). The double bind: Exploring teacher retention in South Carolina's rural schools Journal website: http://epaa.asu.edu/ Manuscript received: 26/3/2025 Facebook: /EPAAA Revisions received: 9/9/2025 Twitter: @epaa_aape Accepted: 9/9/2025 education policy analysis archives A peer-reviewed, independent, open access, multilingual journal Arizona State University Volume 33 Number 63 October 7, 2025 ISSN 1068-2341 The Double Bind: Exploring Teacher Retention in South Carolina's Rural Schools Ali Jahanaray Clemson University United States Citation: Jahanaray, A. (2025). The double bind: Exploring teacher retention in South Carolina's rural schools. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 33(63). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.33.9237 Abstract: Teacher turnover in rural schools remains a primary concern for public education in the United States, especially in southern states, with higher rates of turnover. This case study examines the experiences of rural teachers in South Carolina, exploring how structural inequalities, professional identities, and social communities shape retention. The findings highlighted five interrelated themes: leadership support, funding and equity challenges, school and community culture, inclusive education, and policy and testing pressures. These themes highlight that teacher retention is influenced by how access to resources, relational social networks, and culture (mis)alignment supported teachers, and how funding inequities and mandated policies undermined their persistence. This study emphasizes the need for policy reform in budget allocation, increasing fiscal investment, and improving support structures to address the specific challenges faced by rural teachers. Keywords: rural education; teacher retention; community connection; funding inequities; inclusive education La doble atadura: Explorando la retención de docentes en las escuelas rurales de Carolina del Sur Resumen: La rotación de docentes en escuelas rurales sigue siendo una preocupación central para la educación pública en los Estados Unidos, especialmente en el sur, donde las tasas son más altas. Este estudio de caso examina las experiencias de docentes rurales en Carolina del Sur, http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/ https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.33.9237 Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 2 explorando cómo las desigualdades estructurales, las identidades profesionales y las comunidades sociales configuran la retención. Los hallazgos destacaron cinco temas interrelacionados: apoyo del liderazgo, desafíos de financiamiento y equidad, cultura escolar y comunitaria, educación inclusiva, y presiones de políticas y evaluaciones. Estos temas ponen de relieve que la retención docente está influenciada por cómo el acceso a recursos, las redes sociales relacionales y la (des)alineación cultural apoyaron a los docentes, y cómo las inequidades de financiamiento y las políticas obligatorias socavaron su permanencia. Este estudio resalta la necesidad de una reforma de políticas en la asignación presupuestaria, un aumento en la inversión fiscal y la mejora de las estructuras de apoyo para abordar los desafíos específicos que enfrentan los docentes rurales. Palabras clave: educación rural; retención docente; conexión comunitaria; inequidades de financiamiento; educación inclusiva O duplo dilema: Explorando a retenção de professores nas escolas rurais da Carolina do Sul Resumo: A rotatividade de professores em escolas rurais continua sendo uma preocupação central para a educação pública nos Estados Unidos, especialmente no sul, onde as taxas são mais altas. Este estudo de caso examina as experiências de professores rurais na Carolina do Sul, explorando como as desigualdades estruturais, as identidades profissionais e as comunidades sociais moldam a retenção. Os achados destacaram cinco temas inter-relacionados: apoio da liderança, desafios de financiamento e equidade, cultura escolar e comunitária, educação inclusiva e pressões de políticas e testes. Esses temas ressaltam que a retenção docente é influenciada por como o acesso a recursos, as redes sociais relacionais e o (des)alinhamento cultural apoiaram os professores, e como as desigualdades de financiamento e as políticas obrigatórias minaram sua permanência. Este estudo destaca a necessidade de reforma de políticas na alocação orçamentária, aumento do investimento fiscal e aprimoramento das estruturas de apoio para enfrentar os desafios específicos vividos pelos professores rurais. Palavras-chave: educação rural; retenção de professores; conexão comunitária; desigualdades de financiamento; educação inclusiva The Double Bind: Exploring Teacher Retention in South Carolina's Rural Schools Teacher retention presents the most persistent challenge to public education in the United States (US). Thousands of certified teachers leave teaching every year (Showalter et al., 2019), which interrupts students' learning, strains school budgets, and weakens the foundation for local communities. However, teacher turnover is not new; recent studies on teacher retention show that the rates have worsened significantly. In the US, the annual attrition rate for public school teachers is about 15% (Ingersoll & Tran, 2023; Sutcher et al., 2016), and poverty tends to correlate with even higher attrition. These teacher attrition figures and reports are at different rates geographically. Rural and high-need schools experience disproportionately high turnover (Showalter et al., 2019). Turnover at this level prevents school districts from employing experienced. Districts hire inexperienced teachers to lower associated recruitment costs, and sustaining academic programs is considerably more difficult (Carver & Hammond, 2017; Ingersoll & Tran, 2023). Drawing on findings from Simon and Johnston's (2015) systematic review, teachers do not leave their students; rather, they leave poor working conditions that are characterized by weak leadership, inadequate support, and severely curtailed professional autonomy. In conclusion, teacher turnover is systemic and structural by nature, making it a top concern for policymakers, Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 3 administrators, and communities. The consequences of teacher turnover are not limited to hiring cycles, but also to schools experiencing high teacher turnover. Studies show measurable declines in student achievement, even for students taught by teachers who remain in those schools (Ronfeldt & Wyckoff, 2013). Economically, turnover burdens already thin budgets and funding: replacing teachers has been estimated to cost states and districts billions every year, funds that could go into instruction or other professional development (Carver & Hammond, 2017). These financial challenges provide further evidence that retaining teachers is not just a personnel issue but an equity and opportunity issue. Having stability in the workforce is essential for rural schools that face high turnover rates (Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). This case-specific study provides a lens for analyzing rural teachers in two counties that face high turnover. The teachers' decisions to stay or leave their profession