

































Educational Renaissance Vol. 10 (2021)

Percept ions and Underst andings of  Low  Lit eracy 
Am ong Developing Teacher  Candidat es
Johannah Baugher , EdD. School of Education, Northwest Missouri State University

     email: jbaugher@nwmissouri.edu 

Everet t  Singlet on, PhD . School of Education, Northwest Missouri State University

     email: esingleton@nwmissouri.edu

Research Article

The purpose of this study was to examine 
developing teacher candidates? perceptions and 
understandings of low literacy through an 
intersectional lens. An additional goal of this 
research was to frame environmental stimuli that 
these candidates identify as contributing factors of 
low literacy.  The findings from this research study 
will be utilized to better understand future 
teachers? action plans for confronting low literacy. 

Research Questions

1. How do teacher candidates define low 
literacy?

2. What perceptions influence teacher 
candidates? understanding of low literacy and 
persons with that background?  

3. What prevalent factors impact teacher 
candidates? beliefs about low literacy?

Theoret ical Fram ework

This study was based on and informed by 

Crenshaw?s (1989) theoretical construct of 
intersectionality. Crenshaw, (1989) defines 
intersectionality as a unit of beliefs that describes 
the way individuals see the world. Crenshaw 
(1989) posited that overlapping and 
interconnected aspects of a person?s identity 
should be considered when seeking to understand 
their perceptions, experiences, and beliefs. These 
aspects include education, substance use, class, 
socioeconomics, family support, mental health, 
foster care, and physical disability, as well as age 
and other forms of identity. However, 
intersectional theory is not just about personal 
identity in a vacuum, but the ways in which it is 
affected and, to some extent, defined by systems 
of oppression, discrimination, and privilege.  

Like intersectionality, literacy research and 
language arts pedagogies attempt to hold 
accountable historical elements that create 
inequities. Grant and Zwier (2017) noted that 

Abst ract  

While a great deal of research is available to inform the definition of low literacy, its impact on local, 
state, national, and global levels, as well as commonalities that exist among those comprising this 
population, litt le is publicized about the perceptions held of this population by members of the 
general public.  Yet, despite this identified gap in literature, one set of themes remain: individuals of 
low literacy are often a marginalized population, susceptible to socioeconomic vulnerability, and 
disadvantaged in matters of assimilation within many social constructs (Flynn et al., 2011; Martinez & 
Fernandez, 2010).  Through this study, attempts will be made to formulate perceptions and 
understandings of low literacy among teacher candidates.   

mailto:jbaugher@nwmissouri.edu
mailto:esingleton@nwmissouri.edu


BAUGHER & SINGLETON| PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF LOW LITERACY

intersectional research within the scope of 
education has given attention to both theory and 
practices, though their emphasis is on the 
importance of practical application in the 
classroom setting.  Scholastic research to date has 
found the direct correlation between intersectional 
theory and classroom methods to be limited but 
evolving (Grant & Zwier, 2017), a promising 
conclusion that also indicates a more in-depth 
reach is needed to effectively address gaps. 

Compton-Lilly et al., (2017) examined the way in 
which immigrant youth negotiated the intersecting 
categories of their unique identities and how they 
made sense of these identities through literacy 
development over a period of time. Their findings 
also confirmed that attending to students? 
intersectional identities is vital with regard to 
literacy development. It is important to note that 
theories of intersectionality are complex, 
interconnected, and overlapping, and they debunk 
the notion that categories such as race, class, 
culture, and language are independent of one 
another. ?Intersectionality reveals the complexities 
of children?s identities and the ways in which 
literacy learning overlaps with, interacts with, and 
entails multiple ways of being that cannot be 
untangled? (Compton-Lilly, et al., 2017, p. 136). 

Clearly, classroom practices based on 
intersectionality could be used to enhance literacy 
development among students. As intersectionality 
has a theoretical orientation and is not an 
established method with confined boundaries, it 
provides room for open dialogue, in-depth 
reflection, and real-life action for change.  Using 
this theory as a guide, teachers of reading and 
writing can create lessons and curricula that give 
attention to the various aspects of their students? 
identities; they can also extend lessons to 
illuminate the voices of groups not physically 
present in the classroom, but vital to cultural 
awareness. For example, language arts teachers 
could use introduce common reading pedagogies, 
such as reading aloud, to ensure that students are 
provided with opportunities to consume stories 
about people whose cultural backgrounds are very 

different from their own. ?By including these 
readings as part of larger text sets around 
particular topics, such as refugees, diverse 
families, and homelessness, teachers can 
encourage students to pose critical questions 
about their own schools and classrooms? (Brochin, 
2018, p. 173). 

