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Vol. 3, No. 1, Dec 2014, pp. 55-64   

 

 
 
 
 
Moving Multicultural Education Forward in Teacher Education: 
Integration of Cognitive Learning Theory 
Jose Luis Alvarado, California State University, Monterey Bay 
Valerie Ooka Pang, San Diego State University 
Easter Finley, Southwest High School, Sweetwater Union High School District 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Abstract 
 

 Multicultural Education as a field of study in education is intimately connected to 

Teacher Education. Most frameworks in Multicultural Education are primarily centered on the 

inclusion of cultural and linguistic diversity in schools. This often results in the integration of 

heroes and holidays within the curriculum, however this orientation can present a simplistic 

aspect of culture and does not address the process of learning. The purpose of this article is to 

explain why cognitive learning theory must be an essential element in frameworks of 

Multicultural Education and Multicultural Teacher Education. Teachers need to understand the 

principles of learning theory to create classrooms where students become self-regulated, 

successful learners. 

 

  



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Introduction 
 Today, Multicultural Education is an integral part of Teacher Education. One of the 
major aims of both fields is to train culturally-competent educators who believe in the values of 
equity, democracy, freedom, and social justice. To do so, the fields must include strong 
philosophical and pedagogical theories forming a belief system or framework that supports the 
development of effective, culturally and linguistically diverse schools. Any belief system put 
forth must include cognitive learning theory because teachers need to know how children and 
adults learn. The first section discusses a short history of Multicultural Education. The second 
portion describes three major frameworks that have been posed as a foundation for Multicultural 
Education. The third section discusses the integration of Multicultural Education into Teacher 
Education. 

Within this context, Multicultural Education and Teacher Education have two major 
goals. First, scholars in both fields are dedicated to the development of highly effective teachers 
who hold a strong value of social justice in schools. They believe that all students should be 
provided equal educational opportunities and outcomes within an atmosphere of respect for 
human diversity. Educators also must hold high-academic expectations for all students regardless 
of their cultural differences such as religious affiliations, disabilities, sexual orientation, race, 
gender, social class, culture, and language. The second goal is to address the achievement gap 
between White students and culturally and linguistically diverse students. These goals and core 
values have been advanced by numerous Multicultural Teacher Education researchers (Alvarado, 
Pang, & Naranjo, 2014; Banks, 1984; Sleeter & Grant, 1987; Gay, 1994; Banks & Banks, 2010; 
Gay, 2010; Nieto, 1996; Bennett, 2001; Pang, 2010; Pang & Park, 2011). 

Multicultural Education as a field has a strong history in curriculum development and 
educational legislation. Though many educators believe the field rose out of the political and 
social movement for Civil Rights, historically the field has roots in the Intercultural Education 
and Intergroup Education Movements of the early 20th century (Pak, 2006). Pak documented 
how Intercultural and Intergroup Education evolved out of the Great Depression and resulted 
from increased immigration to the United States. Many immigrants left civil strife in home 
countries such as Poland, England, and Ireland, but also hoped for economic opportunities in 
their newly adopted nation. 

The Intercultural Education and Intergroup Education Movements were founded on the 
importance of intercultural relations and an inclusive democracy (Pak, 2006). These reforms 
from the 1920’s to the 1950’s took place when there was a national emphasis on an enhanced 
view of democracy. During this period, people in the United States grappled with the concept of 
who should be considered an “American” (Pak, 2006). Today, educators often take for granted 
the belief that diversity is an accepted value of our nation, however, this orientation was not 
generally agreed upon by most people at that time. There were race riots in Detroit and Harlem 
during the 1930’s and 1940’s that placed attention on the issue of racial inequality. During this 
time period educational leaders like Rachel David Dubois worked toward implementing an 
“ethnic studies” approach that focused on adding information about various racial and ethnic 
communities to the school curriculum (Pak, 2006). 

