


































Microsoft Word - 5. Transforming-Feb 2014.docx


Vol. 2, No. 2, Feb 2014, pp. 39-62   
 
 
 
 
Transforming Clinical Practice in Teacher Education through Pre-Service  
Co-Teaching and Coaching 
Toni S. Strieker, Maria Shaheen, Daphne Hubbard, Lee Digiovanni & Woong Lim 
Kennesaw State University 
 
 
 
 

Abstract 
 

Teacher preparation programs on a national level have been called to change, focusing on 

clinical practice as a primary focus of teacher education rather than course work. Concurrently, 

performance based assessment is becoming the tool to measure candidate capacity to plan and 

instruct. This study highlights one teacher education program and the Pre-Service Co-Teaching 

Model (PSCT), which utilizes instruction in co-teaching models, co-teaching internships, and 

instructional coaching as a means for teacher development. Forty-three pairs of co-teachers and 

14 coaches participated in this study. Each coach, collaborating teacher, and teacher candidate 

participated in professional development to better understand co-teaching models, as well as 

coaching techniques. Each co-teaching pair had a coach to observe and debrief the 

implementation of co-teaching models in classrooms for the purpose of planning, assessment, 

and instruction. Goal setting, conference notes, coaching reflections, as well as focus group 

interviews served as data. Analysis indicated that co-teaching strategies from the professional 

development were used primarily to facilitate differentiated instruction as well as classroom 

management. Analysis also indicated that coaches had a tendency to be more prescriptive 

regarding classroom management and have a more open-ended conversation when the focus was 

on differentiated instruction.  

 

Keywords: teacher education reform, clinical practice, pre-service co-teaching, instructional 
coaching 
  



40	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

 
As teacher educators, our capacity to educate competent, effective P-12 teachers who are 

prepared to meet the challenges of 21st century schools has been called into question due, in part, 
to low graduation rates and high teacher attrition rates (Darling-Hammond, 2010a).  According 
to the Alliance for Excellent Education (2004), nearly 30% of new teachers leave the profession 
within the first two years, and 50% leave in the first five years of practice. New teachers 
frequently cite stress as the key reason for leaving their chosen profession.  Stress often causes 
them to obsess over the needs of their students, as well as the constant and ever-changing 
demands of their schools.  Even more troubling is that teachers who appear to be the most 
academically proficient are the ones most likely to leave the profession (Smith, 1993). High 
teacher turnover is costly to schools and even more costly to the P-12 students who lose their 
most proficient teachers to stress and frustration (National Commission on Teaching and 
America’s Future, 2003). 

In response to these chronic issues, the National Council of Accreditation in Teacher 
Education (NCATE) created a Blue Ribbon Panel on Clinical Preparation and Partnerships for 
Improved Student Learning to study and recommend changes to teacher preparation on a 
national level. In 2010, the panel issued its final report stating that teacher preparation must be 
“turned upside down” (p.2) focusing on clinical practice rather than course work. As the 
emphasis on clinical preparation has increased, there has also been an increased recognition that 
performance-based assessment is an effective tool to measure teacher candidates’ capacities for 
planning and instructing. Similarly, when performance-based assessment data is used 
systematically to inform teacher preparation programs, it provides clarity in designing and 
measuring the effectiveness of clinical preparation.  

The current study addressed teacher education reform, particularly related to preparing 
pre-service teachers to work with their collaborating teachers and grow into novice teachers. The 
broad intent of this study was twofold. First, we briefly described our collaborative approach that 
includes interactive seminars, instructional coaching, goal-setting sessions, observations and 
feedback, reflections, and reporting. Second, we reported the findings of a pilot study on the 
impact of our collaborative approach on the pedagogical practices of 43 pairs of teacher 
candidates and their collaborating teachers in elementary classrooms.  Specifically, the research 
questions that guided this study were: 

1. What, if any impact does the goal-setting process have upon the development of the 
pre-service teachers’ pedagogical practices?   

2.  What, if any, impact does our collaborative approach have upon the co-teachers’ 
selection of the PSCT Models to support classroom instruction and management? 

3.  What, if any, impact does our collaborative approach have upon teacher candidates’ 
use of co-teaching during assessment, planning, and instruction of students in their P-
5 classrooms? 

 
Theoretical Framework  

Darling-Hammond (2005) reported that teacher education was often characterized as 
highly theoretical, loosely connected to practice, fragmented, incoherent, and lacking a shared 
vision of teaching and learning. Given this characterization, teacher education has the urgent 
responsibility of transforming its curriculum, pedagogy, structure, and delivery. Substantive 
change is necessary to better prepare pre-service teachers to negotiate the changing landscape of 
educational policies that shape the daily practices of teachers in K-12 classrooms (Boyle-Baise & 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  41 
 

McIntyre, 2008; Darling-Hammond, 2010a). This study is grounded in theory and research on 
teacher education reform and describes our approach to transform clinical practice by means of 
collaboration, pre-service co-teaching, and instructional coaching.   
 
Teacher Education Reform  

During the 1990s, teacher educators engaged in meaningful reform efforts to create 
preparation programs that were more coherent and situated in classroom practice (Hammerness 
& Darling-Hammond, 2002). With these reforms, the focus shifted from developing teachers 
who could implement a variety of strategies and techniques to developing teachers who were 
thoughtful and able to improve student learning by critically analyzing and resolving complex 
problems of classroom practice. In 2000, Darling-Hammond reported on a study conducted by 
the Association of American Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) to identify the 
characteristics of teacher education programs that had been recognized as exemplary in terms of 
preparing teachers to educate an increasingly diverse student body. Results of that study 
indicated six common characteristics of highly effective teacher education programs, including 
the following: (a) coherent vision of teaching and learning; (b) translation of theory to practice; 
(c) carefully crafted field experiences; (d) active pedagogy that includes modeling and reflection; 
(e) focus on the needs of diverse students; and (f) collaboration with colleagues.   

To further extend the discussion, Darling-Hammond (2010b) called for the creation of a 
set of systematic, valid and reliable teacher performance assessments that could be used to 
evaluate beginning teachers, to monitor the progress of practicing teachers; and ultimately, 
determine the effectiveness of teacher education programs.  This call is based upon the need for 
using multiple data sources to measure not only teachers’ planning with various teaching 
strategies and techniques but also teachers’ analysis and reflection of instruction and assessment 
practices.  A byproduct of this assessment system would be the creation of a systematic 
collection of evidence that could be placed upon a continuum to describe the performance of 
effective teachers at various stages of career development. Currently, edTPA, an assessment 
developed by researchers and teacher educators of the Stanford Center for Assessment, Learning, 
and Equity (SCALE) at Stanford University, is being implemented nationally as such a program 
(American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 2013). Thus far, 28 states and the 
District of Columbia have adopted edTPA as the preferred method of evaluating the classroom 
teaching of teacher candidates. 
 