are analyzed with Bourdieu's theory of practice (Bourdieu, 1980, 1986, 1993). Using the concepts of field, habitus, and capital, the study illustrates how structural inequities, professional dispositions, and access to resources influence retention. The study research question is: How do various forms of social, cultural, and economic capital influence teacher retention in rural South Carolina schools, including both public and charter contexts? Literature Review In the US, about one-third of schools are in rural areas, and rural schools have expanded to serve a growing student population (Showalter et al., 2019). Rural schools battle many vital struggles affecting students' academic success: financial issues, limited educational options, and teacher shortages (Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). Literature illustrates that teacher shortages in rural regions are more pronounced compared to urban shortages, and they are almost always inflated with a disproportionately high rate of teacher turnover, especially in at-risk communities (Ingersoll & Tran, 2023). While there are differences in data collection and analysis across U.S. states, the National Center of Education Statistics (NCEES) approximates a national average of roughly 16% of teacher turnover in the country (Cartiff et al, 2024). Teacher shortages in rural schools related to teacher turnover mirror local and national education concerns, include those in South Carolina, where rural students represent nearly one-half the population of students in the state (Irvin et al., 2020). Research shows that roughly 20% of teachers involuntarily move to new schools (Taie & Lewis, 2023). Teacher turnover rates are significantly higher in high-poverty areas (Cartiff et al., 2024). Since the annual attrition rate for U.S. public school teachers is about 15% (Ingersoll & Tran, 2023; Sutcher et al., 2016), and poverty tends to correlate with even higher attrition, turnover at this level prevents school districts from employing experienced teachers to keep associated recruitment costs low and makes sustaining academic programs considerably more difficult. Economically, replacing teachers has been estimated to cost states and districts billions every year; these are dollars that could go to instruction or other professional development (Carver & Hammond, 2017). Factors influencing teacher retention, drawing on findings from Simon and Johnston's (2015) systematic review, teachers do not leave their students; rather, they leave poor working conditions that are characterized by weak leadership, inadequate support, and severely curtailed professional autonomy. One of the key areas that teachers identified as critical to their decision on job sustainability is school leadership; more than 50% of teachers express dissatisfaction with poor leadership practices (Sutcher et al., 2016). A study by Boyd et al. (2010) found effective school principal leadership as the only determinant that forecasted teacher retention. By recognizing teachers' contributions, conducting equitable teacher evaluations, and upholding discipline, school principals can circumvent turnover (Cartiff et al, 2024; Shell et al., 2023). When school leaders serve instructional needs and other needs and articulate a vision of the school, it builds a teacher's sense of Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 4 belonging to that school and facilitates retention (Player, 2017; Shell et al., 2023). In general, research suggests that effective leadership in rural schools is about administration and how to create an equity-centered, place-based, and collaborative environment; when leaders genuinely engage with and respond to their communities' unique challenges, they foster conditions that encourage teachers to stay (Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). Research suggests that financial constraints deteriorate teacher retention, particularly in rural schools, which suffer from geographical isolation, lower student bases, and lower local tax bases (Cartiff et al., 2024; Dhaliwal & Bruno, 2021). Budget constraints are another relevant variable that is associated with reduced teacher retention (Cartiff et al., 2024). Rural school districts experience funding problems based on geographic isolation, lower student bases, and lower local tax bases (Dhaliwal & Bruno, 2021). Rural schools do not enjoy the provision of competitive salaries like urban schools and professional development because of their limited fiscal capacity and higher per- student expenses (Dhaliwal & Bruno, 2021; Monk, 2007). Moreover, research shows that in high- poverty states like South Carolina, consistent underfunding increases staffing challenges through limits on salaries, instructional support, and improved working conditions, all of which are critical for teacher retention (Showalter et al., 2019). Quantitative studies using teacher survey data demonstrate that school climate, solitary principal leadership, and teacher views on student behavior are statistically significant predictors of teacher retention in their school (Fan et al., 2020). Moreover, research shows that most driving factors in teacher turnover are workload, taxes, and geographic isolation that all three factors prevent schools from providing support (Graham, 2024). Research specifically analyzing schools in a rural context identifies structural limitations that contribute to teacher turnover: limited local tax bases leave limited local ability to supplement teacher salaries; geographic isolation limits local development opportunities; and limited special education personnel breeds further instability (Tran & Dou, 2019). These results point to the fact that retention cannot be simplified down to only individual teacher characteristics; retention must also consider structural inequities and organizational conditions. The other key factor in rural schools is that teachers are attracted to the sense of community within the school building and the broader rural environment (Arnold et al., 2005). This sense of belonging is often a vital aspect of social life in rural areas despite facing financial challenges (Showalter et al., 2019). This perspective on professional identity can shape career options (Sheridan, 2019). In rural situations, schools are vital to the life of not only the student, but also the identity, economy, and political life of the surrounding community, often acting as the primary location for relationship building, and for establishing the vitality of the values and transitions of a locality (Cartiff et al., 2024; Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). Another area affecting rural education in the US is policy at the state and federal levels, and many rural administrators and teachers state that these policies do not fit their context (Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). Rude and Miller (2017), suggesting that the challenge lies in the one-size-fits-all policy structures from the state and federal sides that overlook the different contexts of rural schools. Federal or state initiatives like Race to the Top often rest on metropolitan baseline assumptions when requiring reforms that are impossible to implement in a rural context, a term that presumes