







































Education, Society and Human Studies 
ISSN 2690-3679 (Print) ISSN 2690-3687 (Online) 

Vol. 4, No. 3, 2023 
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7 

Original Paper 

Integrating Cultural-Historical Activity Theory and Authentic 

Learning with Technology in Teaching and Learning: A Case 

Study Analysis 
Tommie Hamaluba, PhD1* & Moono Hamaluba, M.Ed.2 

1 Open Schooling, Botswana Open University, Gaborone, Botswana 
2 Counseling Department, Boitakanelo College, Gaborone, Botswana 
* Tommie Hamaluba, PhD, Open Schooling, Botswana Open University, Gaborone, Botswana 

 

Received: August 30, 2023    Accepted: September 10, 2023   Online Published: September 20, 2023 

doi:10.22158/eshs.v4n3p7                         URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/eshs.v4n3p7 

 

Abstract 

This research work presents a comprehensive framework that merges Cultural-Historical Activity Theory 

(C), Authentic Learning (A), and six distinct roles of Technology (T) in the context of teaching and 

learning. The study reviews five individual case studies that explore the utilization of technology in 

educational settings, examining their alignment with the CAT framework. The research highlights the 

significance of adventure games as an effective medium for knowledge construction, wherein embedded 

puzzles and core content serve as extrinsic mediators, while discussions between players intrinsically 

mediate knowledge construction. Additionally, artifacts of mass media, such as games, software, and 

other media, facilitate knowledge production when they function as tools rather than objects of the 

activity. Drawing on Vygotskian concepts of social tool-mediated dialogical knowledge construction, the 

research concludes that games and media play an integral role in enhancing teaching and learning 

experiences. This study aims to contribute to the broader understanding of technology integration in 

education, encouraging educators to adopt transformative approaches to optimize the benefits of 

technology in the learning process. 

Keywords 

Technology, Teaching and Learning, Adventure Games, Cultural-Historical Activity Theory, Authentic 

Learning 

 

 

 



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1. Introduction 

The primary aim of this study is to explore and discuss the application of a theoretical framework that 

supports the integration of technology and contemporary media in educational settings. In both 

residential and distance education systems, Learning Management Systems (LMS) are widely employed. 

However, the design of LMS may partly hinder innovative, collaborative, and interactive learning 

experiences (Reeves, Herrington & Oliver, 2004). 

Several LMS designs tend to prioritize content (Finger & Jamieson-Proctor, 2009), focus on technical 

aspects (Dutton, Cheong, & Park, 2004), utilize commodified learning materials (Amory, 2010a), 

concentrate on information over the learning process (Paulsen, 2003), and replicate traditional 

instructional practices (Blin & Munro, 2008; Browne, Jenkins, & Walker, 2006; Dutton et al., 2004; 

Yueh & Hsu, 2008). Amiel and Reeves (2008) argue that technology should be an integral part of the 

learning process rather than an isolated unit of learning. 

However, teachers encounter challenges beyond LMS design when integrating technology and media 

into their teaching practices. For instance, pre-service teachers designing text-based web quests and 

PowerPoint presentations often focus on lower-order thinking skills, overlooking the ideological 

dimensions inherent in all media (Reid et al., 2006). Media content employs symbols and signs that are 

not politically neutral, objective, or impartial, often perpetuating dominant cultural values (Torres & 

Mercado, 2006). Mitchell (2008) highlights that contemporary media theory is often associated with 

themes of war machines, coercion, aggression, surveillance, and propaganda, as described by McLuhan’s 

“the medium is the message”. On the other hand, Gibson (2008) argues that the meaning or message of 

content is shaped by the ways in which we use media. 

This paper investigates the integration of media (content), educational technology, and interactive 

learning environments into instructi onal designs that align with the current dominate pedagogical 

paradigm of sociocultural dialogic activity (Vygotsky, 1933/1978). Additionally, the paper briefly 

introduces the aforementioned framework and reviews illustrative examples to highlight its essential 

aspects. 

The framework employed in this study incorporates three key elements: Cultural-historical activity 

theory (C), Authentic learning (A), and potential roles of educational Technology (T) in the context of 

teaching and learning. Vygotsky’s theory (1933/1978) posits that learning is never a direct process but 

rather occurs through the mediation of cultural and psychological tools. These tools act as intermediaries 

through whom we acquire knowledge about the world, enabling us to develop mastery over our 

surroundings and ourselves. Engeström (1987) expanded Vygotsky’s subject-object-tool triad to include 

additional components such as rules, the community, and division of labor, providing a more 

comprehensive understanding of human activity and work (as depicted in Figure 1). Central concepts 

associated with this socio-cultural dialogic activity framework include the object of activity, social 

interactions, and mediation. 