Pre-Service Preparation on Collaboration 
 According to Griffin, Jones, and Kilgore (2006), less than 1/3 of all pre-service teachers 
enrolled in elementary, middle or secondary programs are provided with content related to 
collaboration. There are numerous reasons for the dearth of preparation in this critical area. 
According to Friend (2002), many members of the education faculty assume that collaboration is 
intuitive, and therefore, do not see the need for formal preparation and instruction in 
collaborative methods. In other cases, faculties value the content in collaboration, but feel 
constrained by accreditation requirements (Ross & Blanton, 2004). These individuals often elect 
an infusion model, which embeds the content on collaboration into existing coursework. Infusion 
is used when the faculty feels that content does not necessitate the development of a complete 
course, or that the curriculum is already too packed with content required for accreditation 
purposes (Cook, 2002). Even though the infusion method may solve immediate problems, it has 
been criticized as highly ineffective (Cook, 2002; Stayton & McCollum, 2002).  



42	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 
 
Pre-Service Preparation in Co-Teaching  
 Co-teaching in the United States emerged in the early 1970s (Trump & Miller, 1973) but 
did not begin to proliferate until the late 1980s and early 1990s when co-teaching became a 
preferred administrative arrangement to support inclusion of student with disabilities (Cook & 
Friend, 1995). Cook and Friend (1995) recommended six models of co-teaching that general 
education and special education teachers could employ to co-instruct large and small groups of 
students, including (a) one-teach/one observe; (b) one teach/one assist; (c)alternative teaching; 
(d) parallel teaching, (e) station teaching, and (f) team teaching. While co-teaching in inclusive 
classrooms has been widely supported in policy and practice, there is little information on the 
effectiveness of co-teaching in improving the outcomes of students with disabilities (Zigmond & 
Mariera, 2001).  
 Since 2000, co-teaching has been employed at the university-level to model co-teaching 
practices in preparing general and special educators to include students with disabilities in P-12 
classrooms (Alverez-McHatton & Daniel, 2008; York-Barr, J., Bacharach, N., Salk, J., Frank, J. 
& Beniek, B., 2004). Most recently, co-teaching has been used at the pre-service level to prepare 
student teachers to co-teach with their collaborating teachers during their clinical practice 
(Bacharach, Heck, & Dahlberg, 2010; Badiali & Titus, 2012). These authors argued that pre-
service co-teaching has the potential to be a highly effective vehicle for teacher preparation 
because it removes many of the challenges associated with traditional student teaching. 
Furthermore, Bacharach, et al., (2011), found that pre-service co-teaching resulted in improved 
outcomes of P-12 learners on statewide assessments. These results held for students growing up 
in poverty, those with disabilities as well as those who were English learners.  
 Our model of pre-service co-teaching emerged from two separate bodies of literature, one 
in science education and the other in special education. In the late 1990s, a group of Canadian 
researchers explored the benefits of co-teaching and how it supported the teaching and learning 
of such complex subjects as nuclear physics (Roth & Boyd, 1998; Roth, Bowen, Boyd, & 
Boutonne, 1998). Their work described three types of teacher learning, including (a) learning-in-
practice; (b) learning to talk about (or theorize) practice; and (c) learning by applying theory to 
practice.  Roth and Tobin (2002) found that as teachers co-instructed, their co-participation 
entwined with their own understanding of theory and applying theory to their daily practice. 
When analyzing co-teaching between pre-service and practicing teachers, these researchers 
found that co-teaching was co-learning for both individuals, not just for the inexperienced 
teacher. They described co-teaching as an appropriate vehicle for both pre-service preparation as 
well as professional development of practicing teachers (Roth & Boyd, 1999). 

 
Program Context 

The collaborative approach used in this study was designed, developed, implemented, 
and reviewed by faculty who teach in a large public state university in the Southeastern United 
States.  At this institution, the College of Education annually prepares approximately 960 
prospective teachers in early childhood, elementary, middle and secondary education, special 
education, and instructional technology. The unit has met all of NCATE’s accreditation 
standards, as well as those by all related professional fields. Teacher preparation in elementary 
education provides the context for the present investigation.   

It is projected that by the spring of 2015, all teacher education programs in this unit will 
use edTPA to measure teacher candidates’ preparation to teach in classroom. The tasks involved 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  43 
 

are similar to those required in the program’s student teaching, and the three tasks of the 
assessment align with the vision of pre-service co-teaching. The elementary education programs 
are making changes to their course work in an effort to incorporate activities that are consistent 
with knowledge and skills in the edTPA framework. Even though edTPA has been mandated at 
the state level, the teacher candidate’s scores will not affect their eligibility for certification until 
a later time when the state requires full implementation. The teacher candidates who consented 
to participate in this study enrolled in two-semesters of field experiences during their senior year 
and were observed and provided feedback from university supervisors who evaluated the 
candidates’ progress in meeting the professional standards (American Association of Colleges 
for Teacher Education, 2013). 
 
Preparation of Prospective Elementary and Early Childhood Teachers 

Our teacher education program emphasizes high expectations for knowledge and skills as 
well as positive attitudes for educating an increasingly diverse student body in P–5 schools.  The 
teacher preparation program is couched in the constructivist philosophy and emphasizes the 
integrated nature of the curriculum and the importance of collaboration with colleagues. 
Traditionally, during the fall semester of their senior year, pre-service teachers enroll in a 
methods block comprised of four courses, one of which is a 135-hour (minimum) field 
experience.  Over the course of the semester, the teacher candidates assume increasing 
responsibility for instruction, ultimately taking control of the class for a unit of study that they 
prepared with guidance from professors and within their field experience.  

Throughout this field experience, the collaborating teacher and a university supervisor 
evaluate the teacher candidate’s performance on institutional and professional standards. If the 
teacher candidates adequately demonstrate the required competencies, they are recommended to 
student teach the following semester.  In the spring semester of 2012, 328 teacher candidates 
graduated with a B.S. in Elementary or Early Childhood Education.  Of those graduates, 
approximately 276 self-reported as white, non-Hispanic; 26 as black, non-Hispanic; 13 as 
Hispanic;  three as Asian; four as multi-racial; three as Hawaiian or Pacific Islander; and five 
were undeclared.  
 In 2011, faculty within our college of education rallied to the national call to transform 
clinical practice.  To that end, members of an interdisciplinary team reviewed the literature, and 
ultimately developed a new collaborative approach that was aligned with the common variables 
of highly effective teacher education programs reported by Darling-Hammond (2000), including 
a common vision of teaching and learning, carefully crafted field experiences, theorizing and 
justifying practice, focusing upon the needs of the students, reflecting on active pedagogy, 
engaging teachers as life-long learners, and collaboration with colleagues. The following figure 
illustrates how the theoretical framework is directly related to our model Pre-Service Co-
Teaching and learning. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



44	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 
Coherent Vision of Teaching and Learning 
Figure 1.  A Model of Pre-service Co-teaching 
 

 
This collaborative approach was designed, developed, implemented, and evaluated by an 

interdisciplinary team of university faculty and school officials who, collectively, had expertise 
in elementary education, early childhood education, special education, and middle level 
education. All members of the interdisciplinary team shared a common vision of constructivist 
teaching and learning. All substantively agreed upon how pedagogical content related to 
collaboration and co-teaching could be successfully embedded throughout the cycle.  