market-based solutions and high-stakes accountability, never considering the distinctive nature of rural communities (Johnson & Howley, 2015). South Carolina: A Case Study South Carolina presents a unique situation regarding reasons for teacher retention. Approximately 40% of students in South Carolina are in rural schools (Irvin et al., 2020), and the Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 5 state has some of the highest turnover rates in the country. The Center for Educator Recruitment, Retention, and Advancement (CERRA) reported that in the 2017-2018 school year, more than 6,700 teachers in South Carolina left their positions, leaving more than 550 unfilled positions at the beginning of the following school year (Fan et al., 2020). New data indicate that the situation is not improving. For the 2020-2021 school year, more than 30% of teachers left South Carolina after their first year, costing the state $27-59 million every year for training and recruitment costs (Dickenson et al., 2021). Within this teacher turnover crisis, the hardest-hit districts tend to be high-poverty, rural, and hard-to-staff schools. From 2012 to 2017, South Carolina's five-year turnover was 13.9%, with low-poverty rural districts reporting only 10.5% (Tran et al., 2019). These data present teacher attrition in South Carolina as severe and compounded by rural versus urban and socio-economic factors. Other factors that deteriorate retention rates across the US are a lack of school support due to geographical isolation, salary deficits, and a lack of support (Ingersoll & Tran, 2023; Simon & Johnson, 2015; Sutcher et al., 2016). In addition, challenges (high teacher turnover, low financial power of schools, geographical isolation) facing South Carolina rural schools lower rural student college access (low rate of advanced placement participation), especially for non-white schools serving minority populations (Grant et al., 2025). High turnover rates in rural schools are associated with bigger classrooms and the hiring of less experienced teachers, which widens the gap in college access programs and college enrollments for rural students (Jahanaray & Grant, 2025). Podolsky et al. (2016) distilled the research findings to highlight some key levers to retention if school districts are to address ineffective rates of teacher retention. These five areas include: salaries that are competitive with other employment options; strong preparation pathways for teachers; effective hiring processes; induction approaches that appropriately support teachers; and acceptable working conditions. While these findings help us to understand South Carolina's context, we must also emphasize that—especially for rural schools—all of these structural variables have compounded effects in their particular contexts, and when mediated by limitations in economic capital and availability of supports in the community, create a perfect storm for schools when trying to retain teachers. Theoretical Framework This study employed Bourdieu's theory of practice as the site of grounding theoretical context, with concepts of habitus, capital, and field used for the observation of rural teachers' experience in South Carolina (Bourdieu, 1980, 1986, 1993). Habitus shows how much a person relates to the community and builds their professional identity based on their sense of belonging. Teaching motivation of teachers depends on how much they have a sense of belonging to their (Arnold et al., 2005; Sheridan, 2019). Cultural and social capital, such as mentoring, supportive leadership, and cultural alignment with students, enhance teachers' job satisfaction (Shell et al., 2023; Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). Economic capital in this study accounts for low salaries and limited economic resources of teachers, which are factors in teacher attrition (Monk, 2007; Showalter et al., 2019). In the context of this study, Bourdieu's theory of practice offers a comprehensive perspective for comprehending what type of field influence drives teachers' decisions (the context of rural education influenced by funding disparities, policy mandates, and community expectations), their habitus (their dispositions, identities, and sense of belonging), and their access to different types of capital (social, capital, economic). For example, teachers' professional identities and backgrounds are forms of habitus; their experiences navigating rural school structures and policy mandates are forms of field; and the resources or lack thereof such as salaries, mentorship, leadership opportunities, and community relations are examples of capital. Finally, using this Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 6 framework allows for an in-depth understanding of the ways that individual choices are shaped by overarching structural conditions. Methods This study employs a qualitative case study methodology under a constructivist paradigm to explore the retention decisions of South Carolina rural teachers. A constructivist paradigm suggests both knowledge and meaning are not discovered but rather co-constructed by people through their integration with the world (Crotty, 1998; Guba & Lincoln, 1994). A constructivist paradigm is the best fit in this study because it allows for a rich, participant-driven exploration of how teachers construct meaning around retention—rather than treating retention as a simple, objective outcome. The bounded case study approach allows for an in-depth exploration of teachers' lived experiences and the factors influencing their decisions to stay in or leave their positions. Constructivism, which emphasizes the co-construction of meaning through experiences and social interactions, aligns with the study's subjective of capturing teachers' interpretations of their professional realities. This study was conducted in Valley and Pinehill counties in South Carolina (2023-2024). Both counties face constant teacher shortages, high turnover, and financial challenges. These counties include both public and non-public schools with a mix of rural and non-rural schools. Participants The study initially involved six rural schoolteachers from South Carolina (a southern U.S. state). These teachers were selected through purposive sampling to ensure that participants had direct experience with rural school environments. Teachers taught history, math, science, and PE, with teaching experience ranging from 2 to 17 years. The study stopped recruiting participants once data collection progressed and data saturation was reached. Teachers were purposefully recruited from two adjacent rural counties. The unit of analysis of the study remains teachers' voices.1 This approach allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the retention issue from both teacher and administrative viewpoints. The final sample of six participants ensures rich, contextually embedded insights into teacher retention in similar educational settings. Data Collection The study's interview protocol included a semi-structured interview protocol to allow participants the flexibility to capture their lived experiences as rural teachers. Interview durations were around 45-60 minutes per participant, and interviews included open-ended questions to capture the essence of the lived experiences of rural teachers in South Carolina. Some examples of interview questions are: • What has shaped your decision to become a teacher in a rural setting? • How do you feel your personal background and experiences connect with or differ from the community and students you serve? • Considering your experiences at this school, what factors would make you consider transiting to another school? • What specific changes or initiatives would you recommend enhancing the working conditions and retention of rural teachers? 