Concealment of Low Literacy

Often referred to as invisible members of society, 
those of low or limited literacy background 
commonly opt to fall under radar so-to-speak, 
avoiding any potential feelings of embarrassment 
or shame (Flynn et al., 2011; Roman, 2004).  Skills 
of low literacy are often hidden in full camouflage, 
as individuals avoid making known any 
deficiencies for fear of being harshly labeled, 
isolated, or traumatized (Mangro, 2008; Melia, 
2008).  Falling victim to marginalization and others? 
active prejudice, many persons incur low literacy 
as life?s outcome, not of their own choosing.

Perceptions of those who identify of low literacy 
are formed no differently when compared with 
impressions or judgments made of other 
populations.  Driven by an observance of common 
traits, background experience, and context, person 
perception engages cognition to construct 
conclusions about an individual person, or 
population (Cherry, 2020).  Deductions made of a 
person or population (accurate or otherwise) can 
influence subsequent categorizations and 
stereotypical behaviors (Cherry, 2020).  These 
active forces have the potential to influence the 
future outlook for those of low literacy.  In the 
same way, necessitating an awareness of 
trauma-informed instruction when working with 
individuals and family of low literacy background.

Trauma-Informed Pedagogical Practice

Research shows that students of color, as well as 
those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and 
their families, often deal with direct and indirect 
traumas that appear in ?problem behaviors? 
commonly resulting in incarceration. Trauma can 
manifest from a single traumatic experience 
caused by an accident or death of a family 

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BAUGHER & SINGLETON| PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF LOW LITERACY

member, or several continuous traumatic 
experiences, such as violence or mental, physical, 
or sexual abuse (Cook & Newman, 2014). 
Overlooked and subtle trauma in youth can lead to 
the Cradle-to-Prison-Pipeline. The 
?Cradle-to-Prison-Pipeline,? funnels students out of 
school and into the streets, depriving them ?of 
meaningful opportunities for education, future 
employment, and participation in our democracy? 
(Tyner, 2014, p. 1).  

There appears to be a direct correlation between 
trauma and educational achievement, specifically 
rates of low literacy, as well as behavioral 
challenges, and detainment.  The numerous 
ramifications of undealt trauma can bring into 
existence adverse situations for students inside 
and outside of school causing challenging like 
predicaments for those same students (Blodgett, 
2015).   Particularly, students who have endured at 
least two or more traumatic occurrences were 
almost three times more likely to be left behind a 
grade, more likely to have increased absenteeism, 
and far less likely to be involved in school (Bethell, 
et al., 2014). 

White-Cummings (2016) provides ways that 
reading and writing can be used as a form of 
self-expression to help students cope with trauma 
at school. Writing can be used to help students 
process thinking, manage challenges, and 
understand emotions. Additionally, reading can 
also be an integral part of the healing process. 
Understanding the struggle of others through 
reading can help students validate their feelings, 
through individuals and characters that face 
similar struggles. Being able to see themselves 
reflected in stories can help them overcome 
adversity and build resilience (Nicholas-Frazer, 
2019). 

Literacy and the School-to-Prison Pipeline

The role of education and school attendance 
cannot be underestimated as a powerful tool in 
counteracting adjudication and incarceration.  
Providing a quality education to students can 
create an essential, protective element against 

delinquent involvement in the juvenile justice 
system (Development Services Group, 2015c); 
furthermore, education and school attendance is 
instrumental in the rehabilitation of incarcerated 
youth. Research concludes that further purports 
that ?? 75% of state incarcerated individuals did 
not complete high school, or can be classified as 
low literate? (as cited by Harlow, 2003, p. 1 in 
ProLiteracy, 2020).

Further research shows that 43% of adults are 
reading at an eight grade level or lower in the 
United States. Essentially 29% are reading at 
eighth grade level, while 14% percent comprehend 
materials at or lower than a fifth grade level 
(Zoukis, 2017). These reading deficits usually start 
in the early years and increase as students move 
through later grades. In order to reduce crime and 
narrow the cradle-to-prison pipeline, it?s crucial to 
tackle the issue of widespread illiteracy in this 
country (Zoukis, 2017).  

Research Design and Met hodology

This study used a grounded theory approach, 
along with analyses of qualitative and quantitative 
data sources. The researchers examined teacher 
candidates in one educator-preparation program 
in a rural, Midwestern university to determine 
perceptions and understandings of low literacy 
among teacher candidates. The goal was to 
provide an in-depth description and analysis of a 
single case or multiple cases (Merriam, 2009). This 
approach, which entailed compiling in-depth 
information collected via survey (Creswell, 2014; 
Fink, 2013), allowed the researchers to explore a 
specific subject, within the field of education, in 
real-life settings and hopefully gain an 
understanding of the different aspects of low 
literacy as perceived by teacher candidates 
(McCombes, 2020). 