Furthermore, the use of performance-based assessment (i.e., edTPA) presented the 
opportunity to examine how our approach impacts teacher candidates’ performance in the critical 
areas. In particular, the edTPA portfolio has three specific tasks: (a) planning, (b) instruction, and 
(c) assessment (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 2013). These tasks 
coincide with the vision of pre-service co-teaching. Each task also requires the candidate’s 
capacity for analysis and reflection, which can be supported by collaborative dialogue.  

Throughout the clinical experience, the co-teachers engage in collaborative dialogue as 
they co-plan instruction, co-assess student engagement and performance, co-reflect upon 
teaching and learning, and co-generate solutions to problems of practice. PSCT provides the 
vehicle for classroom teachers to act as mentor models for teacher candidates; thereby, providing 
continuous, and often, instantaneous feedback and modeling of teaching, assessment, and 
classroom management strategies. The mentor modeling approach allows the classroom teachers 
to maintain greater control over the quality of their classroom instruction, instead of merely 
being a host.  According to our model, effective PSCT is comprised three components (e.g. co-
planning, co-assessment and co-instruction) that are essential to the teaching and learning of the 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  45 
 

teacher candidate as well as the P-12 students. These crucial components are supported by the 
classroom teachers by means of on-going mentor modeling and the on-going dialogue with the 
instructional coach via the partnership principles. 

Co-planning. One fundamental concept that underlies our approach is freedom and 
flexibility within form (Knight, 2013). Teacher candidates are encouraged to use a district-
approved lesson plan format to frame their co-taught lessons. In addition, co-teachers are 
encouraged to use the prevailing state standards as well as the Common Core and P-12 student 
performance data to plan their lessons.  Throughout the process the collaborating teachers use 
think aloud procedures to model critical thinking about all aspects of the lesson, including 
classroom management, formative and summative assessment, and differentiated instruction. To 
co-create responsive lessons, co-teachers continuously theorize their practice, making conscious 
decisions about how they can use PSCT to support the learning and behavioral needs of their 
students.  
   Co-assessment. Because this is an evidence-based model, co-assessment is central to its 
effectiveness. As noted in other sections, this model focuses upon performance assessment to 
measure student engagement and academic learning. In addition, the co-teachers are encouraged 
to use multiple forms of pre-assessments to measure academic language, background knowledge, 
student interest and learning styles in preparation for differentiated or responsive instruction. 
   Co-instruction. Co-instruction is the heart of pre-service co-teaching because this where 
the teacher candidates literally teach at the elbow of the of the collaborating teachers, who model 
best practice as they employ high leverage strategies to increase student engagement and 
learning (Badiali & Titus, 2012).With this model, the collaborating teachers act as a safety nets 
for the teacher candidates until they are ready to teach solo. The execution of co-teaching is at 
the discretion of the co-teachers as they engage in on-going formative assessment, classroom 
management, and differentiated instruction.  

Instructional coach. An instructional coach who is a specialist in co-teaching supports a 
team of co-teachers, comprised of a teacher candidate and a collaborating teacher. According to 
Knight (2012), effective instructional coaches use active listening, questioning, and relationship 
building strategies to help teachers improve practice. What distinguishes Knight’s model from 
other approaches is that instructional coaches teach others how to learn very specific, evidence-
based teaching practices such as formative assessment (Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis, & Chappuis, 
2009).  Teachers who work with a coach report that that they are four times more likely to 
implement new strategies when working with a coach, as opposed to attending a traditional 
workshop (Knight, 2007). Coaches have an abiding respect for teachers and intentionally seek to 
develop partnerships by employing the principles established by Knight (2007) that include 
equality, choice, voice, dialogue, reflection, praxis and reciprocity. All members of the 
collaborative team (the teacher candidate, collaborating teacher, and co-teaching coach) 
understand the partnership principles and use them as a common language to discuss and develop 
their relationships with one another. Similarly, all coaches, teacher candidates, and collaborating 
teachers learn the partnership principles and apply them to their relationships with their 
colleagues, parents and students as well as instances where they are attempting to resolve 
complex problems of practice. 

Carefully crafted field experiences. While many universities define their clinical 
experiences as collaborative, ours is unique in that the teacher candidates are supported their 
yearlong clinical experience through pre-service co-teaching (PSCT) and instructional co-
teaching coaching. When PSCT and coaching are combined, they create the infrastructure to 



46	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 
ensure that the teacher candidate is able to meaningfully apply his/her knowledge and skills to 
classroom practice.   

For these purposes, PSCT is defined as a systematic approach to clinical practice for 
teacher candidates who are supported by collaborating teachers who serve as on-going mentor-
models and share all responsibilities for the teaching and learning of a group of P-12 students.  
Throughout the experience, the teacher candidate and mentor teacher establish a fully 
functioning co-taught classroom in which they share instructional space, materials and other 
resources. PSCT is an evidence-based approach that focuses simultaneously upon the 
development of the teacher candidate and the learning of P-12 students. Throughout the clinical 
experience, co-teachers are encouraged to co-reflect upon the teaching and learning process, 
engage in co-generative dialogue to find creative solutions to complex problems of classroom 
practice. 

PSCT differs dramatically from traditional student teaching where collaborating teachers 
host student teachers that take over the control of the class within a few weeks of entering the 
classroom, and teach alone for the duration of the semester. With PSCT, the shift of control in 
the classroom happens more gradually, when the teacher candidate is ready, rather than 
withdrawing the school support rather immediately. As noted above, our approach deploys a 
cadre of instructional coaches who specialize in co-teaching. In addition the university 
supervision, these individuals provide an extra layer of support as the teacher candidate and his 
or her mentor teacher, co-plan, co-assess, and co-instruct. In summary, our collaborative 
approach is designed to maximize all of the human resources available to better meet the needs 
of the teacher candidate; and ultimately, of the students.  
 
Theorizing and Justifying Practice 

Researchers of science education have repeatedly found that pre-service co-teaching is 
highly effective in learning to teach complex subject matter (Roth, 1998; Roth, et al., 1998).  In 
conducting their research, these authors defined three types of constructivist teacher learning, 
including: (a) learning during practice; (b) learning to justify their practice with research and 
theory; and (c) increasing their ability to apply theory to practice.  In our model, the instructional 
coaches, who specialize in co-teaching, facilitate dialog and teacher reflection on how to use co-
teaching and other research-based practices to improve the learning of the teacher candidate as 
well as the P-5 students. 
 
Focus on the Needs of Diverse Students 

According to recent research (Heckert, Strieker & Shaheen, 2013), one benefit of our 
systematic approach is the increased ability of co-teachers to meet student needs.  By its very 
nature, having two teachers in the classroom increases the ability to meet the needs of a diverse 
group of students, particularly those in need of individualized instruction or behavior 
management. PSCT also provides opportunities for P-5 students to benefit from teachers with 
different teaching styles and pedagogical preferences. Thus, our overarching goal is to prepare a 
teacher workforce with the knowledge, skills and dispositions to effectively educate and 
increasingly diverse population of P-5 learners. 
 