1 The names of all interview participants in this study are pseudonyms. Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 7 After each interview, the audio file was inserted into Adobe Premiere Pro to extract the interview text, and later, it was double-checked by listening to the entire audio file. Throughout data collection, during and after each interview, I jotted down my notes and thoughts in a reflexivity journal, which helped me organize my insights, interpretations and biases. Data Analysis The study applied a two-cycle coding process (Saldaña, 2016). In the first coding cycle, the study described and labeled the data within the interview transcripts in short and topic-related terms. Example from a former rural teacher: “Some teachers are underprepared, and the workload is overwhelming.” → Codes: “Workload Stress,” “Teacher Preparedness Issues.” Followed by in vivo coding, the study transcribed participants' exact words, keeping the rawness of their work experiences intact. For instance, Mary said, “We win together and lose together,” which pointed to collective leadership and mentorship as a retention factor. In the final stage, process coding, the researcher followed through with quotations relevant to teacher retention. For example, Jack explained that he had stayed at one school for 16 years but later sought a leadership position, which showed commitment but indicated how long-term issues like money influenced career trajectories. In the second coding phase, the query was how to move away from pattern coding and towards theme building, as the theoretical framework (in Bourdieu's capital theory sense) of economic, social, cultural, and symbolic capital had been attained. The following axial coding was employed to study relations within the code and possible linkages between them and finally lay bare interactions, such as workload → stress → burnout → intentions to leave. Table 1 illustrates the emergent themes, definitions, and exemplar participant quotations, and their relation to Bourdieu's capital theory: Table 1 Themes that emerged from the second cycle of coding Theme Definition Illustrative Example Example Codes Identified Bourdieu's Theory Teacher Leadership & Retention How teachers develop leadership roles, navigate career growth, and face challenges related to retention. “And so, I try to build solid relationships with all of my teachers. I check in with them regularly and make sure they have the support they need to grow in their roles.” Involved Leader - Leadership Support - Coachability and Growth Mindset - Professional Growth - Teacher Identity - Teacher Stability Social Capital – Leadership and mentorship create valuable networks that enhance professional mobility and success. Funding & Equity Challenges The impact of financial limitations and systemic inequalities on school resources and teacher retention. “Sometimes we need to cut budgets for professional development, and that really hurts teachers' ability to grow.” High Poverty Rate - Title I Fund Struggles - Budget Cuts - Funding Disparities - Salary vs. Benefits in Teacher Retention. Economic Capital – Funding disparities affect the resources available to schools, influencing teacher and student success. Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 8 Theme Definition Illustrative Example Example Codes Identified Bourdieu's Theory School Culture & Community The role of relationships among teachers, students, parents, and administrators in shaping the educational experience. “I'm not telling them (teacher) what to do. I'm working with them. We can do what's best together.” Principal-Teacher Relationship, Teacher-Student Background, Building Teacher- Parent Relationships, Community Stability & Student Background. Cultural Capital & Social Capital – Cultural norms, expectations, and networks shape school environments and teacher retention. Inclusive Education & Support The challenges in supporting diverse learners, including students with disabilities and those from different backgrounds. “We struggle with hiring enough special education teachers to meet the needs of our students.” Dedicated Learning Disability Support, Insufficient Special Education Resources, Differentiated Instruction for Diverse Learners. Social & Cultural Capital - shared identity strengths retention. Policy & Testing Challenges The influence of standardized testing, curriculum mandates, and broader policy changes on teachers and students. “State testing pressures force us to focus more on scores than on real learning.” Concerns About Standardized Testing, Advocacy for Growth-Based Assessments, District Pressure, State Testing Reform. Institutionalized Cultural Capital – State assessments and policies reflect dominant cultural expectations, often reinforcing inequities. Trustworthiness This study attained credibility and rigor in multiple ways. After conducting interviews and initial coding, triangulation was used to cross-verify themes. The triangulation included several stages: first, my reflection notes throughout the study, second, interview memo notes, and last, cross-validating with existing literature. Moreover, the study did two stages of member checking with participants. After transcribing each interview, a cleaned interview transcription was sent to each participant to check the accuracy and content of the interview. This would allow them to modify or remove their answers before starting data analysis. The subsequent member checking involved sending participants the codes and themes produced from their interviews and allowing them to revise their answers or remove some content. This two-stage process ensured that participants' perspectives were accurately represented, enhancing the credibility of the findings. To reduce potential bias and increase credibility, an independent researcher reviewed coding and thematic analysis. Reflexivity was also maintained through a reflection journal, where I recorded ongoing thoughts, interpretations, and ideas while collecting and analyzing data so as to promote openness and methodological integrity (Saldana, 2016). Positionality Statement of the Researcher Starting with a constructivist approach, I know that as a researcher, I actively construct meaning and interpret participants' experiences. I grew up in a working-class neighborhood in an Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 9 urban context outside of the United States. I lived through educational disadvantages, systemic resource shortages, and meager education budgets. These formative life experiences developed my knowledge of the long-term impact of socioeconomic disparities on educational opportunities and life chances. As a researcher investigating rural