First, we used multiple survey questions to draw 
on teacher candidates? perceptions. Next, we 
analyzed survey data and the teacher candidates? 
feedback, as their perceptions could provide 
valuable information in understanding various 
aspects of low literacy and the impact it has on 

16



BAUGHER & SINGLETON| PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF LOW LITERACY

teacher motivation to confront barriers of low 
literacy in the classroom. Finally, we used 
emerging themes from the data to determine how 
teacher candidates perceived and made meaning 
of low literacy within the context of their own 
experiences.  We also used this information to 
extract meaning and understand the impact of low 
literacy and how it could be used to inform literacy 
instruction. The researchers employed Merriam?s 
(2009) technique of purposeful sampling, which 
builds on the premise that investigators seek to 
uncover, understand, and formulate new 
knowledge by evaluating a relevant sample.  

Par t icipant s and Set t ing

Northwest Missouri State University in Maryville, 
Missouri has an enrollment of 6,000 
undergraduates, and is located in a very rural, 
geographically remote, isolated area. Maryville has 
a population of 11,972. The moderately selective 
university enrolls approximately 1,025 students 
with education majors comprising 658 elementary 
teacher candidates and 367 secondary teacher 
candidates, primarily from a four-state region; 
each state is within 50 miles of the university. Each 
year, approximately 23% of the teacher candidates 
are Pell Grant eligible. The vast majority, 96%, 
identify as White, while 2% identify as Latin(x) and 
2% identify as multiracial; 36% of teacher 
candidates are the first in their family to attend 
college. 

For the purposes of this research study, 60 
students were afforded the opportunity to 
participate in a five-question survey, with a total of 
56 responses collected.  All students surveyed 
were in the course, Multiculturalism in Education, 
which is a requirement of all education majors.  
Students enrolled in this course are generally 
upperclassmen (junior and/or senior status) and 
have participated in a variety of field experiences 
across other program coursework.

Key Findings and Result s

From the five-question survey administered to 
teacher candidates enrolled in the course, 
Multiculturalism in Education, 56 responses were 

collected.  From those respondents, the following 
themes were extracted, per question, as outlined 
in the paragraphs that follow.

Survey Question 1 asked: What does low literacy 
mean to you, and what personal experiences 
influenced your perspective?  Four themes extracted 
from survey results were identified that suggest 
teacher candidates interpret low literacy to mean 
an obstacle, outcome, level of performance, or a 
relative degree of achievement.  

Survey Question 2 asked:  How do you perceive 
individuals of low literacy backgrounds?  Four 
themes extracted from survey results were 
identified that detail teacher candidates attach no 
judgment to persons of low literacy.  Additional 
themes suggested that teacher candidates 
perceive individuals of low literacy backgrounds to 
be disadvantaged in some way, whether at school, 
home, quality of health, poverty, etc.  These factors 
share a commonality in that they are all 
situationally-defined, specific to the individual 
person.  Teacher candidates also held the common 
perception that individuals of low literacy 
backgrounds share in conditions of absence, be it 
effort, opportunity, or systems of support.  The 
last theme identified specific to this question is 
that the presence of low literacy is independent of 
outcome.  In other words, teacher candidates 
majorly agreed that individuals of low literacy 
could and should not assume full responsibility for 
such an outcome.

When given a listing in excess of 15 
potentially-influential factors which contribute to 
low literacy as an outcome, teacher candidates? 
responses identified the following leading factors.  
Of 56 respondents, 52 or 93% indicated their belief 
that presence of a disability could be a 
contributing factor to low literacy as an outcome.  
Conditions of poverty was also believed to be a 
contributing factor for low literacy as 51 
respondents or 91% of candidates surveyed 
marked such on their completed survey.  

Next, patterns of poor school attendance was 
acknowledged as an influential factor for low 

17



BAUGHER & SINGLETON| PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF LOW LITERACY

literacy to result by 50 survey respondents or 89%.  
The fourth factor believed to influence low literacy 
as an outcome was homelessness.  Forty-nine 
teacher candidates or 88% of those surveyed 
checked this factor as significant.  Lastly, three 
factors tied in fifth place.  They include: lack of 
support, mental health challenges, and school 
attrit ion.  Eighty-two percent of those surveyed (46 
respondents) acknowledged these factors 
equitably play a contributing role in low literacy as 
an outcome.