Reflection Upon Active Pedagogy 

Our systematic approach provides the collaborative infrastructure for classroom teachers 
to model research-based practices for teacher candidates, thereby providing continuous, and 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  47 
 

often, instantaneous feedback. Collaborating teachers and teacher candidates literally “teach at 
the elbow” of one another, which allows the collaborating teacher to step in and provide support 
or mentoring immediately (Roth & Tobin, 2002). The partnership between the co-teachers 
provides comfort and support to the teacher candidates as they become more confident with their 
abilities in the classroom and increases the collaborating teachers’ confidence in the teacher 
candidates’ abilities as well. With increased confidence, the collaborating teacher and the teacher 
candidate begin to take more creative, pedagogical risks.  As the teacher candidates increase their 
own self-efficacy, the collaborating teacher also feels more comfortable implementing new 
strategies. As the co-teaching partnership evolves, the co-planning of lessons and co-generation 
of ideas becomes commonplace (Heckert, Strieker, & Shaheen, 2013). Teacher candidates and 
collaborative teachers report a smooth transition and shift of power as the prospective teacher 
assumes an increasing leadership role in the classroom. The ongoing, mentoring found in the 
PSCT model increases the self-efficacy and confidence of teacher candidates because the P-12 
students perceive them as another teacher with co-authority in the classroom and not a traditional 
or typical student teacher (Heckert et al., 2013).  

This model recognizes co-reflection as an on-going process that occurs as teacher 
candidates and collaborative teachers co-plan new lessons, co-instruct, and co-review student 
performance data. This cycle of co-reflection provides multiple and ongoing opportunities for 
co-teachers to engage in co-generative dialogue and bring their knowledge and experience to 
bear in solving unique problems of practice relative to their own students and their particular 
teaching environment.  It is during these times, the co-teaching coaches facilitate meaningful 
conversations that provide opportunities for the teacher candidate to understand and articulate 
how theory translates to practice, and conversely, how practice must be explained by theory. 
 
Professional Development for Teacher Candidates and Collaborating Teachers   

To ensure that all of the participants have a common understanding and language, the co-
teaching coaches, collaborating teachers and teacher candidates participate in a hybrid course 
created by an interdisciplinary team of faculty and school district representatives, entitled A 
Partnership Approach to Pre-service Co-teaching, which addresses the foundations of the 
partnership principles and relationship development, pre-service co-teaching and coaching, as 
well as ways to use PSCT to maximize student engagement and learning through assessment, 
differentiated instruction, and classroom management. During the opening seminar, the co-
teachers were taught ways to establish their co-taught classroom as well as the specific models of 
pre-service co-teaching and how they can be used to support assessment, differentiated 
instruction, and classroom management. While the co-teachers are encouraged to use co-teaching 
during their daily practice of co-teaching, co-assessment, co-instruction, and co-reflection, they 
are not required to co-instruct all day, every day. The co-teachers were encouraged to employ all 
of the co-teaching models based upon the learning needs of the teacher candidate as well as those 
of their K-5 students.  It is important to note that the teacher candidate was required to teach solo 
at various times during the student teaching experience so that the university supervisor could 
evaluate the candidate’s ability to meet the all of the professional standards.  
 
Professional Development for Instructional Coaches 

 All of the instructional coaches attend a minimum of two, full-day interactive seminars, 
which include personality and communication assessments, as well as readings on cognitive, 
executive, and instructional coaching. In addition, they watched video on the Teacher Channel 



48	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 
that demonstrated effective coaching practices and made decisions about how those practices 
could be embedded into their approach.  One of the team leaders attended six days of 
professional development at the Instructional Coaching Institute at the University of Kansas in 
Lawrence, Kansas.  The approach to instructional coaching, particularly Knight’s partnership 
principles were adopted by the coaches and embedded in all of our work.  
 
Collaboration with Colleagues:  The Coaching Process 

The instructional coaches met with the co-teaching teams a minimum of four times 
during the semester. At the initial coaching session, the instructional coach used the discussion 
protocol GROW to facilitate a collaborative conversation to establish team goals and a simple 
action plan.  Specifically, the GROW protocol frames a discussion on the following: (a) the 
current reality; (b) a goal for the teacher candidate or the co-teachers; (c) options to reach the 
goal; and (d) a potential course of action, including who will do what in co-teaching. Given that 
all of the co-teaching teams had successfully completed the professional development, A 
Partnership Approach to Pre-Service Co-Teaching, the practices presented were considered as 
part of the goal setting and action planning process. Once the goals were established, the 
instructional coach observed each team and then facilitated a reflective conversation on the 
impact of their instruction. Based upon the conversations, the co-teaching teams were free to 
change or establish new goals (Knight & van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). 

Over the course of the semester, each instructional coach conducted a minimum of three 
additional site visits per team. The purpose of each session was twofold. First, the instructional 
coach observed a lesson that was designed to demonstrate the co-teaching team’s progress in 
meeting their stated goal. For example, if the co-teachers established a goal to use flexible 
groups to manage student behavior, the coach might observe the pre-assessment, regrouping, and 
station teaching. During each observation, the coach chronicled the co-teaching model(s) 
employed to support the instruction, the level of student engagement and learning as well as 
other notations. Based upon the observation, the coach facilitated a reflective dialogue to 
consider all aspects of the instruction and its impact. Throughout the process, the coaches 
provided non-threatening, supportive feedback and provided the co-teaching teams with a safe 
environment to engage in honest conversation. In that regard, the coaches encouraged the co-
teaching teams to theorize their practice and discuss how co-teaching could be used to support 
research-based practices in assessment, instruction, and management. These discussions gave the 
collaborating teacher the opportunities to model their thought processes for selecting, and 
employing, specific instructional and assessment practices. The coaches also encouraged and 
supported purposeful experimentation of the PSCT models that created the safety net for the co-
teaching teams to move outside their comfort zones.  

The GROW (Whitmore, 2002) and the Observation Form were used to document the 
events and conversations that occurred in each coaching session, and were ultimately, submitted 
to the university research team. At the close of this conversation, the co-teaching team 
determined whether they would continue working on this goal or establish another one.  

At the completion of the semester, all co-teaching teams participated in focus group 
interviews to discuss their experiences with PSCT, coaching, and student teaching in general. 
The data were quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed to determine efficacy of instructional 
coaching in assisting teacher candidates and collaborating teachers in applying their learning to 
their daily practice in terms of using PSCT to improve their planning, assessment, and 
instruction. Each instructional coach was required to reflect upon each team’s progress on a 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  49 
 

monthly basis.  These reflections were also submitted to the university research team.  It is 
important to note that all of the co-authors in this study are also coaches, but only the second and 
third authors are coaches of elementary co-teaching teams. 

 
Method 

 
Self-study in Teacher Education Research  

According to Grossman (2005) and Loughran (2007), self-study is being widely accepted 
in teacher education research. This study responds to this call by situating the present research in 
the larger research programs on teacher education reform, particularly as it relates to clinical 
practice through collaboration, pre-service co-teaching, coaching, and mentor-modeling. The aim 
of this study was to examine the impact of the PSCT collaborative approach, particularly the 
instructional coaching in rich detail. The researchers specifically intended to examine this 
complex process from the perspective of the instructional coaches; therefore, qualitative case 
study research was chosen as the methodology for this study.  In this study, each case consisted 
of multiple teams of co-teaching teacher candidates, collaborating teachers, and instructional 
coaches. Using case study methodology, there were a total of 43 instructional coaching cases 
examined in this study. 
 
