and school environments (Griffin et al., 2022; Lac, 2022); improving hiring and onboarding policies (Rios & Cueto, 2022); offering mentoring and professional development tailored to teachers of color (Flores et al., 2022; Kohli, 2022); improving teaching conditions (Griffin et al., 2022); and increasing teacher compensation (Hansen & Quintero, 2022). Few studies, however, have provided insight into the extent to which federal, state, and local policies are enacted and implemented in alignment with the research on recruiting and retaining teachers of color. Policy Selection Criteria For the purpose of this study, we chose to focus on policies related to a subset of factors that, based on prior research, are both high leverage for recruiting and retaining teachers of color and policy-malleable: access to comprehensive teacher preparation, mentoring, and supportive teaching conditions. When it comes to preparation, upwards of 120,000 teaching candidates of color enroll in some type of teacher preparation each year, making preparation pathways a major driver of teacher recruitment (Carver-Thomas, et al., forthcoming). In addition, several existing policies that target teacher preparation at the federal, state, and local levels indicate that this recruitment factor is policy-malleable. As will be noted, evidence shows that mentoring for early career teachers is associated with a significant reduction in the likelihood of teacher turnover (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Further, state policy examples show that early career mentoring can be implemented at a statewide scale for every new teacher, demonstrating that it is both high-leverage and policy- malleable (Espinoza et al., 2018). Finally, measures of supportive teaching conditions, such as administrative support, are among the most strongly predictive factors associated with teacher turnover and retention (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). Further, teachers of color are far more likely than white teachers to teach in schools that tend to be underresourced relative to their need. Improving the conditions most teachers of color experience could improve teacher retention, sustaining tens of thousands more teachers of color in the profession each year. As will be Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 5 described, state policies aimed at increasing resources and administrative support indicate that teaching conditions are policy-malleable. Access to Comprehensive Teacher Preparation Understanding the teacher preparation landscape is critical to developing a racially diverse teacher workforce. In recent years, the number of college students enrolling in teacher preparation programs has declined (Sutcher et al., 2016). For instance, the PEW Research Center (Schaeffer, 2022) report examining the number of bachelor’s degrees in education found that since 2000, there has been a 19% decline in education degrees awarded, while there has been an increase in Americans with a college degree. Likewise, analysis of Title II Higher Education Act teacher preparation data, which include teacher preparation data at the baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate levels, indicated that the share of teaching candidates enrolling in traditional teacher preparation has been in decline (Carver-Thomas et al., forthcoming). In addition, prior research has shown that the type of preparation teachers complete also makes a difference for recruitment and retention. More specifically, comprehensive preservice teacher preparation—or preparation that includes preservice coursework and clinical practice— influences teacher retention as well as the impact teachers have on student outcomes (Carver- Thomas, 2018; Ingersoll et al., 2014; Podolsky et al., 2019). Teachers who enter the profession with little to no preservice preparation are two to three times as likely to transfer schools or leave the profession as teachers who enter with the most comprehensive preparation (Ingersoll et al., 2014). Ingersoll and colleagues have defined comprehensive preparation to include at least a full semester of student teaching; several preservice courses in teaching methods; and pedagogical preparation through classroom observation, feedback on their instruction, or classes in learning theory or using instructional materials. Teachers of color, however, often have less access to the kind of comprehensive preparation that supports greater retention. Teacher Preparation Trends Using the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), we examined the racial and gender composition of undergraduate students who designated education as their major in Fall 2020. Table 2 presents a snapshot of racial and gender diversity demographics showing that teacher preparation programs continue to remain predominantly white, at about 66% of undergraduates majoring in education. Table 2 Percentage of Undergraduates Enrolled in Education by Race/Ethnicity and Gender, 2020 % Men % Women % Total American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.1 0.5 0.6 Asian 0.5 1.9 2.4 Black 1.8 6.5 8.4 Hispanic 2.4 11.8 14.2 Native Hawaiian <0.1 0.1 0.2 White 12.9 53.4 66.3 Total 19.4% 80.6 Note: Data source Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) Institution Comparison tool. Percentages of each racial/gender group may not equal 100% due to rounding. Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 6 Likewise, Title II teacher preparation data show that white teaching candidates made up the majority of candidates who enrolled in teacher preparation programs in 2021, at about 58% of teaching candidates (Carver-Thomas et al., forthcoming). Further, according to Title II teacher preparation data, enrollments in traditional preparation programs dropped by 10% for candidates of color from 2012–13 to 2020–21 (from 95,807 to 86,269). Meanwhile candidates of color enrolled in alternative teacher preparation programs grew three-fold during the same period (from 16,832 to 47,817; Carver-Thomas et al., forthcoming). Alternative certification programs typically offer less preservice coursework and student teaching, if any, and are associated with higher turnover rates once candidates enter the classroom (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2019). Rather than simply recruit teachers of color through any expedient pathway, policymakers have good reason to provide teachers of color with comprehensive preparation that supports career longevity. Given these most recent data, policymakers at the federal, state, and local levels have sought to create policies to change these enrollment trends, which ultimately impact who enters the teacher workforce. In the sections below, we highlight some of those policies and discuss the opportunities these policies provide and challenges that also may impact their implementation. Federal Level Challenges and Policy Opportunities: The Importance of Student Loan Debt While there are various federal policy opportunities to increase access to comprehensive teacher preparation, in this section we focus on one policy opportunity in particular—student loan debt. The Title II data described above suggest that the cost of preparation could be the primary driver of teacher preparation trends among candidates of color. As noted, enrollments in traditional teacher preparation dropped between 2013 and 2021. Enrollments in alternative preparation programs, however, grew dramatically during the same period, suggesting that there is still interest in the teaching profession among potential teachers of color. Alternative pathways, in contrast to traditional programs, offer the opportunity for candidates to become teachers without the same debt burden, as these programs can be less expensive or allow candidates to maintain employment while they complete coursework during evenings and weekends. Thus, reducing the cost and debt burden of teacher preparation could support candidates of color in pursuing comprehensive preparation pathways that are associated with greater retention in the profession. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (Thomsen et al., 2020), Black collegians, specifically, have to borrow the most federal student loans and have the highest ratio of debt borrowed to debt owed within one year of degree completion. A Center for American Progress (Fiddiman et al., 2019) report found that Black and Latinx teacher candidates were more likely to secure student loans to fund their education than white teacher candidates. Furthermore, this report suggested that Black teacher candidates also had an increase in median federal student loan debt average between 2008 and 2012, which potentially suggested that Black borrowers had difficulty in repaying their student loan debt. Given these constraints, some scholars have suggested that college students of color may decide to pursue other career options with higher earning potential (Baum & O’Malley, 2003). The Public Service Loan Forgiveness Program To increase the affordability of the teaching profession, Title IV of the College Cost Reduction and Access Act of 2007 contained a provision providing loan forgiveness for student loan borrowers who made 120 monthly payments on eligible federal student loans (Federal Student Aid, n.d.). Given teachers would be eligible for this Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) program and the subsequent Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2018, which provided further opportunities for student loan borrowers to qualify for the PSFL, this federal policy was positioned to help current Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 7 educators eliminate student loan debt and serve as an incentive for college students to consider entering the teaching profession. Unfortunately, when the initial borrowers became eligible for debt relief starting in 2017, the data suggested a very different outcome than intended in the policy. For example, according to the January 2023 PSLF data report, only 52,616 of 2,159,926 (2.4%) individuals qualified for debt relief under the PSLF. Donnelly (2020) suggested that we continue to see this low percentage of eligible borrowers under the PSLF due to a set of complicated issues, including “the newness of the program, lack of borrower education, and issues concerning the administration by the Department of Education (DOE) and loan servicers contracted by DOE” (p. 42). These issues described by Donnelly are particularly alarming, given that there were 311,029 (14.4%) borrowers who had loans in repayment for the required 120 months and 120 months of qualifying payment yet were still rejected for having less than 120 PSLF qualifying payments at the time of submission. The PSLF Program requires 10 years of monthly payments while serving in a public service position before the remaining federal loan balance can be completely retired. This is a burdensome requirement that fails to address the economic reality of paying down high student loan debt on a relatively low teacher salary. The Teacher Loan Forgiveness Program The federal government also offers the Teacher Loan Forgiveness (TLF) Program1, which provides up to $5,000 in loan forgiveness for teachers who serve in high-need schools for 5 consecutive years. This amount can reach $17,500 for teachers in certain high-need schools and subject areas. Like the PSLF, teachers must make monthly loan payments over the 5-year service commitment before the remaining balance is forgiven. The TEACH Grant Program Finally, The TEACH Grant Program provides scholarships of $4,000 per year to undergraduate and graduate students who are preparing for a career in teaching and who commit to teaching a high-need subject in a high-poverty school for 4 years. This grant is converted to a Federal Direct Unsubsidized Stafford Loan (with interest accrued from the date each grant was awarded) if a teacher does not fulfill their complete 4-year commitment. The grant award for this program has not been increased since it was created. Instead, it has been cut by roughly $225 annually since 2013 (Congressional Research Service, 2019). These cuts will continue through 2029 without congressional action (Gentry, 2019). Further, the harsh loan conversion penalty serves as a disincentive for postsecondary students to use the program and ultimately go into teaching. Given that students of color are more likely to secure student loan debt, we have to consider how these policies can be improved to support efforts to increase the representation of teachers of color in the profession. For example, increasing the TEACH grant to cover a more substantial portion of the cost of preparation and reforming the PSLF and TLF Programs to require the federal government to make teacher loan payments as teachers teach could save teachers hundreds of dollars each month and thousands of dollars over time. State-Level Analysis and Policy Opportunities While challenges at the federal level have impacted current trends in the recruitment of a diverse teacher education workforce, the challenges at the state level can vary tremendously. Moss (2022) explained that while state contexts may vary, state-level policymakers are in a unique position 1 The Teacher Loan Forgiveness Program was last substantially updated by Congress in the Deficit Reduction Act of 2006, P.L. 109-171. Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 8 to make changes that can impact the racial and ethnic diversity of the teacher workforce. In this section, we provide context about the differences in states’ approaches by first providing a state-by- state overview and then highlighting specific policy efforts in the State of Minnesota that are impacting teacher preparation. State Levers for Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color Prior policy research has indicated that states have several levers for increasing the recruitment and retention of teachers of color, such as sharing educator diversity data; setting goals for increasing teacher diversity; supporting access to preservice preparation for candidates of color; and supporting district efforts to recruit, hire, and retain more teachers of color (The Education Trust, 2020). Based on a recent report by The Education Trust (2020), Table 3 provides a 50-state overview summarizing the policy and practice landscape. States labeled with an asterisk indicate those that The Education Trust identified as using best practices. Table 3 50 State Overview of Policies and Practices Criteria States That Meet Criteria Make educator diversity data visible and actionable to stakeholders Share annual school-level information about the racial demographics of the educator workforce, including online in a dashboard, school report cards, or a state- developed report on the diversity of the educator workforce. Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Washington, Wisconsin *Massachusetts Share the racial makeup of candidates attending in-state teacher preparation programs annually, including online in a dashboard, school report cards, or a state- developed report on the diversity of the educator workforce. Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee *Illinois Share the racial makeup of candidates completing in-state teacher preparation programs annually, including online in a dashboard, school report cards, or a state- developed report on the diversity of the educator workforce. Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas *Tennessee Share annual school-level information about the retention rates of educators of color, including online in a dashboard, school report cards, or a state-developed report on the diversity of the educator workforce. Connecticut, Massachusetts *Delaware Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 9 Criteria States That Meet Criteria Set clear goals at the state and district levels to increase student access to diverse educators Set a clear, numeric goal for increasing the racial diversity of the educator workforce that is measurable and publicly available, and includes an ultimate goal that is limited in time (e.g., within 5 years). Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, Washington *Arkansas Offer opportunities to local stakeholders to provide input on and support for the goals. Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Virginia Provide funding and guidance for districts and/or educator preparation programs to set goals and invest in strategies to increase the racial diversity of their educator populations Arkansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Washington Develop a task force, an advisory group, or a role within the state education agency with access to leadership to examine, create, and monitor strategies to increase the racial diversity of the educator workforce. Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington Invest in educator preparation programs to increase enrollment and improve the preparation of teachers of color Invest in scholarship and loan forgiveness programs to attract students of color into preparation programs and the teaching profession. Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Tennessee, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin *Florida Adopt rigorous program approval standards to compel teacher preparation programs to recruit and graduate candidates of color. Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Washington, Wisconsin *Alabama Interrogate licensure policies for racial bias and adopt licensure policies that increase diversity while maintaining quality and rigor. Arkansas, California, Georgia, Michigan, New York, Oregon, Tennessee, Virginia, Washington Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 10 Criteria States That Meet Criteria Invest in preparation programs that prepare a high number of teachers of color, including minority-serving institutions. Arkansas, Connecticut, Kentucky, New York, Tennessee *Virginia Target resources to districts and schools to support efforts to intentionally recruit and hire a diverse teaching workforce Providing funding, guidance, and public support for Grow Your Own programs that attract candidates of color. California, Colorado, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia *Texas Investing in and providing guidance on cultural competence and anti-bias trainings and resources for hiring managers. Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, Wisconsin Investing in teacher academies and dual- enrollment programming to promote the teaching profession to a racially diverse student population Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin *Oregon Investing in partnerships between districts and teacher preparation programs, particularly programs with a diverse candidate population, to ensure targeted hiring. Colorado, Connecticut, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Washington *California Investing in diversifying the educator workforce in areas that influence hiring and recruitment decisions, including the education leaders at teacher preparation programs, district leadership, and school leadership. *Massachusetts Note. Adapted from The Education Trust. (2020). Is your state prioritizing teacher diversity and equity? https://edtrust.org/educator-diversity/#US We analyzed the policies and practices outlined in Table 3 to identify states that have passed laws explicitly articulating a commitment to increasing teacher diversity and provide resources to achieving that goal. Based on our analysis of this 50-state summary, we found that few states have passed such a law, but those that have included Minnesota, Arkansas, Connecticut, Oregon, https://edtrust.org/educator-diversity/%23US Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 11 Kentucky, and Tennessee. The legislation in most of these states calls for modest attention to teacher diversity at the statewide level. Arkansas’s statute, for example, sets a state goal of increasing teacher diversity and allows the state Department of Education to develop a strategic plan for increasing the share of teachers of color. However, much of the state law focuses on outlining requirements for districts to develop and submit teacher recruitment plans. Likewise, state laws in Kentucky and Connecticut mandate that those states develop strategic plans for recruiting and retaining more teachers of color. State laws in Oregon and Tennessee mandate that those states collect and report data to track progress toward greater teacher diversity in those states. By contrast, Minnesota’s teacher diversity legislation is considerably more comprehensive in scope and includes substantial funding commitments. State Case Exemplar: Minnesota’s Increase Teachers of Color Act In 2023, the State of Minnesota passed many of the provisions included in the Increase Teachers of Color Act (ITCA) with the goal of “increasing the percentage of teachers of color and American Indian teachers in Minnesota” (Minn. H.F. 320, 2023). This bill, which expands upon the ITCA initially passed in 2017, set a goal for the state to increase the racial and ethnic diversity of the teaching workforce by 2% each year as well as a host of other stipulations meant to comprehensively address the conditions that influence the recruitment and retention of teachers of color. In 2023, the Minnesota legislature passed omnibus education bills that included provisions detailed in the ITCA bill. For example, the Education Finance Omnibus Bill includes provisions designed to improve teaching conditions, such as requiring districts to develop plans for integrating ethnic studies and culturally sustaining practices into their curricula. Further, the bill included competitive grants to support districts in improving their conditions. Specifically, the grants allow districts to “address opportunity gaps resulting from curricular, environmental, and structural inequities in schools experienced by students, families, and staff who are of color or who are American Indian” (Minn. H.F. 2497, 2023). The omnibus bill, drawing on language in the ITCA bill, also provided support for teachers of color to access preservice teacher preparation., including the allocation of funds to the Collaborative Urban and Greater Minnesota Educators of Color Grants program, a grant for teacher preparation programs to provide scholarships and other supports to candidates of color as well as additional funds for Grow Your Own teacher programs (Minn. H.F. 2497, 2023). The omnibus bill, as noted in the ITCA bill, also includes provisions to support mentoring for teachers of color. First, the omnibus bill requires that districts provide mentoring for teachers of color. Additionally, the bill provides mentoring grant programs to support districts in developing effective programs. They can use these funds for a range of purposes, including, for example, providing incentives to mentor teachers of color. The scope of policies enacted by the Minnesota state legislature demonstrates a comprehensive approach to addressing many of the conditions for recruiting and retaining teachers of color identified in the literature. District-Level Challenges and Policy Opportunities While federal and state lawmakers grapple with the best approaches to diversify the teacher workforce, district-level initiatives can also impact the recruitment of teachers of color to the profession. Although districts typically have a minimal role in developing teacher preparation programs to build their workforce, it is important to understand the varying perspectives districts have of policies that are directly related to teacher diversity efforts. In a survey of 403 recruiters from both public and private schools (including charter and parochial schools), the EdWeek Center found that when participants were asked “What recruitment policies, if any, does your district use to ensure it has a racially/ethnically diverse applicant pool? Select all that apply,” respondents, as noted Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 12 in Table 4, responded affirmatively to few of the strategies offered. Just 4% of respondents reported requiring at least one or two interviewed applicants to be people of color. Only 7% had established fellowships or internships for people of color. About a quarter of respondents analyzed the racial and ethnic diversity of applicants or recruited at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSIs), or community colleges. Nearly half of respondents reported that their district does not use any