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Figure 1. Redrawn from Engeström (2008), the Activity System Diagram Depicts the Framework: 

Activity System Diagram 

 

The central focus in activity theory is the object and its associated actions (Engeström, 2008). However, 

Kaptelinin (2005) points out that the object can hold different meanings: “objekt” refers to material 

entities that exist independently of the mind (representing something to be realized), while “predmet” 

denotes a thought or action (representing the object of desire). It is essential to distinguish that the motive 

behind the activity is not solely the object. When we instantiate an object, we formulate it, and we realize 

an object when we achieve a particular outcome (Nardi, 2008). 

Socio-cultural interactions play a fundamental role in cognitive development, as Vygotsky (1933/1978) 

posits that every function in a child’s cultural development occurs twice: first between people 

(interpsychological) and then internally within the child (intra-psychological). 

In the mediation of knowledge construction, psychological and cultural tools are of utmost significance. 

According to Wertsch (2007), mediation encompasses two formulations: explicit mediation, where a 

stimulus is intentionally introduced into an ongoing activity stream, evident and non-transitory; and 

implicit mediation, which relies on signs, especially language, primarily serving the function of 

communication. Hence, within the activity framework, we must give meticulous attention to two 

essential components. Firstly, the design of a learning activity should prioritize an easy-to-use approach 

when creating the object of the activity (the design of the learning actions). Secondly, the role of 

technology and media/content in the system requires clarity. Amory (2012) proposes that authentic 

learning could aid in describing the object of the learning activity and suggests various ways in which 

technology could be effectively integrated into such a system. 

According to Reeves et al. (2004), well-designed learning environments should include authentic tasks 

that possess certain characteristics. These tasks should have real-world relevance, be ill defined with 

multiple subtasks, and require students to engage in complex investigations. Additionally, they should 

offer opportunities for students to explore the tasks from various perspectives, foster collaborative and 

reflective learning experiences, and integrate different subject areas. The assessment should also be 

integrated into the tasks, allowing for the generation of multiple iterations of potential products and 



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accommodating diverse and competing answers or solutions. 

Technology assumes various roles within the system, encompassing the delivery of learning resources, 

research materials, and administrative information essential for educational processes. It also acts as a 

facilitator of communication, accommodating both real-time synchronous interactions and asynchronous 

interactions for anytime collaboration. Collaborative authoring and other online services enable 

co-authorship and co-construction of content, as exemplified by Google Docs, where multiple authors 

can simultaneously edit documents. 

Moreover, technology serves as an information transformation tool, enabling the conversion of 

information from one or multiple sources into alternative streams. For instance, a written novel could be 

transformed into a storyboard using technology. Additionally, it functions as a professionalization tool, 

offering specific technological tools directly associated with particular professions. For example, 

architecture students might use computer-aided design software to enhance their professional skills. 

Explicit mediation, where a stimulus is intentionally introduced into an ongoing activity stream, evident 

and non-transitory; and implicit mediation, which relies on signs, especially language, primarily serving 

the function of communication. Hence, within the activity framework, we must give meticulous attention 

to two essential components. Firstly, the design of a learning activity should prioritize an easy-to-use 

approach when creating the object of the activity (the design of the learning actions). Secondly, the role 

of technology and media/content in the system requires clarity. Amory (2012) proposes that authentic 

learning could aid in describing the object of the learning activity and suggests various ways in which 

technology could be effectively integrated into such a system. 

According to Reeves et al. (2004), well-designed learning environments should include authentic tasks 

that possess certain characteristics. These tasks should have real-world relevance, be ill defined with 

multiple subtasks, and require students to engage in complex investigations. Additionally, they should 

offer opportunities for students to explore the tasks from various perspectives, foster collaborative and 

reflective learning experiences, and integrate different subject areas. The assessment should also be 

integrated into the tasks, allowing for the generation of multiple iterations of potential products and 

accommodating diverse and competing answers or solutions. 

Technology assumes various roles within the system, encompassing the delivery of learning resources, 

research materials, and administrative information essential for educational processes. It also acts as a 

facilitator of communication, accommodating both real-time synchronous interactions and asynchronous 

interactions for anytime collaboration. Collaborative authoring and other online services enable 

co-authorship and co-construction of content, as exemplified by Google Docs, where multiple authors 

can simultaneously edit documents. 