Participants 
 The teacher educator research team requested and received institutional review board 
permission from the university to conduct the research.  From the fall of 2011 through the spring 
of 2012, 43 elementary pre-service teachers, along with 43 collaborating teachers and 14 coaches 
participated in this study.   
 Instructional coaches.  The team of elementary coaches was comprised of 14 females, 
five were retired elementary school principals, and nine were university faculty. All of the 
coaches were Caucasian. All of the coaches hold at least a master’s degree and two-thirds hold 
doctoral degree. According to their self-reporting, all coaches were white females with a 
distribution of ages between the early thirties and to the mid-sixties.  All of the coaches met the 
prevailing state guidelines for certification in Elementary Education, Leadership, Social Studies, 
Math, Language Arts, Science and/or Special Education. 

All of the coaches were selected based upon their experiences as coaches, co-teachers, 
and/or working with new teachers in the induction process. The retired principals had an average 
of 25 years of experience supervising co-teachers and assisting new teachers with induction. One 
of the former administrators had extensive experience in providing professional development in 
collaboration and co-teaching. All of the former administrators had completed professional 
development in cognitive coaching that was offered by their school districts. Two members of 
this group also worked for the college of education as a university supervisor. All of the coaches 
who were also members of the university faculty had experience (average of five years) co-
teaching at the university or classroom levels. Three of them had either taught classes or 
professional development on collaboration and co-teaching.  All of the faculty had prior 
relationships with the student teachers in some capacity, typically as a former instructor.  All of 
the elementary coaches had completed approximately twenty clock hours of professional 
development on coaching that focused upon the tenants of instructional coaching and how to use 
this approach with co-teachers. Two of the co-authors in this study served as elementary coaches 
during the specified time frame. 



50	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

Teacher candidates. During the spring semester, 14 co-teaching coaches met with the 43 
elementary teacher candidates, along with their collaborating teachers, in fourteen elementary 
schools. Of the 43 candidates, 41 were female and Caucasian. Two of the candidates were male: 
One male was black and the other white. The average age of the elementary teacher candidates 
was 22. All of the teacher candidates were in the second semester of their senior year and had 
completed all of the required coursework for their elementary degrees and were ready to begin 
student teaching.  These students had all completed a survey course in special education that had 
included content, readings and assignments on collaboration and co-teaching.  

Elementary collaborating teachers.  Of the 43 teachers, 40 were female and three were 
male. Of the total number of elementary collaborating teachers, 38 were Caucasian and five were 
African American.  All of the collaborating teachers were certified in elementary education 
according to the prevailing state guidelines had at least three years of teaching experience. 
Nearly all of the teachers had previously earned at least one CEU in collaboration and co-
teaching by their local school district. 
 
Data Analysis 

The data for this study consisted of three sets of data sources: coaching documents, 
observation notes, and focus group interviews. Documents completed by the instructional 
coaches included the following: (a) the GROW form, (b) Observation form (one for each of the 
three required observations); and (c) Coaching Reflection. In addition to documents, 
observations were completed a minimum of four times per team throughout the semester and 
observation notes were collected each time using a consistent coaching observation form. 
Finally, focus group interviews were conducted with the coaches and the interviews were 
recorded and transcribed. All three sets of data sources were used for triangulation during the 
qualitative analysis.  

During data analysis, data from individual cases were coded and a cross-case analysis 
was conducted using an ongoing, recursive process. Data analysis occurred in several stages 
including summarizing data, generating and refining themes, and ensuring trustworthiness. Two 
authors independently coded the data and then compared and revised themes to reach agreement.  
Finally, two additional researchers provided independent support for the final themes (Denzin & 
Lincoln, 2008). 

 
Results 

 
Goals 

Over the course of the semester, our 43 teams identified a total of 153 goals on the Grow 
form, all of which were aligned with the content of the professional learning series. Sixty-two of 
the goals addressed increasing the type and number of PSCT models to support their practices. 
As time progressed, 37 teams identified additional goals that addressed how co-teaching could be 
used to differentiate instruction. These goals were tailored to the needs of the co-teachers, as well 
as those of the K-5 students. Another 20 goals addressed assessment and how it could be used to 
differentiate instruction. Another 20 addressed classroom management.  It was interesting to note 
that the majority of classroom management goals were established for the teacher candidate and 
not the co-teaching team. In addition, the planning goals emerged from discussions on how off 
task behavior often resulted from instruction that was not carefully planned.  
 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  51 
 

Figure 2.  Goals Established by Co-teaching Teams 
 
 
Co-teaching 
Goals  
 

 
 
These findings suggest that, as the semester progressed, the co-teachers tended to focus 

the majority of time in their coaching sessions addressing one of two broad practices: 
differentiated instruction and classroom management. It was interesting to note that the coaching 
approach to assisting the teacher candidate was strikingly different from the approach used with 
the co-teaching teams. When the goal was differentiation, it was stated for the two teachers; 
assessment goals were often embedded within or tightly connected to the instructional goal, and 
the coaches typically approached the reflective dialogue with open-ended questions. For 
example, one coach asked questions regarding how groups were formed for station-teaching, and 
the candidate and co-teacher provided evidence of assessment to determine groups.  

When the goal was classroom management, it was usually stated solely for the teacher 
candidate, at which point, the coach became much more dominant force, providing a great deal 
of specific feedback and detailed recommendations, tailored to the needs of the teacher 
candidate’s planning, instruction, and management. As examples, one coach specifically 
reminded the candidate about the importance of scanning the room on a regular basis. Another 
coach specifically addressed the importance of body position when teaching, as opposed to 
asking open ended questions about the management practices. It was also interesting that two of 
the three planning goals seemed to emerge from the discussions on management. 

Differentiated instruction. For the purposes of this study, differentiated instruction was 
defined in terms of Tomlinson (2005) model of content, process, product, and culture.  When one 
coach observed a first grade co-teaching team, she noted: 

Materials were not tiered based on the students’ approximate levels of functioning. All  
students did all the same assignments since they rotated through all three groups.  Groups 
were not purposefully comprised of like ability students. This would have allowed the 
teachers to tailor the activities based on student ability. 
 

Coaches guided the discussion with open-ended questions. In this situation, the co-teaching 
teams were often asked several things, including: (a) Would grouping students based on specific 
needs help with differentiation? (b) Would tiered assignments assist with groups of students at 
different levels? (c) What PSCT Models would best support these groups of students?  Following 
the conversation, the team set goals that addressed the following: (a) using specific co-teaching 
models (parallel or station teaching) that would allow them to better differentiate instruction, and 
(b) exploring ways to tier the same assignment to fit the needs of students at various levels of 
ability. Through this conversation, the teacher candidate gained a richer understanding of the 
necessity of differentiated instruction to meet the needs of her students. 

Assessment. Assessment was cited as a goal by 20 teams and focused on ways to use 
assessment to differentiate instruction.  Most observation reports threaded assessment throughout 
the narratives.  For example, coaches noted the following in relation to assessment: 

Differentiated 
Instruction 

Classroom Management 

Assessment 



52	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

1. Coaches asked questions to prompt discussion related to assessment (Example: How 
might you use assessment data to differentiate instruction for center placement?; How 
do you ensure readiness levels?) 