The Intercultural and Intergroup Education Movements were bolstered by a societal force 
now called the Civil Rights Movement. Civil rights advocates placed more emphasis on our 
national values of democracy and social justice in areas such as voting rights, employment, 
housing, and education. The Intercultural Education and Intergroup Education Movements had 
already placed importance on the inclusion of the history, values, and beliefs of diverse racial 



 

Multicultural Education 57 
 

and cultural groups in curriculum areas such as social studies and literature, however there were 
and are many scholars who continue to call for higher levels of inclusion in all disciplines.   

Multicultural Education scholars in the early 1970’s such as James A. Banks, Geneva 
Gay, Carl A. Grant, and Carlos Cortés saw civil rights legislation as a core foundation for 
Multicultural Education. Within that context, they primarily focused on the inclusion of diverse 
communities into the school curriculum. These Multicultural Education and Teacher Education 
specialists believed in the integration of racial and ethnic history, knowledge, and contributions 
into textbooks and traditional academic disciplines. They also advocated for the addition of 
information, history, and role models of women and individuals from lower-income families. 
These and many other multicultural scholars believed that teaching about racism was highly 
connected to issues of sexism and classism. Later, multicultural education scholars pointed out 
the need for equalities for those who are members of diverse communities due to their 
exceptionalities, sexual orientations, and religious affiliations; these areas have been added to 
what is now defined by many educators as culturally diverse communities (Alvarado, Pang, & 
Naranjo, 2014). One of the best vehicles to ensure that we build a society based on social justice 
was to infuse Multicultural Education into Teacher Education. Teachers are key social agents 
who could bring a culturally diverse curriculum into education and ultimately bring about much 
needed policy changes to schools.  

 
Multicultural Education:  Diverse Definitions 

Geneva Gay, one of the founders in the field of multicultural education, identified various 
definitions and orientations (1994). Though many scholars believed in social justice and equality, 
there were many different assumptions and values that educators held about the field. Gay 
explained them as follows (1994, 3-8): 

• A philosophy emphasizing the importance of diversity in the lives of individuals, groups, 
and nations; 

• “A reform movement that changes all components of the educational enterprise...to 
reflect cultural pluralism;” 

• Institutionalization of "the philosophy of cultural pluralism within the educational 
system, which is grounded in principles of equality, mutual respect, acceptance and 
understanding, and a sense of moral commitment to social justice;" 

• A humanistic concept based on the strength of diversity, human rights, social justice, and 
alternative life choices for all people; 

• An approach where democratic values are at its core and the curriculum targets 
educational equality; 

• An education that includes study of the experiences of cultural groups who have endured 
continual social oppression, prejudice and alienation; 

• Policies and practices respecting cultural diversity and individual differences in all 
aspects of education; and 

• A process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for students that 
challenges all forms of social oppression. 

 
These definitions show that Multicultural Education scholars hold slightly different 

positions about the goals and principles of the field. The goals range from teaching democracy to 
total school reform that reflects the cultural and linguistic diversity of the nation.  The next 
section discusses three major frameworks in Multicultural Education and why scholars will be in 



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a more compelling position to move the field forward if they include a strong cognitive learning 
foundation to their philosophical framework. 

 
Three Major Types of Frameworks for Multicultural Education 

The field of Multicultural Education has three major frameworks; they include a 
curricular approach, an orientation that challenges economic and political inequities, and a 
democratic approach that weaves together several overarching philosophical and cognitive 
theories.  

Curricular Framework. The first is a curriculum reform orientation (Bennett, 2001) that 
was developed between the 1970s and 1980’s. Since the field arose out of the Intercultural 
Education movement that primarily dealt with curriculum (Pak, 2006), this led to a curricular 
framework that called for the inclusion of historical, cultural, political, psychological, and 
sociological information from diverse cultural and linguistic groups (Banks & Banks, 2010; Gay, 
2010).  James A. Banks designed a conceptual framework that included five dimensions: 1) 
content integration which involves the infusion of multiple ethnic perspectives and discipline 
knowledge into the school curriculum; 2) knowledge construction refers to understanding the 
assumptions used in choosing discipline knowledge included in schools; 3) equity pedagogy 
involves the integration of teaching styles so that all students learn; 4) prejudice reduction 
requires teachers and students to examine their biases and to address their prejudices and 
stereotypes throughout the curriculum; and 5) an empowering school culture, which necessitates 
that schools provide equal educational opportunities for all students. This is the framework that 
is often referenced in traditional teacher preparation programs. 