By the same token, teacher candidates identified 
five factors to be least impactful in their 
contribution to the outcome of low literacy.  
Specifically, 23 of the 56 survey responses, or 41% 
believed teen pregnancy to be a contributing 
factor for outcomes of low literacy.  Forty-three 
percent or 24 of the 56 responses believe life as a 
single parent weighs heavily upon low literacy as 
an outcome.  Experiences in the foster care system 
are believed to influence occurrences of low 
literacy by approximately 53%, or 30 survey 
respondents.  Fifty-nine percent of those surveyed, 
or 33 of 56 responses, believe bullying to play a 
significant role in low literacy resulting.  Lastly, 
family challenges were perceived by 68% to be 
impactful in influencing low literacy as identified by 
38 of the total 56 respondents.  This information is 
further captured in the following visual. 

Survey Question 4 asked: How do you plan to 
confront barriers of low literacy as a future educator?  

Four themes were extracted based on candidates? 
responses.  They include: a) act, respond, and 
intervene; b) invest in students; c) connect with 
families; and d) equalize educational opportunity 
and access to resources.  The value of 
relationships and power of connections were also 
noted repeatedly.   

Discussion and Im plicat ions

From the findings, an interesting perception 
surfaced.  As detailed above, 88% of survey 
respondents believed homelessness to be an 
influential factor for low literacy to result.  
According to findings from Voices of Youth Count 
(2017), ?one in ten young adults ages 18 to 25 
endure some form of homelessness in a year? (p. 
1).  Moreover, the millennial generation sadly leads 
in the number of households in poverty, when 
compared with other generations? household data 
(Fry, 2017).  Given that the majority of survey 
respondents would fall into this age bracket, it is 
difficult to dismiss the influence that group norms 
might have played into the formation of this 
perception (Johnson, 2006; Levi, 2013).  Further 
research might illuminate the prevalence of low 
literacy as it exists within the ecological systems of 
the teacher candidates surveyed (Bronfenbrenner, 
1979).

Opportunities for further research have potential 
to inform the validity of the presumption above, in 
addition to revealing patterns of homelessness as 

18

Figure 1: Factors believed to contribute to the outcome of low literacy



BAUGHER & SINGLETON| PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF LOW LITERACY

it exists in type: chronic, episodic, transitional, or 
hidden (Jaggi, 2019).  Jaggi (2019) further details 
the lead differentiator between these four layers 
of homelessness lies in the frequency of the 
pattern.  

In other words, chronic reflects persistent, ongoing 
patterns of homelessness that exists for up to and 
beyond a year?s time.  Episodic is considered to 
reflect up to three instances of homelessness 
within a span of 12 months.  Transitional seasons 
of homelessness result because of significant 
changes or interruptions in life patterns and/or 
catastrophic events.  Lastly, hidden homelessness 
is just that because of an absence of 
documentation or reporting pattern.  Jaggi (2019) 
further likens the layer of hidden homelessness to 
couch surfers, being very fluid and spontaneous in 
their arrival, length of stay, and departure.  

Given this unexpected theme which emerged from 
the survey data, continued research is justified, 
working to further investigate the correlation 
between rates of low literacy and homelessness 
(on any level) among millennial, college students.  
This factor was an overarching theme that 
emerged from the data set uniquely as 
homelessness was not found to be a predictor of 
low literacy in other cited research.  Thus, making 
it an important theme to examine within the 
context of our research study. 

Sum m ary

While litt le is known of the perceptions held by 
members of the general public toward persons of 
low literacy background, this research study 
worked to inform a subset of those perceptions as 
held by developing teacher candidates.  
Additionally, this study sought to more concretely 
frame contributing and non-contributing factors 
which this same population believed influenced 
occurrences of low literacy.  Anchored in the 
concept of intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989), this 
study collected and analyzed 56 survey responses 
which yielded informative themes that further 
defined low literacy as an obstacle, outcome, level 
of performance, or degree of achievement.  

Teacher candidates further demonstrated an 
understanding that conditions of low literacy were 
often situationally-defined as those persons were 
commonly disadvantaged in some way.  
Candidates? responses further purported their 
action plan in confronting low literacy in their 
classroom was founded upon these verbs: act, 
invest, connect, and equalize.  In educator 
preparation programs, it will be important to 
create opportunities for developing teachers to 
notice predictors of low literacy in order to guide 
an appropriate response.  Authentic opportunities 
to share this information with students and the 
University community alike will help create an 
awareness of low literacy and the shackles it can 
place on individuals for a lifetime.  Though this 
study alone is not comprehensive or absolute in its 

19

Figure 2:  Non-factors believed to contribute to the outcome of low literacy



BAUGHER & SINGLETON| PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDINGS OF LOW LITERACY

findings, it does help to inform a step of the 
journey that will lead to a more accurate 
understanding of the perceptions held of low 
literacy and its many, influential tentacles.

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