2. Coaches also noted ongoing assessment within the observation (i.e. differentiated 
center groups based on assessment data; daily assessments to place students; choosing 
co-teaching model based on assessment data). 

3. In a few cases, the coaches made specific recommendations for the co-teaching teams 
in relation to assessment (i.e. ensure content is based on readiness levels; use pre-
test/post-test for differentiation; assess daily for differentiation). 

It should be noted that throughout the instructional coaching reports, the researchers identified a 
tendency of the coaches to recommend strategies and offer suggestions, rather than to ask 
questions and facilitate the dialogue in ways that elicited responses for the co-teaching teams. 

Classroom management. As previously noted, many teacher candidates requested that 
their coaches assist them in developing their classroom management skills. While the 
collaborating teachers were always part of the process, in these instances our coaches routinely 
made very specific recommendations, exclusively to the teacher candidates. In most of these 
situations, the coaches made recommendations to increase appropriate behavior, in some 
instances the coaches were able to assist the teacher candidates in obtaining a deeper 
understanding of the complex nature of the classroom. For example, a fourth grade coach noted 
that, over the course of the semester, one teacher candidate needed to work on four behavior 
strategies that spanned management and instruction, including the following: (a) effective use of 
flexible groups; (b) planning engaging lessons; (c) preparing and implementing effective student 
transition strategies; (d) preparing and using a variety of guided reading approaches. The impetus 
for these recommendations was a lack of classroom management, but resulting dialogue required 
the teacher candidate to think deeply about the connections between student behavior, planning, 
and instruction. In cases such as this, the collaborating teacher served as constant mentor and 
model of appropriate, research-based practices as well as a sounding board during the 
conversations on complex problems of practice. In cases where specific recommendations were 
not necessary, the coaches were able to guide the conversations by asking more open-ended 
questions for the teacher candidate to ponder: 

As students finish, engagement issues start to come into play. What are some strategies to 
keep students engaged when others are still focusing on the activity? How do you balance 
the attention that students need as well as ensuring engagement of others? How does 
engagement impact classroom management? 
 
Our coaches often assisted teacher candidates by conducting assessments of student 

engagement during the observation. One first grade coach offered to observe the class and take 
data on the number of students who were off-task, at 5-10 minute increments, after the teacher 
candidate gave the class instructions for completing the assignment.  Once the teacher candidate 
realized how many students were and were not engaged, she was able to adjust her instruction to 
increase attention to task. 

It should be noted that when the teacher candidates were exclusively in need of support in 
developing classroom management techniques, the coaches clearly became much more directive, 
offering highly specific recommendations that were tailored to the needs of the students and the 
teacher candidates. During this situation, the coaches worked closely with the CT who was asked 
to make her classroom management strategies transparent and explicit. 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  53 
 

PSCT Models Utilized to Support Instruction 
During the seminar series, six models of co-teaching were discussed and analyzed for 

potential use within the elementary classroom instruction.  According to the coaches’ 
observation data for 43 teams, the following breakdown of PSCT models demonstrated that they 
were explicitly used and stated within the coaches’ documentation. 

 
Table 1.  PSCT Models Employed During Student Teaching 
One Teach/One Assist 27 

Team Teaching 38 

Parallel Teaching 19 

Station Teaching 47 

Alternative Teaching 12 

Combination 19 (specified previously) 

 
One of the concerns at the outset of the pilot study was that teachers may tend to use only 

co-teaching models with which they are the most comfortable, typically one teach/one assist, and 
not necessarily the models that best suit the needs for differentiating P-5 student instruction. In 
analyzing the reports from the coaches, our co-teachers utilized the PSCT models that they felt 
worked well for the content that they were teaching, indicating intentionality in choosing 
strategies to best meet the needs of students. Teachers in the lower grades showed a tendency for 
more station teaching, mirroring the center approach that is pedagogically sound for 
developmentally appropriate teaching.  

In analyzing this data further, it appeared that there was intentionality in implementing a 
variety of co-teaching models. Of the 43 teams, only seven used one model during the course of 
each observation, while 17 teams used two models and 19 used three or more models at some 
point during their three observations.  Extended use of the models demonstrated greater fluidity 
between the co-teachers and sophistication of their use of the pedagogical practices.  
 
Reflective Dialogue 

Of primary interest was the content of the reflective dialogue between the coaches, 
collaborating teachers and teacher candidates that typically followed the coach’s observations. 
During these sessions, all three participants had a chance to co-reflect on the co-teaching, and 
“just in time” pedagogical discussions were held directly related to coach observations. 
Pedagogical questioning and recommendations fell into very specific categories (general co-
teaching approaches, classroom management strategies, and content-specific learning strategies/ 
general learning strategies). 

PSCT models. Our coaches facilitated a great deal of conversation that focused on ways 
to better utilize the various models for instructional purposes. For example, coaches helped 
teams focus not only on the importance of purposefully choosing and planning specific models to 
differentiate instruction, but also emphasized how the physical location of station teaching might 
lead to improved student outcomes. Additionally, the conversation addressed the use specific 



54	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 
models of PSCT to increase their ability to differentiate instruction, and to increase students’ 
participation, independence, and engagement in the lesson.   

Classroom management. As mentioned previously, many of our teacher candidates 
established goals that addressed classroom management.  The subsequent observations and 
feedback sessions resulted in discussions on a wide range of research-based classroom 
management strategies, ranging from more general strategies (such as purposeful, flexible 
grouping, proximity of the co-teachers to students, and use of positive reinforcement) to more 
specific strategies (such as breaking down oral directions for individuals students, making 
material more manageable for struggling students, and having extensions available for advanced 
students). Additionally, our co-teachers regularly engaged in dialog related to using the CT’s 
behavior management system to control students with disruptive behavior.  Behavior 
management strategies were highly varied and were dependent on each teacher candidate’s 
specific situation. Behavior management strategies suggested by the coaches ranged from simple 
strategies (i.e., non-verbal cues; wait time; planning engaging lessons; matching lessons to 
ability level; decreasing transition times; positive language; etc.) to more specific strategies 
(reviewing behavior plans with teacher candidates and offering suggestions; offering seating 
charts and checklists to monitor specific students off-task during lessons for the purpose of 
targeting strategies at specific students; etc.). Through these discussions, the teacher candidate’s 
became more knowledgeable about how to apply research-based strategies to manage their 
classrooms. In addition, the candidates increased their ability to justify their instructional 
decisions to increase student learning.  While the instruction provided to the teacher candidate 
may have been necessary and productive, the coaches in this situation did not appear to be 
engaged in practices consistent with those emphasized in their professional development. 

Content specific strategies/general learning strategies. In addition to facilitating 
dialogue related to employing the co-teaching models to manage their classrooms, the coaches 
led discussions on a wide variety of topics related to improving student learning.  The research-
based strategies discussed ranged from general learning strategies (such as using teachable 
moments, setting expectations prior to the assignment, focusing more time on various portions of 
the lesson, and introducing one strategy at a time) to more content-specific strategies (i.e., using 
specific graphic organizers, guided reading strategies, pre-teaching vocabulary, strategies for 
struggling readers, and using assessment to inform instruction). The focus of these conversations 
was directly and intentionally related to the specific needs of each co-teaching team, specifically 
the teacher candidate.   