recruitment policies to ensure a racially and ethnically diverse applicant pool. Thirteen percent of districts reported using some other strategy to ensure a racially diverse applicant pool. Some districts, for example, have sought more long-term plans like the development of a “grow your own” teacher program that provides pathways to students and community members to become teachers in their districts. Table 4 EdWeek Center Participant Response to Question about Teacher Diversity Policies Question Response Percentage (%) of Respondents Selecting the Answer Require that at least one or two applicants interviewed for positions must be people of color 4 Establish fellowships/internships for people of color 7 Run internal audits/analyze data on the racial/ethnic diversity of job applicants in your district 24 Recruit at job fairs at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic serving institutions, community colleges 26 N/A: Our district does not use any recruitment policies to ensure a racially/ethnically diverse applicant pool 48 Other 13 Source: EdWeek Center Survey, January 2023 Scholars have also noted how district hiring challenges can inhibit the recruitment of teachers of color. For example, D’Amico and colleagues (2017), who examined hiring data for one large suburban school district, found that when Black and white candidates had similar profiles, Black candidates were less likely to be hired for a teaching position. Furthermore, when hired, they were more likely to be placed in a school with a large student of color population, children living in poverty, or schools that are characterized as struggling. Building on this study, Goings, Hotchkins et al. (2019) and Goings, Walker et al. (2021) sought to explore the role of school district human resource officers in diversifying the teacher workforce and found some context to support D’Amico’s findings. In particular, Goings et al. (2019) found that school district Human Resources (HR) had limited opportunities to engage in conversations around equity in hiring at their professional organizations. They noted that the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) was mostly business-oriented and did not have specific guidance for the nuances specific to school district hiring. In school district-related organizations such as the American Association for School Personnel (AASPA), racial diversity and equity were Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 13 not discussed. Moreover, Goings et al. (2021) found that the school district HR often used more intuitive hiring approaches based on their experiences as K–12 educators. Furthermore, participants agreed that diversifying the workforce was important, but they were more concerned about the idea of hiring a qualified candidate, despite teacher diversity and qualifications not being mutually exclusive. The aforementioned context around school district initiatives and hiring practices is significant as colleges and universities can continue to develop a diverse workforce, but if candidates are not being given a viable change for employment, we may continue to see the same results leading to a revolving door of teachers. District Case Exemplar: High School “Grow Your Own” Programs Grow Your Own (GYO) programs are frequently cited in policy briefs as viable pathways for addressing the current critical teacher shortages and diversifying the educator workforce (Gist et al., 2019). GYO programs are typically district programs that support the development of high school students, paraprofessionals, afterschool staff, and/or other community members who will later go on to teach in a particular school district. Many high school GYO programs have been developed over the decades to encourage high school students to pursue teaching as a profession with the idea of remaining in their communities to teach. Although GYO programs differ in terms of focus and design, many frequently have students tutor elementary students, take field trips to local universities to visit teacher preparation programs, and engage in community service projects. However, only a handful of the hundreds of programs reviewed in the literature (Gist et al., 2019; Toshalis, 2014) have an explicit focus on recruiting students of color to become future educators. Lac (2022), Lightfoot and White (2022), and Goings and Bianco (2016) found that one of the distinguishing features of a successful GYO program designed to encourage high school students of color to enter the educator workforce was a curriculum focused on justice and equity. One such GYO program, Pathways2Teaching, was developed in 2010–2011 as a partnership between the University of Colorado–Denver and Denver Public Schools (Goings et al., 2018). This program, which is now national, works to provide 11th and 12th graders with dual-enrollment credits that will allow them to enter their preservice teacher preparation program with some of the curriculum requirements satisfied, while also introducing them to the teaching profession through both social justice and equity-based curriculum and opportunities to teach younger students to gain hands-on teaching experience. According to a recent report by the Education Commission of the States (Fischer, A. et al., 2022), five states (Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Ohio, Minnesota) directly support the development of GYO programs through state law. For example, Colorado and Minnesota have legislation in place directed at funding GYO programs. How Mentoring Supports Teacher Retention Research has shown that early career induction and mentoring are linked to higher teacher retention rates. In one study, for example, beginning teachers who received no induction supports were more than twice as likely to transfer schools or leave teaching, compared to those who received the most comprehensive support, including, mentoring, common planning time with peers, seminars, regular communication with school leaders, and reduced workloads (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Access to Mentoring among Teachers of Color Based on nationally representative survey data from 2020–21, first-year teachers of color were less likely to work in schools or districts that provided induction programs or mentoring. The survey asked teachers in their first 5 years of teaching to report on the mentoring and induction they Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 14 received during their first year of teaching. Among these early career teachers, 71% of teachers of color reported that they participated in a formal school or district induction program during their first year of teaching, compared to 74% of their white peers (Carver-Thomas et al., forthcoming). In addition, 79% of early career teachers of color had been assigned a mentor in their first year, compared to 83% of white early career teachers. At 76%, Black early career teachers were even less likely to have reported being assigned a mentor in their first year of teaching. State Mentoring Policies Historically, states have invested in mentoring and induction programs, with these programs being widespread during the 1990s and early 2000s. However, many programs lost funding during the Great Recession, reducing the availability of mentorship and induction programs for beginning teachers. In 2022, 31 states required induction and mentoring support for new teachers; however, previous research has shown that fewer states provide dedicated funding to support these programs (Education Commission of the States, 2022; Espinoza et al., 2018). One review of state policies found that mentoring and induction programs were a cost-effective method to improve teacher retention (Espinoza et al., 2018). For example, in a 2017 statewide survey of Delaware teachers, more than 70% agreed or strongly agreed that induction supports were important in their decision to continue teaching in their school. Some states, including Delaware and Ohio, had dedicated federal funding through Title II, Part A to fund teacher induction. Mentoring is a central component of many state and local efforts to recruit and retain teachers of color. For example, teacher