teacher retention in South Carolina, I carry this prior knowledge to data interpretation and analysis. Previous research conducted on Advanced Placement participation in rural schools in South Carolina, I found that timely college access was often related to a lack of qualified teachers, and the ratios of teachers to students were also disproportionately high. These findings expanded my understanding that structural teacher shortages are not just disordered quantitative data; they are real structural inequities that limit the opportunities of rural students. This trajectory connects to the current examination of teacher retention, which is grounded in the view that addressing inequities in teacher distribution is a systemic strategy for enhancing college access and equity in rural educational contexts. Findings The findings of this study reveal critical factors influencing teacher retention in rural schools, categorized into five key themes: teacher leadership and retention, funding and equity challenges, school culture and community, inclusive education and support, and policy and testing challenges. These themes emerged from systematic data analysis using Saldaña's (2016) coding methods and are interpreted through the lens of Bourdieu's capital theory, illustrating how various forms of capital influence teacher decisions to stay or leave their positions. Teacher Leadership and Retention The primary contributing factor to teacher retention in rural schools in South Carolina is the presence of teacher leadership. Teachers who are given leadership roles and, at the same time, are supported administratively feel appreciated and stay in service. This theme highlights that mentor roles, shared decision-making, and shared leadership create a feeling of belongingness and professional growth. Peter, a special education teacher, stated how receiving help from experienced teachers helped him navigate his daily challenges: “We have a lot of experienced teachers who have taught a lot of special education classes before if I need some help with my teaching.” This example underscores the value of professional mentorship as a source of social capital (Bourdieu, 1986), wherein teachers use interpersonal relationships within the school to balance workload and stressors. Access to experienced peers ensures that teachers get a sense of belonging, thereby mitigating feelings of isolation, which can significantly affect retention rates. Leadership also plays a crucial role in shaping teachers' experiences. A teacher described his hands-on leadership style: “I know that if I go to my principal, I can have a conversation with her, and she's going to help me out and listen to me.” This theme emphasizes teachers' role in helping teachers grow and standing alongside them for a shared goal. This type of leadership gives teachers a feeling that they are part of a bigger picture than just their classroom. The participants said the support from leaders took some stress away from the job. One participant stated, “I think allowing somebody (teachers) to feel like it helps them feel like they're part of something bigger than themselves... I know teaching can be a very stressful job, so many pieces to it.” Bourdieu explains this sense of belonging as social capital that can accumulate through professional contact in a work network. It is also related to Bandura's (1997) discussion on collective efficacy: when the teacher's trust in the leader was held in common, this gave the teachers confidence to persist. Administrative support enhances collective responsibility among teachers. Through the lens of Bourdieu (1980, 1986, 1993), this theme shows how social capital is produced when teachers gain access to leadership networks, mentoring, and administrative support. Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 10 These relationships support teachers' habitus of belonging and resilience in the field of rural education. Funding and Equity Challenges A second issue that emerged in this study involved funding and equity in rural South Carolina. Teachers stated inconsistencies in how financial funds are spent and who has the opportunity to access funding. For these teachers, it was not only about money, but about equitable access to opportunities for students and teachers. Multiple participants realized that urban schools with more seemingly racially diverse student populations have a steady flow of federal and state funding. However, teachers acknowledged that rural schools face greater challenges in receiving equitable funding and resources. As one teacher stated, “There are no services for students who require special education support,” and another teacher noted, “I continue to resource my classroom as much as I can because I know that having resources makes the classroom better.” These comments illustrate how limited funding obstructs their capacity to support their students. This understanding of inequitable allocation of resources further fostered an impression of chronic neglect for rural schools and systemic inequities that also challenge teachers' retention. Schools that lack operational funding are constantly seeking to make cuts to professional development, are unable to afford current instructional materials, and are unable to provide teachers with the technology or resources necessary to succeed. Participants in this study did not articulate this predicament as an abstract policy discussion, but as a daily experience that limited teachers' sense of professional value and their possibility for long-term rural school careers. Thus, equity challenges are not as simple as demographic comparisons; inequitable allocation of resources is part of a broader discussion of differences in access and opportunity to create contexts of meaningful learning and quality teaching. The compromise of resources flows through the system and impacts teachers in various facets of their professional and personal situations. To underscore the personal sacrifices, Mary—a mid-career teacher—reflected on her decision to work at her present school: “I even took a pay cut to attend the school I'm currently enrolled at.” In Bourdieu's parlance, these financial barriers demonstrate a lack of economic capital, which inhibits teachers' willingness to invest in their professional development and ultimately affects their retention. Moving beyond Bourdieu, other educational scholars who study teacher labor market dynamics have found that salary competitiveness and professional development opportunities and supports are consistently among the strongest moderators for predicting teacher attrition in rural areas (Ingersoll, 2001; Sutcher et al., 2016). The voices of teachers in this study provide the pathway for understanding how inequities in institutional resources shape teachers' decisions regarding whether to stay or leave. Many teachers face a dilemma—choosing between financial security and staying in schools where they feel a sense of belonging. For some, the lack of salary benefits made them hesitant to plan long-term (+10) years retention decisions. Peter, for example shared, “I'm conflicted because I love the community and that sense of belonging that I'm at. However, the benefits package and the financial side of things are important to me in making sense.” Peter's quote points to financial and emotional factors that determine teachers' career choices; as much as they value a school's culture and community, teachers must also consider factors like long-term financial security, health benefits, and retirement plans. Through Bourdieu's (1980, 1986, 1993) lens, this theme aligns with economic capital, as schools with greater financial resources can offer competitive salaries, fund professional development, and provide classroom materials, whereas underfunded schools face higher teacher attrition and reduced instructional quality. Limitations of monetary resources limit material conditions and limit growth opportunities, reflecting how inequities in the wider field of education shape individual career choices. Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 11 School and Community Culture The cultural makeup of schools and the communities surrounding the schools may also be a significant source of teacher motivation, job satisfaction, and retention. The participants across all interviews consistently pointed to the important relationships teachers have with students, families, and school leaders as a factor that influences professional lives. Sarah, a former rural teacher, noted, for example, how important it is for rural schools to hire teachers who have similar upbringings and backgrounds to their students: “Schools don't hire teachers who have not struggled... teachers who have no empathy for them or want to do everything for them, so they feel sorry for them.” This claim illustrates that similar characteristics and culture strengthen educational community bonds between teachers and students. Teachers who understand students' experiences can better provide support and move beyond a sympathetic approach that hinders student growth. Peter also reinforced the idea that school culture directly influences teacher retention, sharing that he only considers leaving his school if the community and cultural environment change: I feel like who I am, I'm actually able to connect with my students, right? Because a lot of them have backgrounds like mine… If I were to change schools, it would be because that culture changed. Teachers in this study regularly stated that strong cultural ties were a major factor in their decision to stay in rural schools. This cultural affiliation with the school and the community informed not only teacher retention it also shaped classroom practice and curriculum. For example, John articulated the job of teaching in relation to culture building both in the classroom and in relationships with families: It takes being a great culture builder in the classroom, a great leader in the classroom, a great person that connects with parents...I would probably challenge principals not to be programming-oriented and start focusing on building culture in your school. John's response demonstrates how teachers viewed great leadership and community engagement as one in the same. For these educators, the focus on developing a collaborative and caring school culture, where a school administrator, teachers and parents work together, was not just a value articulated in the abstract; it was a daily practice that sustained both their students' success and their own commitment to stay in education. Employing Bourdieu's (1980, 1986, 1993) framework, this analysis demonstrates social capital and cultural capital define teachers' experiences, students' performance, and ongoing commitment. A strong school culture encourages motivation and instills a sense of belonging and mission in teachers. This theme highlights the need for educational leaders to foster a school culture that is collaborative, caring, and focused on community involvement to improve teacher retention and student achievement. Bourdieu's concepts of cultural and social capital help explain how strong ties to the local community and cultural congruence reinforce retention. Teachers sharing habits with students and families tap both the relational networks (social capital) and values (cultural capital) that strengthen their resolve to stay in rural districts. Inclusive Education and Support Another prominent theme in the study is the challenges teachers face in educating different learners, particularly students with disabilities or diverse learning needs. Respondents revealed obstacles, such as the lack of adequate resources or specialized training and being unable to fill Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 12 special education slots appropriately. Jack says some schools might struggle to meet the different needs of students with diverse backgrounds: I have a lot of students who have things that deal with stuff like ADHD or autism... so I have to tweak things a bit…We have a lot of experienced teachers who have taught a lot of special ed classes before. Issues regarding inclusive education were particularly evident in participants' narratives, especially around the burden of addressing the needs of students with disabilities in rural schools that lack resources. Peter, a mid-career teacher, noted that he often had to adapt his lessons to accommodate students who have ADHD or autism: I've got a lot of students that have things that deal with stuff like ADHD or autism... so I have to tweak things a little bit... We have a lot of experienced teachers who have taught a lot of special ed classes before. While he noted veteran teachers played an important role in filling training gaps for less- experienced teachers by providing practical solutions as well as emotional support, the limited availability of special education staff and teachers remained a concern. Mary expressed the continued anxiety at her school over unfilled special education staff: There is a lack of services for kids who need special education support... Our principal is really upset because he wants to hire another person... If they hire somebody, I would be ecstatic. If they don't hire somebody, I will stay and do the best I can. Her determination to continue even amidst the scarcity pointed to teachers' personal commitments to student success, while simultaneously acknowledging the structural limitations that shaped their professional practices. Taken together, the accounts show that inclusive education in rural schools depends on teachers commitments and collegial support. However, ensuring long-term sustainability rests on robust policy responses to address staffing and resource shortages. Peter described his own experience in adapting his teaching methods to accommodate diverse learners: “I have a lot of students that have things that deal with stuff like ADHD or autism... so I have to tweak things a bit.” Peter's example underscores the necessity of differentiated instruction, noting that inclusive education is not about providing additional support but modifying everyday teaching strategies to meet students' varied needs. Applying Bourdieu's model of social and cultural capital, this theme illustrates that educators with access to veteran colleagues and professional networks can better cope with challenges in inclusive education. Schools with more institutional networks and knowledge resources are more apt to offer successful special education