 
Conclusions and Implications of the Study 

As noted in the introduction, teacher education is under intense scrutiny and is being 
asked by national accreditation agencies to essentially to turn teacher preparation “upside down” 
and focus on providing high quality clinical experience.  To that end, colleges of education are 
developing more intentional partnerships with local school districts to provide yearlong clinical 
experiences, but with those more collaborative and extensive clinical experiences, come the need 
for additional and different types of resources to support the teacher candidates and the 
collaborating teachers. One of the major implications of this study is that instructional coaching 
is a potentially promising practice for supporting not only the teacher candidate, but also the 
collaborating teacher. While coaching is new to pre-service education, it has been used 
effectively for many years as a form of professional development for practicing teachers (Knight, 
2008).  



  Transforming Clinical Practice  55 
 

Our results indicate that with the support of this model, our teacher candidates were 
capable of assessing the current reality of their teaching, and establishing their own professional 
goals to guide their development as a teacher, particularly in the area of differentiating 
instruction. Fostering teacher efficacy in this manner is unique within the context of a standards-
based teacher education environment where teacher candidates are routinely evaluated against a 
detailed set of professional standards. Instructional coaching of pre-service teachers allows them 
to take risks and try new strategies in a safe space that is highly developmental. The 
developmental nature of the coaching was seen frequently when teacher candidates needed 
assistance with classroom management. Pre-service teachers were highly transparent and seemed 
to know that the coach was there to provide assistance and frame their thinking about managing 
and skills in classroom management, rather than to provide a graded evaluation of their 
competence.  
 Results of this study also indicated that the instructional coach’s approach to coaching, 
and the collaborating teacher’s role in co-teaching, both changed rather dramatically when the 
teacher candidate required assistance in managing the classroom.  At that point, the coach 
seemed to assume the roles of a clinical supervisor rather than a facilitator. When necessary, the 
coach focused exclusively upon the candidate and provided detailed direction, pointed out direct 
connections between instruction, engagement, and student behavior. Similarly, the collaborating 
teacher seemed to assume a position of instructor and role model, making her practices and 
thinking more explicit. While these results certainly demonstrated the flexibility of our coaches 
in tailoring their practices to the needs of the teacher candidates, these approaches seem more 
closely aligned with clinical supervision than instructional or cognitive coaching (Knight, 2008).  
When teacher candidates are under stress due to issues related to classroom management, the 
coaches and collaborating teachers are encouraged to remain in role and support the teacher 
candidate’s reflection and problem-solving. Future research will need to address ways to support 
the coaches in increasing their facilitation and communication skills. 

In conclusion, these finding support the national movement for a more evidence-based 
approach to teacher education such as the implementation of edTPA. While these findings are 
preliminary, our pre-service co-teaching model seems to have the potential to assist teacher 
candidates in mastering the metacognitive aspect of the analysis of their teaching in a 
developmental way. In particular, the edTPA assessment asks candidates to identify evidence to 
justify their teaching decisions and strategies. In the narrative piece of the edTPA portfolio, it 
recommends that candidates use research and theory in understanding children’s learning 
behaviors or formulating action plans to improve instruction. Through the cycle of PSCT, 
coaches can help teacher candidates align theory to practice as they grapple with complex 
problems of practice related to academic language, differentiation, assessment, and management. 
Through the use of intentional goal setting strategies, teacher candidates can also monitor their 
own learning, reflect upon their growth, and devise personal plans of action to improve their 
practices. The instructional coaching approaches described in this paper, clearly mirror the 
edTPA process of assessing student learning, choosing pedagogical strategies that best match 
content and students, and analyzing teacher effectiveness. The effectiveness of using coaching as 
a means to support pre-service teachers with edTPA is an obvious next step in our research. For 
example, examining how collaborative dialogue impacts pre-service teachers’ responses in their 
narratives of edTPA and how co-teaching models may correlate with specific skill sets 
categorized within the edTPA tasks merit further research.  

 



56	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

Limitations and Future Directions 
A major limitation of the study was the sample was one of convenience in that everyone 

who participated in the PSCT initiative was asked to participate in the study, and the researchers 
served as coaches or presenters in the professional development seminars. As previously noted, 
two of the researchers are also faculty in the department of elementary education and coached 
ten teacher candidates and their collaborating teachers. In the future, researchers in elementary 
education will research secondary programs and vice versa. The second limitation is that 
research participants are from elementary and early childhood teacher education program in a 
particular region in the United States, which reduces external validity of the study.  To reach 
higher levels of external validity similar studies must be conducted in other colleges or 
universities in other parts of the United States.   
 
 
  



  Transforming Clinical Practice  57 
 

References 
 

Alliance for Excellent Education. (2004). Tapping into potential: Retaining and development  

 high-quality teachers. Washington, DC: Author. 

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (2013). edTPA. Retrieved from 

 http://edtpa.aacte.org 

Alverez-McHatton, P. & Daniel, P. (2008). Co-teaching at the pre-service level: Special 

 Education majors collaborate with English education majors. Teacher Education & 

 Special Education, 31(2), 118-131. 

Bacharach, N., Heck, T., & Dahlberg, K. (2010). Changing the face of student teaching through 

co-teaching. Action in Teacher Education. 32(1), 3-14. 

Badiali, B., & Titus, N. (2012).  Co-teaching: Enhancing student learning through mentor-intern 

partnerships. School-University Partnerships (4)2, 74-80. 

Boyle-Baise, M., & McIntyre, J. (2008). What kind of experience? Preparing teachers in PDS or 

community setting. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, & J. McIntyre (Eds.), 

Handbook of research on teacher education: Enduring issues in changing contexts (pp. 

307-331). New York, NY: Routledge. 

Cook, L. & Friend, M. (1995). Guidelines for creating effective practices. Focus on Exceptional 

  Children, 28, 1-5. 

Cook, B. G. (2002). Inclusive attitudes, strengths, and weaknesses of pre-service general 

 educators enrolled in a curriculum infusion teacher education program. Teacher 

 Education and Special Education, 25, 262-277. 

Denzin, N. K.,& Lincoln, Y.S. (2008). Strategies of qualitative inquiry. (Eds.). Los Angeles, CA: 

 Sage Publications. 

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Studies of excellence in teacher education. Washington, DC: 

 AACTE Publications. 

Darling-Hammond, L. (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should 

 learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Evaluating teacher effectiveness: How teacher 

 performance assessments can measure and improve teaching. Washington, DC: 

Center for American Progress. 

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to 



58	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

 equity will determine our future. New York: Teachers College Press. 

Friend, M. (2002). An interview with Mary T. Brownell and Chriss Walther-Thomas. 

 Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(4), 223-228. 

Griffin, C. C., Jones, H. A., & Kilgore, K. L. (2006). A qualitative study of student teachers’ 

experiences with collaborative problem solving. Teacher Education and Special 

Education, 29, 44-55. 

Grossman, P. (2005). Research on pedagogical approaches to teacher education. In M. Cochran- 

Smith & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Studying teacher education (pp. 425-476). Mahwah, NJ: 

Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Hammerness, K., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2002). Meeting old challenges and new demands: 

 The redesign of the Stanford Teacher Education Program. Issues in Teacher Education, 

 11(1), 17-30. 