residencies—partnerships between districts and universities that subsidize and provide yearlong training to teach in high-need schools and in high-demand subject areas—typically provide ongoing mentoring support during the 3- to 4-year service commitment that residents complete after their preparation (Goings & Bianco, 2016). Research on teacher residency programs has shown that they are effective in both bringing more teachers of color into the profession and preparing them to stay for the long term. Nationally, about 49% of residents are people of color, far more than the 20% of teachers who are people of color nationally. Principals find graduates of residency programs to be well prepared and, in many cases, better prepared than typical new teachers. In addition, a review of residency program evaluations showed that residents tend to have higher retention rates over time than nonresident teachers. Other programs, including the Black Teacher Project, Boston’s Male Educators of Color, and NYC Men Teach, similarly build community and facilitate mentorship for teachers of color, alongside other program features (Carver-Thomas, 2018). How Supportive School Teaching Conditions Support Teacher Retention Once teachers of color enter the classroom, the teaching conditions they encounter can discourage them from staying at the same school or even staying in the profession. This is important because three in every four teachers of color work in the quartile of schools that serve the most students of color (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Ushomirsky & Williams, 2015). Scholars have noted that schools serving the most students of color often contend with a range of challenges, including accountability pressures and a lack of resources and support (Ingersoll & May, 2011; Ronfeldt et al., 2013; Simon & Johnson, 2015). Additionally, studies have shown that stress and racialized experiences also contributed to their reasons for leaving. The Importance of School Leaders Teachers citing a lack of administrative support, in particular, were more than twice as likely to leave their school or teaching entirely (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). For teachers of color, specifically, an analysis of 2011–13 nationally representative teacher survey data found that Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 15 turnover was strongly associated with a lack of classroom autonomy and school influence (Ingersoll & May, 2016). Effective school leaders can influence several teaching conditions in a school and can help create environments in which teachers of color want to continue to teach. Unfortunately, many school leadership training programs do not prepare principals to be effective in all the roles they must play. A 2005 study of school administrator training programs found that these programs were considered among the weakest U.S. education school programs (Levine, 2005). Clinical training requirements, for example, varied considerably between programs, with some requiring as few as 45 hours at a school site and others requiring as many as 300. Many prospective principals reported that their coursework failed to prepare them for the realities of leading a school (Levine, 2005). Compared to white teachers, teachers of color overall were more likely to express dissatisfaction with the teaching conditions in their schools. Teachers of color were less likely to strongly agree that they “like the way things are run at this school,” with especially low rates among Black and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander teachers (see Table 5). In addition, teachers of color overall were more likely to “somewhat” or “strongly agree” that stress and disappointments at their school were not worth it (see Table 5). Table 5 Satisfaction with Teaching Conditions, by Teacher Race/Ethnicity, 2017–18 Table Teachers of Color by Group Total Teachers of Color Latinx Black Asian Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander Native American/Alaska Native Two or More Races White I like the way things are run at this school. Strongly Agree 26.7 24** 26.9 15.9** 24.7 21.3** 25.2** 27.8 Somewhat Agree 43.7 46 46.3 44.7 45.5 48.6 45.2 44.2 Somewhat + Strongly Agree 70.4 70 73.2 60.6 70.2 69.8 70.4 72 The stress and disappointments involved in teaching at this school aren’t really worth it. Strongly Agree 6.9* 8.4** 5.3 5.2 6.2 9.5** 7.4** 5.6 Somewhat Agree 22.1 23.1 22.5 14.7 30.6* 24.6 22.8 21.8 Somewhat + Strongly Agree 29 31.5** 27.8 19.9 36.8* 34.2** 30.2** 27.3 Notes: Statistical tests were conducted to compare each race group with white, as well as Teachers of Color and white. NCES race/ethnicity categories are as follows: American Indian includes Alaska Native, Black includes African American, Pacific Islander includes Native Hawaiian, and Hispanic includes Latino. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. *p < .05, **p < .01 Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS), “Teacher Questionnaire, 2017–18;” Carver-Thomas, D., Leung-Gagné, M., & García, E. (forthcoming). The state of teacher diversity. Learning Policy Institute. Racial Discrimination, Bias, and Stereotypes Studies have also suggested that teachers of color experience unique adverse, racialized teaching conditions, regardless of the quality of the schools in which they teach. In a qualitative study of Black teachers across the United States, teachers reported facing racial discrimination and stereotyping in their schools. Many respondents said their colleagues lacked respect for their expertise as educators, and they were often pigeonholed as disciplinarians (Griffin & Tackie, 2016). Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 16 For some Black teachers, that might mean they were assigned disciplinary roles instead of other leadership roles in which they might be more interested, such as roles recognizing their content expertise. Moreover, they might be criticized by school leaders or colleagues if they do not embody the disciplinarian persona expected of them (Brockenbrough, 2015). Teachers also reported that they felt obligated to take on additional responsibilities to support their Black students who might not otherwise receive the support they needed. While most Black educators described feeling called to the profession to improve schooling experiences for students of color, the added workload outside of teaching could contribute to increased turnover. In a qualitative study of Latinx teachers, Latinx teachers reported being viewed as inferior to other teachers or only being beneficial for Latinx students (Griffin, 2018). They also reported receiving criticism from other teachers and school leaders when they embedded culturally relevant materials into their curricula or allowed or encouraged students to speak Spanish in the classroom. Many bilingual teachers discussed wanting to support their schools, students, and families by helping with translation but also described the added burden of being expected to do so. Part II: Policies for Recruiting and Retaining Teachers of Color Policymakers are taking various approaches in an attempt to increase teacher diversity. The end goal is to recruit, retain, and support a racially and ethnically diverse educator workforce that can benefit every school community. The following summarizes policy recommendations based on the current landscape of challenges and opportunities to diversify the educator workforce. While these are organized as either recruitment or retention policies, these policies in reality are recommended specifically because they mutually reinforce both of those ends. Recruitment • States can engage in comprehensive self-study of their diversity contexts and, using those data, develop state strategies and policies to increase recruitment and retention of teachers of color. Some states have passed statutes that require tracking of teacher diversity data and development of appropriate strategies, including Arkansas, Connecticut, and Kentucky. • Federal, state, and local agencies can increase access to comprehensive preparation by underwriting the cost of preparation. Financial support can encourage more students