Moreover, technology serves as an information transformation tool, enabling the conversion of 

information from one or multiple sources into alternative streams. For instance, a written novel could be 

transformed into a storyboard using technology. Additionally, it functions as a professionalization tool, 



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offering specific technological tools directly associated with particular professions. For example, 

architecture students might use computer-aided design software to enhance their professional skills. 

 

2. Methods, Results and Discussion 

The research utilized a collective case study approach to evaluate the effectiveness of the 

object-tool-social framework in incorporating video games into the teaching and learning process. The 

case studies can be categorized into three types based on their objectives: intrinsic studies, which explore 

the uniqueness of individual cases; instrumental studies, which aim to advance theoretical understanding; 

and collective studies, which employ multiple cases to serve an instrumental purpose (Stake, 1988). 

In this particular study, the unit of analysis for individual cases was the understanding of pre-service 

teachers regarding the use of video games in the classroom. Simultaneously, the collective case analysis 

aimed to develop a theoretical foundation for leveraging video games in teaching and learning. Five 

individual case studies were reviewed to achieve this purpose (Creswell, 1998). 

These case studies encompassed various scenarios, such as rural school students playing a game to 

overcome misconceptions related to photosynthesis and respiration (Case 1), orphans from Soweto 

engaging in an interactive game to learn about diseases (Case 2), third-year BEd students using a game to 

design a learning intervention (Case 3), Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) students using a 

game to address misconceptions related to Mendelian genetics (Case 4), and education students at honors 

level undertaking authentic tasks to enhance their understanding of technology use in the classroom 

(Case 5). 

2.1. Case 1 

During the study, two groups of Form 3 students from Kang BOU Centre engaged in playing an 

adventure game designed to address misconceptions related to photosynthesis and respiration (Foko & 

Amory, 2008). The results, as shown indicated that individual play (n=19) led to only 31.9% of the 

concepts being understood by the participants. Interestingly, it was observed that those who couldn’t 

solve the game puzzles memorized the answers from their peers who could. Additionally, some 

participants faced difficulties comprehending the English test instrument. 

In the second group (n=16), the students played the game in pairs, and they were given the opportunity to 

seek language clarification during gameplay. This collaborative approach and the provision of language 

assistance led to a noticeable improvement in test scores, with 50% of the concepts being understood. 

Overall, the findings highlight the importance of collaboration and language support in enhancing 

learning outcomes when using video games as a tool for overcoming misconceptions related to 

photosynthesis and respiration among Form 4 students at Gaborone Secondary School. 

2.2 Case 2 

Botswana Open University’s Kang Regional Centre Teenage participants, consisting of orphans from 

Kang aged 14 to 18 years (n=12), took part in playing an adventure game focused on the biology of 



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various diseases, including HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. The participants were divided into groups of 

three members, and each group played the game for a total of 10 hours (Amory, 2010b). Knowledge 

gained through gameplay was then assessed and compared to the performance of first-year biology 

students and first-year non-biology students. 

Comparing Teenagers’ Understanding of Biology in Various Diseases after Gameplay with First-Year 

University Students (Biology and Non-Biology) at the University of Botswana (UB). 

 

Table 1. Teenage Participants 

Group Mean Score ± SD (%) 

Teenage Participants 57.1 ± 8.9 

First-year Biology 61.4 ± 10.2 

First-year Non-Biology 37.6 ± 8.1 

 

The results indicate that the average scores of the teenage participants were comparable to those of the 

first-year biology students (57.1 ± 8.9% vs. 61.4 ± 10.2%). In contrast, the first-year non-biology 

students scored significantly lower at 37.6 ± 8.1%. The difference between the teenage participants’ 

scores and the first-year non-biology students’ scores was statistically significant (t-test=-7.982, DF=116, 

p < 0.001). 

It’s worth noting that one group of teenage participants preferred not to collaborate and was the only 

group that did not complete the game. The findings indicate that gameplay in this adventure game 

effectively enhanced the participants’ understanding of biology-related diseases, with their performance 

comparable to that of first-year biology students. 

2.3 Case 3 

In Case 3, third-year BEd students (n=184) participated in playing an adventure game aimed at exploring 

an object-social Vygotsky framework (Amory, 2011). The gameplay was conducted in pairs. As part of 

the examination, participants were tasked with submitting three of the semester tasks they considered 

most beneficial for their personal development. 