Heckert, J., Strieker, T., & Shaheen, M. (2013). Kennesaw State University: Collaborative 

clinical practice model.  Educational Renaissance, 1(2), 83-96. 

Knight, J. (2013) High impact instruction: A framework for great teaching. Thousand Oakes, 

CA: Corwin Press. 

Knight, J., & Van Nieuwerburgh, C. (2012). Instructional coaching: A focus on practice. 

Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 5(2), 100–112. 

Knight, J. (2008). Instructional coaching. In Corwin Press (Editor) Mentoring, modeling, and 

 collaboration. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 

Knight, J. (2007). Instructional coaching: A partnership approach to improving instruction. 

 Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 

Loughran, J. (2007). Researching teacher education practices: Responding to the challenges, 

 demands, and expectations of self-study. Journal of Teacher Education, 58(1), 12–20 

McKenzie, R. G. (2009). A national survey of pre-service preparation for collaboration.  

 Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education and 

 Special Education, 32(4), 379-393. 

National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. (2003). No dream denied: A pledge to 

 America’s school children. Washington, DC: Author. 

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2010). Transforming  

 teacher education through clinical practice: A national strategy to prepare effective 



  Transforming Clinical Practice  59 
 

 teachers. Report to the blue ribbon panel on clinical preparation and partnerships for 

 improved student learning. Washington, DC. Retrieved from  

 www.ncate.org/publications 

Roth, W.M., & Tobin, K. (2002). At the elbows of another: Learning to teach through co- 

 teaching. New York: NY: Peter Lang. 

 

Roth, W.M., & Boyd, N. (1999). Coteaching, as colearning, as praxis. Research in Science 

 Education, 29(1), 51-67. 

Roth, W.M., Bowen, G.M., Boyd, N., & Boutonne, S. (1998). Coparticipation as mode for 

  learning to teach science. In W. Liedke (Ed.) Connections. Victoria, BC: University of 

  Victoria. 

Roth, W.M., & Boyd, N. (1998). Science teaching as knowledgeability: A case for knowing and 

 learning during co-teaching. Science Education, 82, 357-377. 

Ross, D. D., & Blanton, L. (2004). Inquiry communities in special education teacher education.   

 Teacher Education and Special Education, 27, 15-23. 

Smith, R.D. (1993). Mentoring new teachers: Strategies, structures, and successes. Teacher  

 Education Quarterly, 20(4), 5-18. 

Stayton, V.D., & McCollum, J. (2002). Unifying general and special education: What does the 

 research tell us? Teacher Education Quarterly, 25, 211-218. 

Stiggins, R., Arter, J., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2009). Classroom assessment for student 

 learning: Doing it right using it well. New York, NY: Allyn & Bacon. 

Tomlinson, C.A. (2005). Differentiated instruction. Theory into Practice, 44, 185-273. 

Trump, J., & Miller, D. (1973). Secondary school curriculum improvement. Boston: Allyn & 

 Bacon. 

York-Barr, J., Bacharach, N., Salk, J., Frank, J., & Beniek, B. (2004). Team teaching in teacher 

 education: General and special education faculty experiences and perspectives. Issues in 

 Teacher Education, 13, 73-94. 

Whitmore, J. (2002). Coaching for performance: Growing people, performance and purpose (3rd 

 ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey. 

Zigmond, A., & Magiera, K. (2001). Current practice alerts: A focus on co-teaching: Use with 

  caution. Alerts, 6, 1-4. 



60	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

 
  



  Transforming Clinical Practice  61 
 

Appendix A 

Pre-Service Co-Teaching Models 

The models listed below provide a framework for co-teachers to improve student learning. The 

models help co-teachers to determine instructional roles and responsibilities, how to group 

students, and meet diverse student needs. There is flexibility in the way students are grouped 

according to the models. 

Co-Teaching Models Description 
One Teach-One 
Observe 
 
 
 

• One co-teacher instructs whole group, and the other co-teacher 
observes teacher modeling/behaviors. 

• Co-teachers set systematic targets for observation at periodic 
intervals including: questioning strategies, interaction patterns with 
students, classroom management, and instructional strategies. 

• Through observation and note taking, one co-teacher takes data on 
checking for understanding.  

• Systematic collaborative dialogue between CT and teacher candidate 
should take place to reflect and plan for instruction. 

One Teach-One 
Assist 
 
 
 
 
 

• One co-teacher takes the lead in instruction with whole group and 
the other co-teacher provides “on purpose instruction” when ready 
by providing: 
- short lessons/support to individuals, teams, or small groups of 
students 
-follow-up to whole group instruction 
-correctives or positive feedback as needed 
-visuals, charts, examples, and add-in comments 

• Both co-teachers stay tuned in to the progression of the lesson and 
anticipate where students may have difficulty.  

• Systematic collaborative dialogue takes place between CT and 
teacher candidate. 

Team Teaching 
 
 
 
 

• Whole class instruction, both teachers synchronously teaching. 
• Instructional partnership with shared responsibilities. 
• Both teachers are active, working with the class as a whole. 
• Present content together building upon each other’s comments 

spontaneously. 
• Can involve some short-term grouping of students with both teachers 

acting as facilitators. 
• Systematic collaborative dialog between CT and teacher candidate 

should take place to reflect and plan for instruction. 



62	
     T. Strieker, M. Shaheen, D. Hubbard, L. Digiovanni & W. Lim 
	
  
 

 
 
 
   

 
 

Parallel Teaching 
    

 

• Class is divided into 2 approximately equal heterogeneous groups. 
• The same content is taught, but the content may be presented in 

different ways. 
• With smaller teacher to student ratio, some students respond more to 

class discussion than in a whole group situation. 
• Provides more opportunities to differentiate. 
• Systematic collaborative dialog between CT and teacher candidate 

should take place to reflect and plan for instruction. 
Alternative Teaching 
    

 

• Based upon assessment results, the class is divided into a larger 
group and a smaller group for a short period of time. 

• Different content/activities occur in each group based upon student 
needs. 

• The same students are not grouped each time – frequent assessments 
determine grouping strategies. 

• Provides more opportunities for re-teaching, additional practice, as 
well as extension activities to challenge learners close to or at 
mastery of standards. 

• Systematic collaborative dialog between CT and teacher candidate 
should take place to reflect and plan for instruction. 

Station Teaching 
     

 
 

• The class is divided into 3 or more stations with each co-teacher 
manning one of the stations and one or more independent stations.  

• Stations (or centers) are designed around a standard with a 
breakdown of skills/knowledge. The lesson is segmented into 
important parts. 

• Each student goes through the stations (although the stations can be 
spread out over several days, not just one class session). 

• There is a lower teacher-student ration allowing for more 
individualization and the independent stations can encourage student 
responsibility and cooperative learning. 

• Teachers purposefully plan student groupings and consider many 
factors such as learning styles, abilities, student strengths, and 
weaknesses. 

• Systematic collaborative dialog between CT and teacher candidate 
should take place to reflect and plan for instruction reflect and co-
problem solve. 