of color to pursue a teaching career—and to do so through a high-quality program that leads to greater retention. o Greater state and federal investments can support teacher residencies and apprenticeships. High-quality teacher residencies are partnerships between districts and universities that subsidize and improve teacher training to teach in high-need schools and high-demand subject areas (Goings & Bianco, 2016). Building on existing policy, the federal government can dedicate increased and sustained funding for the Teacher Quality Partnership program to fund teacher residencies. o States and the federal government can invest in service scholarships and loan forgiveness programs to increase candidate access to comprehensive teacher preparation, which is associated with higher retention rates. The federal TEACH grant provides scholarships of $4,000 per year to undergraduate and graduate students who are preparing for a career in teaching and who commit to teaching a high-need subject in a high-poverty school for 4 years. This grant amount has not increased since the program was created. In addition, this grant is converted to a Federal Direct Unsubsidized Stafford Loan (with interest accrued from the date each grant was awarded) if a teacher does not fulfill their complete 4-year commitment. This penalty can be a disincentive to taking advantage of the grant Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 17 (García et al., 2023). The federal government can make it more of an incentive to prospective teacher candidates. For example, adjusting existing policy can make the TEACH grant program more effective by increasing the award from $4,000 to $8,000 and reforming the loan conversion penalty. The DIVERSIFY Act, introduced by Senator Cory Booker (New Jersey) and U.S. Representatives Jesús “Chuy” García (IL- 04) and Jahana Hayes (CT-05), proposes increasing the TEACH grant award to $8,000 per year as well as eliminating the harsh loan conversion penalty (S. 1581 Diversify Act). The federal government also offers the TLF Program and the PSLF Program. Both of these programs require teachers to toil through years of monthly payments on low salaries before having part or all of their federal student loan debt canceled (5 years for TLF and 10 years for PSLF). These programs could be reconstituted to have the federal government make teachers’ monthly loan payments until they meet the service requirement to retire their debts completely. Doing so would save teachers hundreds of dollars each month and thousands of dollars over time while delivering a much-needed boost to both recruitment and retention (Darling-Hammond et al., 2023). o States can support the development and implementation of sustainable GYO programs through legislation. • The federal government can support MSIs. HBCUs and other MSIs play an outsized role in preparing teachers of color, and research has indicated that both Black and white teachers who complete their preparation at an HBCU are more effective with all students, compared with non-HBCU-trained teachers (Edmonds, 2022; Fenwick & Akua, 2022). The federal government can continue to sustain these programs by funding the Augustus Hawkins Centers of Excellence Program. The Hawkins Program provides funding to support educator preparation at HBCUs, Tribal Colleges and Universities, and other MSIs. Increased and sustained investment in the Hawkins Program can support greater production of new teachers of color and teachers who are prepared to support student achievement. The Preparing and Retaining Education Professionals (PREP) Act, a bill introduced by Senator Tim Kaine (Virginia) and Senator Susan Collins (Maine), proposes increasing support to MSIs, HBCUs, and Tribal Colleges and Universities (S. 2244 PREP Act of 2021). Retention Teachers of color work within school communities that influence their access to resources, their networks of collegial support, the types of curricula and practices they are empowered to use in the classroom, and so on. The conditions they encounter influence their career longevity and likely influence the extent to which they can be effective in the classroom. Policymakers can work to retain teachers of color by supporting efforts that improve the teaching conditions that teachers of color encounter. • Retain teachers of color by providing high-quality mentoring to early career teachers. Once teachers of color are prepared, comprehensive induction and mentoring can support their ongoing growth and development. As in Minnesota, states can dedicate funding to ensure that districts develop mentoring programs for new teachers, including teachers of color, and provide stipends to mentor teachers. Minnesota has increased competitive grant funds for district mentoring and professional development programs from nearly $3 million to $3.5 million per fiscal year (Minnesota Professional Educator Licensing and Standards Board, 2024). • Retain teachers of color through supportive teaching conditions. Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 18 o States can develop policies to ensure equitable school funding formulas to ensure schools have the resources necessary to support teaching and learning. California’s Local Control Funding Formula allocates funding to districts based on their population of students who are English learners, eligible for free or reduced-price meals, or foster youth. Research has shown that the implementation of this policy change improved outcomes for students, primarily by improving the stability of the teacher workforce (Johnson, 2023). o States and districts can create policies to provide training so that school leaders can create work environments encouraging teachers of color to stay. Strong preservice leadership preparation as well as ongoing professional learning can make a difference in teacher retention (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022). Several states have committed federal resources to strengthen school leadership in ways that can support efforts to recruit, hire, and retain high-quality educators (Espinoza & Cardichon, 2017). Minnesota statute requires that districts evaluate principals annually to support and improve their “culturally responsive leadership practices that create inclusive and respectful teaching and learning environments” (Principal Development and Evaluation Statute Change, 2023). o States can regularly administer surveys on working conditions. In North Carolina, Senate Bill 622 established the North Carolina Teacher Working Conditions Survey (n.d.) as a permanent part of the state budget. States and districts can study the retention patterns of teachers of color alongside survey data to better understand why teachers are leaving their positions. States can use these data to improve conditions that could improve retention. • Retain teachers through educator licensure and certification systems that support comprehensive teacher preparation. Placing the onus of improving student achievement for students of color on the shoulders of teachers of color alone is a burden that can push them out of the teaching profession. Instead, every teacher must be culturally responsive and affirming. States can ensure that all preparation programs are well-designed to include instruction in culturally responsive practices by developing strong educator licensure and certification systems as well as providing the resources teacher preparation programs need to adopt new standards. States can create or adopt standards for accrediting and approving teacher preparation programs that evaluate how programs prepare candidates for culturally responsive teaching (Learning Policy Institute, 2022). Further, they can use performance- based assessments that assess how well-prepared candidates are to enact these practices in the classroom. In 2019, Washington State updated its standards for educator preparation programs. The new standards require that, among other competencies, preparation programs prepare candidates to use culturally responsive practices in the classroom (Learning Policy Institute, 2022; Washington State Professional Educator Standards Board, n.d.). Conclusion Recent data have