 



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Figure 2. Presents the Performance of Third-Year Students in Various Aspects of the Course, 

including Course Work, Authentic Tasks, and Examination Portfolio Tasks 
 

Examination of the participant portfolio outcomes (Figure 2) revealed that certain individuals found 

significant value in playing the educational game. Upon analyzing the reasons for this preference, they 

expressed that they experienced enhanced learning outcomes when engaging in collaborative gameplay. 

Additionally, some participants identified the primary objective of the activity as “evaluating the game 

for learning”. 

2.4 Case 4 

Assessment of Misconceptions in Genetics among PGCE Students Before and After Gameplay 

 

Table 2. Assessment of Genetic Misconceptions among PGCE Cohort 

Test Mean Score ± SD (%) 

Pre-test | 29.8 ± 4.7 

Post-test 44.4 ± 6.5 

** Significantly different, t-test=-3.69, p < 0.001 

 

Life Science PGCE students (n=11), divided into pairs, played an adventure game designed to rectify 

misconceptions related to Mendelian genetics (Amory, 2011). The evaluation of their understanding 

before and after gameplay showed a significant improvement. Their mean score increased from 29.8 ± 

4.7% in the pre-test to 44.4 ± 6.5% in the post-test (t-test=-3.69, p < 0.001). The students recognized that 

the game puzzles acted as a tool, facilitating discussions between team members and mediating their 

learning process. The interactive gameplay significantly contributed to their understanding of difficult 

Mendelian genetic concepts. 

2.5 Case 5: Authentic Tasks and Tools in an Honours Level Education Course 

Unlike the previous cases that utilized complex adventure games for mediating knowledge construction, 



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this case employed various authentic tasks, core readings, and software tools in an education course at the 

honours level. The authentic tasks encompassed activities such as evaluating e-maturity at a school using 

Google Docs, presenting software tools to support e-maturity via Google presentation, creating a 

knowledge, skills, and attitudes mind map using Free Mind, designing a website on open source and open 

access materials in schools through Weebly, and developing a film script for a future educational system 

using a storyboard. 

At the conclusion of the semester, participants were asked to assess the authenticity of the course (Amory, 

2012). Additionally, their performance was evaluated in comparison to similarly designed courses 

(research methodology) and dissimilarly designed courses (education theory). 

 

 
Figure 3. Student Assessment of Authentic Task Design Principles 

 

All the authentic attributes of the course, except for reflections, received high ratings from the 

participants. 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Different Courses 

Course Participants Mean Score (%) Standard Deviation 

Educational ICT 30 60.73 10.66 

Research Methodology 30 56.07 16.48 

Education Theory 30 50.07 11.33 

 

The results of a 1 x 6 x 3 repeated measures analysis of variance revealed significant differences between 

three different courses: Educational ICT, Research Methodology, and Education Theory. Post hoc 

pairwise comparisons indicated that both the Educational ICT and Research Methodology courses 

differed significantly from the Education Theory course (p=0.0001 and p=0.006, respectively). However, 

there was no significant difference between the Educational ICT and Research Methodology courses 

(p=0.25). 

 

3. Conclusion 

The research reviewed here leads to three significant conclusions: 

Firstly, when introducing game puzzles, core reading, and suitable software into a learning activity, these 

elements act as the extrinsic mediator, while the discussions among players intrinsically mediate their 

comprehension. 

Secondly, artefacts, including games, media, and software, contribute to knowledge production when 

utilized as tools rather than mere objects of the activity. 

Thirdly, the Vygotskian concept of social tool-mediated dialogical knowledge construction emerges as 

an appropriate framework for incorporating games and media in teaching and learning. 

These findings provide valuable support for the design of learning objects within activities applicable to 

both residential and distance education systems. Implementing these principles can enhance the overall 

learning experience and foster meaningful knowledge acquisition for students. 

 

Acknowledgement 

I am deeply grateful to my family, whose unwavering support and understanding have been a constant 

source of motivation throughout this journey. Their encouragement and belief in my abilities have 

pushed me to excel and complete this work. 

I extend my heartfelt thanks to the participants who willingly took part in the case studies and 

generously shared their insights and experiences. Their valuable contributions have enriched the 

findings of this research. 

I would also like to express my appreciation to my friends for their encouragement and understanding 

during the ups and downs of this project. Their presence and support have been a great source of 

comfort. 



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This work would not have been possible without the collaboration and assistance of all the individuals 

involved. I am truly grateful for the support of my family, participants, and friends in making this 

research a reality. 

 

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