programs, while schools with fewer such resources struggle. This theme draws attention to the ways that cultural capital (understanding of inclusive pedagogy) and social capital (collegial networks) help teachers to meet the needs of diverse learners. Without these forms of capital, rural schools face structural constraints such as inadequate staffing, limited resources, and fewer professional supports, which may cause added stress and increase attrition risk. Policy and Testing Challenges The final theme uncovered in the study shows how teachers and instructional practice are impacted by standardized testing, mandated curriculum, and general policy changes. Teachers consistently complained of the constraints on them due to standardized testing, mandated curriculum, and district- or state-level policy. The constraints influence their autonomy, instructional Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 13 planning, and ability to respond to individual students. For example, Sarah, a former rural teacher, described her dislike for the current testing measures and wished for improved assessments that provide more revealing and predictive data to teachers: “ Well, first of all, I would take care of state testing... If you have two other tests, you have a development, a beginning of the year, mid-year development, so you should be able to predict or have some idea of what they will do in May. Her complaint showed how educators wanted evaluation systems to inform teaching, but not simply to audit outcomes. Other teachers noted that they received minimal data to work from when it came to standardized test results. For example, Mary shared her disappointment in the transparency or functionality of test scores: “State testing doesn't give me any useful data because they are all sealed... We need to shift from a standard test to a growth test.” Her plea to move toward growth models illustrates the point of teachers' common critique: accountability systems that measure performance often lead education systems to operationalize in ways that undermine the very nature of teachers' work. Mary's comments indicated a desire for assessments of growth vs. standardized tests because she valued the opportunity to be able to track students over time instead of one moment of their performance. Mary articulated frustrations that many participants conveyed towards state testing, a malpractice perceived as "needless work" and removed from the reality of the classroom. In addition to assessments, teachers described how policy changes could create additional problems in a way that left them less prepared. Jack, for instance, reflected on the tension of implementing what effectively felt like a new curriculum without notice: “Teaching changes like AP (Advanced Placement) courses we were asked to implement this year puts a bit of pressure on teachers because we are unprepared.” His experience illustrates how systems-level reform, imposed without an appropriate level of training or resources, created anxiety for educators and contributed to the degradation of their practice. These experiences demonstrate how decisions created through policy aren't contained outside of classrooms: finding a way to constrain teacher autonomy poses a barrier to their planning and ultimately affects how they decide whether to persist in the profession. Later, John explained that at the end of the day, teachers cannot do much about the obligations of the state or their districts, but follow them, “You can't really do anything about that (policy changes)? I mean, it is what it is.” John's comments express resignation, pointing to the powerlessness that teachers feel with state and district policy requirements. Mandated curriculum and standardized testing are institutional norms embodying dominant societal expectations and values. These policies, embedded firmly in education, reproduce existing inequalities and limit teachers' autonomy. Building on Bourdieu's (1980, 1986, 1993) concept of institutionalized cultural capital, the standardized testing and policy mandates discussed by participants in this study constrain teachers' autonomy and reproduce inequities by influencing their professional habitus and retention decisions. Discussion This study shows teachers' identification and sense of belonging to schools and their communities. Teachers who are emotionally and professionally connected to school communities are more resilient and able to remain despite difficulties (Arnold et al., 2005; Sheridan, 2019). All participants illustrated to different extents that when teachers felt they belonged, particularly through administrative support, professional mentoring, and positive community relationships, they were Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 14 more likely to remain in their positions (Player, 2017; Shell et al., 2023). Mentioned factors show individual teacher habitus (a durable disposition of belongingness), supported by social capital in terms of mentorship access and colleague and administrator networks of engagement. Conversely, despite such a sense of belonging, some participants like Jack and Peter, expressed internal conflicts, confessing that, though their connection with their school and area remained high, economic stress and limited long-term benefits were critical factors that might eventually triumph over their affective loyalty (Monk, 2007; Showalter et al., 2019). The trajectories of rural teacher experiences show that economic capital—this predominant gap in access to resources—trumps habitus and social capital in stabilizing an educator's duration in the field. According to the findings, funding inequities were a serious issue that influenced rural teacher retention. Participants mentioned differences between rural schools and their urban or more racially diverse counterparts as reflective of extreme budget constraints that undermine their capacity for offering competitive wages, professional training, and adequate classroom resources (Dhaliwal & Bruno, 2021; Showalter et al., 2019). Such findings highlight how economic capital has precedence above. Teachers tended to feel compelled to sacrifice personally and financially to stay in schools where they felt valued and attached, emphasizing economic capital's role in professional and retention decisions (Cartiff et al., 2024; Monk, 2007). Another critical matter was the impact of state education policy, particularly standardized testing, which members believed was counterintuitive and stressful to teachers and learners (Johnson & Howley, 2015; Rude & Miller, 2017). Teachers described the loss of control because of enforced testing, whereby the policies created extra work but did not bring any beneficial teaching returns. Members demanded improvement-centered evaluation instead of the use of standardized tests, asserting that the latter do not reflect learning effectively but instead increase pressure and tension for students and staff (Tieken & Montgomery, 2021). This demonstrates how the education field is constrained by standardized testing and limits educator agency through institutionalized types of cultural capital that are contrary to teacher professional habitus. Finally, the study brings to light the severe lack of support