indicated that despite growth in the share of teachers of color over the last three decades, this growth has stagnated in recent years, with evidence suggesting that these numbers have stagnated both because not enough teachers of color are entering the workforce and the attrition of existing teachers of color is high. Thus, greater efforts are needed to continue to increase diversity in the teacher workforce. This analysis demonstrated that there are opportunities to align policies at the federal, state, and district levels with prior research on what matters for recruiting and retaining teachers of color. In particular, increased efforts to provide access to Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 19 comprehensive teacher preparation, mentorship, and supportive teaching conditions could yield improved recruitment and retention. Teacher preparation offers a major opportunity for improving recruitment and retention, with 120,000 teaching candidates of color enrolling in some type of teacher preparation program each year. An increasing share of candidates of color, however, are entering the profession through alternative certification programs that do not offer the type of preservice coursework and clinical practice that are associated with career longevity. The cost of attending a traditional teacher preparation program could explain these trends. The federal government has a key role in underwriting the costs of comprehensive preparation in order to increase access to these programs for candidates of color. Indeed, existing federal programs, including the PSLF, TLF, and TEACH grant programs, could be improved to optimize access to preparation for candidates of color. States, too, can play a significant role in recruiting teachers of color into the profession through comprehensive preparation pathways. As demonstrated by the state of Minnesota, states can fund access to teacher preparation for candidates of color as part of a holistic set of strategies designed to support incoming and veteran teachers of color. We find that even districts can develop the supply of teachers of color entering the workforce through GYO programs that leverage high schoolers, staff, and other community members who are already invested in their local districts. Despite the value of mentorship, as identified in the literature, not all new teachers of color have access to induction and mentoring programs in their first year of teaching. However, programs in some states demonstrate that mentoring can be scaled statewide to offer new teachers critical early career supports. Further, states can leverage federal funds through Title II, Part A to fund these programs. Some districts and states offer mentoring that is built into teacher preparation program models, as in teacher residencies, or by partnering with nonprofit entities, such as Black Teacher Project and NYC Men Teach. States committed to ensuring access to mentoring for new teachers of color, as in Minnesota, can enshrine mentoring requirements into state law while dedicating funds to the development of mentoring programs at the district level. Compared to a piecemeal approach, statewide mentoring initiatives could support teachers of color on a massive scale. Once teachers of color enter the profession, challenging teaching conditions can push them out, particularly given that teachers of color are more likely to teach in schools that are underresourced relative to their need. Teachers of color have also reported that discrimination, bias, and stereotypes impact their interest in remaining in the classroom. States can address funding disparities in schools where teachers of color are more likely to teach by instituting weighted funding formulas that allot additional funds to schools serving more students with greater needs. This type of school funding has been shown to improve outcomes for students, primarily by improving the stability of the teacher workforce. Prior research has also indicated that supportive school leaders can be instrumental in setting positive teaching conditions that encourage teachers of color to continue teaching. States can use federal funds to strengthen school leadership through setting leadership standards and supporting leaders to meet those standards through preservice preparation, evaluation, and ongoing professional development. Likewise, when all teachers in a school are able to provide students with high-quality, culturally responsive instruction, teachers of color may experience less stress in their roles. State licensure and certification systems can ensure that all teachers are prepared to serve a diverse range of students. Further research should continue to track the outcomes of these initiatives to identify what matters for effective implementation at scale. For example, it will be important to understand how many teachers of color are reached by statewide mentoring initiatives, how they describe their experiences, and how likely they are to continue teaching. Likewise, it will be valuable to understand how federal, state, and district initiatives are sustained over time, as these investments can be vulnerable to shifts in political and financial priorities. Finally, research can explore whether Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 20 recruitment and retention efforts produce greater effects when combined in a comprehensive effort, as in Minnesota where teachers of color might benefit from access to comprehensive preparation, mentoring, and supportive school leaders. Although greater efforts are needed to better recruit and retain teachers of color, existing programs and initiatives across the country demonstrate that these efforts are possible and can be effective. References Baum, S., & O’Malley, M. (2003). College on credit: How borrowers perceive their education debt. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 33(3), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.55504/0884-9153.1068 Brockenbrough, E. 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Bristol (Eds.), Handbook of research on teachers of color and Indigenous teachers (pp. 909–921). American Educational Research Association. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2xqngb9.74 Minnesota House of Representatives. H.F. 320. Ninety-third session. 2023–24 (2023). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/bills/text.php?number=HF320&version=0&session=ls93&se ssion_year=2023&session_number=0 Minnesota House of Representatives. H.F. 2497. Ninety-third session. 2023–24 (2023). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/bills/text.php?number=HF2497&version=0&session=ls93&s ession_year=2023&session_number=0&format=pdf Ingersoll, R., & May, H. (2011). Recruitment, retention, and minority teacher shortage. (CPRE Report #RR- 69). Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Pennsylvania. https://doi.org/10.12698/cpre.2011.rr69 Ingersoll, R., & May, H. (2016). Minority teacher recruitment, employment, and retention: 1987 to 2013. [Research Brief]. Learning Policy Institute. Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & May, H. 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A teacher action research study on critical hope in a teacher pipeline program for minoritized youth. In C. Gist & T. Bristol (Eds.), Handbook of research on teachers of color and Indigenous teachers (pp. 67–78). American Educational Research Association. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2xqngb9.11 Learning Policy Institute. (2022). Whole child policy toolkit. https://doi.org/10.54300/785.225 Levine, A. (2005). Educating school leaders. The Education Schools Project. Lightfoot, B. A., & White, T.C. (2022). Critical pedagogy in a GYO program: Identity, sociopolitical development, and transformational resistance in Latinx students’ aspirations to teach. In C. Gist & T. Bristol (Eds.), Handbook of research on teachers of color and Indigenous teachers (pp. 79– 96). American Educational Research Association. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2xqngb9.12 Minnesota Professional Educator Licensing and Standards Board. (2024). 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Bristol (Eds.), Handbook of research on teachers of color and Indigenous teachers (pp. 97–114). American Educational Research Association. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2xqngb9.13 Ronfeldt, M., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2013). How teacher turnover harms student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 50(1), 4–36. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831212 463813 Schaeffer, K. (2022). A dwindling number of new U.S. college graduates have a degree in education. Pew Research Center. Simon, N. S., & Johnson, S. M. (2015). Teacher turnover in high-poverty schools: What we know and can do. Teachers College Record, 117(3), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811511700305 Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., and Carver-Thomas, D. (2016). A coming crisis in teaching? Teacher supply, demand, and shortages in the U.S. Learning Policy Institute. https://doi.org/10.54300/247.242. Thomsen, E., Peterson, C., &Velez, E. D. (2020). One year after a bachelor’s degree: A profile of 2015–16 graduates. 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Social emotional learning. https://www.pesb.wa.gov/preparation-programs/standards/instructional-topic- requirements/social-emotional-learning/ (accessed 2/23/2023) https://www.kaine.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/prep_act_of_2023_bill_text.pdf https://education.mn.gov/MDE/dse/prod083430 https://doi.org/10.3102/ https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811511700305 https://doi.org/10.54300/247.242 https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020341.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/%20fulltext/ED566665.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/%20fulltext/ED566665.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-010-0150-1 https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2012.656541 https://www.pesb.wa.gov/preparation-programs/standards/instructional-topic-requirements/social-emotional-learning/ https://www.pesb.wa.gov/preparation-programs/standards/instructional-topic-requirements/social-emotional-learning/ Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 32, No. 59 SPECIAL ISSUE 24 About the Authors Desiree Carver-Thomas Learning Policy Institute dcarverthomas@learningpolicyinstitute.org ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6533-5749 Desiree Carver-Thomas is a Senior Researcher and Policy Analyst at the Learning Policy Institute where she co-leads LPI’s Educator Quality team and leads the Racial Equity Leadership Network team. Her work focuses on how educator quality, teacher diversity, and leader ship development can promote equitable opportunities for teaching and learning. Margarita Bianco University of Colorado, Denver Margarita.Bianco@ucdenver.edu ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6353-0530 Dr. Margarita Bianco is an associate professor in the School of Education and Human Development at the University of Colorado Denver and founder of Pathways2Teaching [http://www.Pathways2Teaching.com], a nationally recognized program designed to encourage high school students of color to enter the teacher workforce. Dr. Bianco’s research interests include strategies to recruit and retain teachers of color and Grow Your Own (GYO) teacher programs for high school students of color in urban and rural communities. Ramon Goings University of Maryland, Baltimore County rgoings@umbc.edu ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4770-7543 Dr. Ramon B. Goings is an associate professor in the Language, Literacy, and Culture doctoral program at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County and founder of Done Dissertation. Dr. Goings' research interests include: gifted/high-achieving Black male student success in PK- 20 settings, diversifying the teacher and school leader workforce, and doctoral student success. Maria E. Hyler Learning Policy Institute mhyler@learningpolicyinstitute.org ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6733-9119 Maria E. Hyler serves as the Director of the Learning Policy Institute Washington, DC office. She directs the Educator Preparation Laboratory (EdPrepLab) in partnership with Bank Street Graduate School of Education. EdPrepLab is a center on teacher and leader preparat ion for deeper learning and equity working to transform educator preparation through the alignment of research, practice, and policy. Hyler previously served as an Assistant Professor of Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in the Department of Teaching and Learning, Policy and Leadership at the University of Maryland, College Park. She began her career teaching 10th and 11th graders in Belmont, CA, where she achieved National Board Certification in Adolescent Young Adult English Language Arts in 2000. mailto:dcarverthomas@learningpolicyinstitute.org https://urldefense.com/v3/__https:/orcid.org/0009-0004-6533-5749__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!bRVGhMFkepJKtytptpe_DYRXnpJk2fbKTGLyXHH4VN95kKTfOzdTYHjQmd0QIHKnWe_y_ULUlzEEfCRZJ_nB7R-0RVque7ne6tIK_eN36g$ mailto:Margarita.Bianco@ucdenver.edu https://urldefense.com/v3/__https:/orcid.org/0000-0002-6353-0530__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!eoNbBI0bFOAKbUT7GcuxCcmEALyfkiUQhZLidssf59EiplteN0GIGsarkfu6N2palKZ1eJgASuzVAezgvAVcLoO1UNRa8CccYUXm$ http://www.pathways2teaching.com/ mailto:rgoings@umbc.edu https://urldefense.com/v3/__https:/orcid.org/0000-0002-4770-7543__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!YYek2sb8sWaGcuHTYBphTEo2pIJvlAG1mqNKqPhwfWZVlWNleuYd7HDZb1vxHketvp8ozxJrwz4IYmkIbDGGaA$ mailto:mhyler@learningpolicyinstitute.org https://urldefense.com/v3/__https:/orcid.org/0009-0001-6733-9119__;!!IKRxdwAv5BmarQ!bRVGhMFkepJKtytptpe_DYRXnpJk2fbKTGLyXHH4VN95kKTfOzdTYHjQmd0QIHKnWe_y_ULUlzEEfCRZJ_nB7R-0RVque7ne6tKhE1azbw$ Policies and practices for recruiting and retaining teachers of color 25 About the Editors Conra D. Gist University of Houston cdgist@uh.edu ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8977-7059 Dr. Conra D. Gist is a professor in the College of Education at the University of Houston. Her research focuses on understanding the various types of programs, policies and practices that support the development and advancement of underserved teachers in education systems. Travis J. Bristol University of California, Berkeley tjbristol@berkeley.edu ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5234-3481 Dr. Travis J. Bristol is an associate professor of teacher education and education policy in Berkeley’s School of Education. His research explores three related research strands: (1) the role of educational policies in shaping teacher workplace experiences and retention; (2) district and school-based professional learning communities; (3) the role of race and gender in educational settings. Saili S. Kulkarni San José State University saili.kulkarni@sjsu.edu ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8133-7980 Dr. Kulkarni is an associate professor of special education at San José State University. She is the principal investigator of two projects to reduce discipline disparities for young children of color with disabilities including a Spencer Foundation Grant and a Foundation for Child Development Grant. She also has a book under contract with Teachers College Press on the lives of special education teachers of color. She was inducted into the National Disability Mentoring Coalition Hall of Fame in 2022. SPECIAL ISSUE Research on Teachers of Color and Indigenous Teachers education policy analysis archives Volume 32 Number 59 September 24, 2024 ISSN 1068-2341 Readers are free to copy, display, distribute, and adapt this article, as long as the work is attributed to the author(s) and Education Policy Analysis Archives, the changes are identified, and the same license applies to the derivative work. More details of this Creative Commons license are available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/. EPAA is published by the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University. 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