for inclusive education, the most significant being the lack of special education personnel. Teachers identified difficulties in fully addressing students' multiple needs due to poor preparation, resources, and specialist personnel (Cartiff et al., 2024; Irvin et al., 2020). The absence of special education expertise contributes to stress experienced by teachers, as they are tasked with adapting instruction for diverse learners regularly without adequate training or professional support, further worsening teacher retention in rural environments (Shell et al., 2023). The significance of the gap emphasizes the limited cultural capital (value of special training) and social capital (networks of support to professionals) that rural educators have as limited resources, which also produce diminished teacher efficacy and long-term commitment. Conclusion This retention case study reveals that the decisions of rural teachers in South Carolina result from a blend of emotional attachment, state policy contexts, and structural constraints. Teachers stay in schools when leadership is supportive, there is community engagement, and professional recognition. Economic strain, inequitable funding, restrictive mandates, lack of policy support, and lack of support for special education cannot be overlooked. Due to South Carolina's hybrid funding approach, rural schools suffer the consequences of the inequitable distribution of the state subsidy. While the base and program finances in the Education Finance Act (EFA; South Carolina General Assembly, 1977) and Education Improvement Act (EIA; South Carolina General Assembly, 1984) attempt to plug the salary gap Teacher Retention in South Carolina’s Rural Schools 15 through the recent per-student funding in their respective portion, rural schools also lack the local funding needed to augment the base salary, which puts them at a disadvantage. Policymakers need to reconsider how Weight-ed Student Funding and the Education Scholarship Trust Fund are administratively dealt with by rural districts so that these schools are not disadvantaged because of the size of their enrollment or the nature of their population. Expanding pay and recruitment policies for teachers is equally important. While the current state minimum salary for new teachers is $47,500, rural school districts struggle to offer competitive local supplements. The Teacher Loan Program and Teaching Fellowship in South Carolina offer some relief, but should be revised to strengthen the cancellation rates, funding, and add-on award to make service in rural districts attractive. Expanding loan forgiveness for individuals teaching in critical shortage areas, along with small salary incentives and mentoring, would directly impact retention. Staffing for inclusive education remains a pressing concern. Although South Carolina organizes caseload standards (e.g. 60 students per speech-language therapist) and stipulates paraprofessional standards in the district, the practical applicability in rural schools is that shortages trump all available shortages. Enhancing the co-teaching model, expanding state-funded special education grants and fostering a pipeline for professional preparation would alleviate pressures that drive people out. Finally, policy reform should consider moving away from the overemphasis on standardized testing mandates toward a growth- and improvement-based evaluation framework that honors teachers' use of professional judgment. Participants regarded testing as an associated drain on instructional energy that does not provide meaningful returns; shifting to improvement-based accountability would not only respect professional autonomy but also reinvigorate teachers' sense of optimism and moral purpose. This study aims explicitly at policymakers, rural district leaders, and teacher preparation programs, who can work collaboratively to address retention with equitable funding, improved professional supports, and context-sensitive policy development. 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National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2024039 Tieken, M. C., & Montgomery, M. K. (2021). Challenges facing schools in rural America. State Education Standard, 21(1), 6-11. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1286832.pdf Tran, H., & Dou, J. (2019). An exploratory examination of what types of administrative support matter for rural teacher talent management: The rural educator perspective. Retrieved by ERIC: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1234912.pdf About the Author Ali Jahanaray Clemson University alijahanaray@outlook.com & jahanar@clemson.edu Ali Jahanaray is a PhD candidate in his final year at Clemson University, studying educational leadership – P12. Ali's educational research focuses on program evaluations and policy interventions, and strongly focuses on college access, teacher retention, and educational equity in rural and underserved schools. His work spans K–12 contexts and integrates advanced quantitative methods (e.g., GLMs, SEM, hurdle models, spatial analysis) with qualitative approaches (e.g., case studies, grounded theory, participatory research). He has evaluated educational programs, behavioral interventions, and learning support strategies, producing evidence-based recommendations for practice and policy for districts and schools. https://doi.org/10.1177/8756870517748662 https://doi.org/10.1177/8756870517748662 https://doi.org/10.5897/err2023.4318 https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2019v44n12.5 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED604580.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811511700305 https://doi.org/10.54300/247.242 https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2024039 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1286832.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1234912.pdf mailto:alijahanaray@outlook.com mailto:jahanar@clemson.edu Education Polic y Analysis Arc hives Vol. 33 No. 63 18 education policy analysis archives Volume 33 Number 63 October 7, 2025 ISSN 1068-2341 Readers are free to copy, display, distribute, and adapt this article, as long as the work is attributed to the author(s) and Education Policy Analysis Archives, the changes are identified, and the same license applies to the derivative work. More details of this Creative Commons license are available at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/. EPAA is published by the Mary Lou Fulton College for Teaching and Learning Innovation at Arizona State University. Articles are indexed in CIRC (Clasificación Integrada de Revistas Científicas, Spain), DIALNET (Spain), Directory of Open Access Journals, EBSCO Education Research Complete, ERIC, Education Full Text (H.W. Wilson), QUALIS A1 (Brazil), SCImago Journal Rank, SCOPUS, SOCOLAR (China). About the Editorial Team: https://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/epaa/about/editorialTeam Please send errata notes to Jeanne M. Powers at jeanne.powers@asu.edu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ http://www.doaj.org/ http://www.doaj.org/ https://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/index.php/epaa/about/editorialTeam mailto:mailtojeanne.powers@asu.edu