Critical Multicultural Education Framework. As the field of Multicultural Education 
evolved, in the 1990's Sonia Nieto (1996) intensified the call for social justice by advocating for 
a critical theory orientation based upon the work of Paulo Freire. Nieto believed in schooling 
where students and teachers question and challenge the status quo of institutional inequalities 
and personal prejudices. Though other scholars discussed the need for teachers to train students 
to examine power and authority issues, Nieto clearly put forth a Multicultural Education 
framework with a more political and advocacy orientation.  Critical Multicultural Education 
developed because educators felt scholars should consider the political nature of education; Nieto 
believed the call to integrate culture and language into the curriculum was not enough to result in 
total school transformation. Other educators such as Marc Pruyn organized a group of social 
studies teachers in New Mexico who were dedicated to social justice. They developed an 
approach called Critical Multicultural Social Studies (CMSS) with Curry Malott (The 
Borderlands Collective for Social Justice, 2006). Their pedagogical orientation was based upon 
the importance of integrating social justice and equity in the teaching of social studies and 
history. The educators called themselves the Borderlands Collective for Social Justice; their goal 
was to create a powerful and alive curriculum by teaching students how to become actively 
involved in social issues through readings, questioning, collaboration, dialogue, and community 
service. However, educators found it difficult to teach about social stratification when schools 
are shaped by testing, federal legislation, and initiatives such as No Child Left Behind and Race 
to the Top. These rigid programs often leave culturally and linguistically diverse students, 
students with disabilities, and students from low-income families “behind.” Most students are not 
taught higher order thinking-skills or how to address social problems. Rather they are 
encouraged to learn knowledge that will prepare them for the workforce and a corporate agenda 
(The Borderlands Collective for Social Justice, 2006). In addition, teachers are extremely 



 

Multicultural Education 59 
 

concerned when teacher effectiveness is primarily measured by student achievement on high-
stakes standardized and standards-based tests. This policy orientation does not allow for 
extensive time teaching civics, citizenship skills and the discussion of social problems. 

Comprehensive Framework. The third framework integrates several overarching 
philosophical and cognitive theories. Pang (2010) developed the Caring-centered Multicultural 
Education framework; this framework connects the educational philosophies of Dewey (1916) 
and Noddings (1984) and the social-cognitive theory of Vygotsky (Cole, 1996). The interrelated 
theories focus on relationships, culture, and community (citizenship). This orientation moves 
beyond curriculum integration of history, literature, the arts and social categories such as social 
economic status, sexual orientation, and disabilities. This framework acknowledges the 
complexities of society and posits a belief in the intersectionality of various aspects of 
individuals; this orientation is opposed to the separation of students into one distinctive category 
such as race, ethnicity, or social class. Students come to school as complex people with varied 
beliefs and experiences. For example it would not be accurate to place a young gay student from 
a lower-income family, who has been identified with Asperger’s syndrome and speaks Spanish, 
English, and Japanese, into a single category of being Latino because his mother is from 
Colombia. This would be a narrow way to view his rich life. 

The Caring-centered Multicultural framework brings to the forefront the cognitive theory 
of Vygotsky. Teachers must focus not only on the integration of ethnic, cultural, and linguistic 
discipline-content into the curriculum, but they must know how to develop instructional 
strategies based on cognitive research. Vygotsky believed that social interactions, language, and 
culture form the foundation of learning. This connects with Noddings’ Ethic of Care theory 
where social relationships are also believed to be the underpinnings of learning and personal 
development. 

The Ethic of Care focuses on the importance of developing trusting, reciprocal 
relationships; respectful and sincere relationships must be created between teacher and student, 
teacher and teacher, student and student, and teacher and parents in order for the full potential of 
students is to be achieved.  As Noddings has theorized, trusting, reciprocal relationships are at 
the core of effective learning communities, especially in a democracy which supports the 
philosophy of John Dewey.  Much focus is placed on the creation of a compassionate and 
cooperative public where members address issues of social oppression and public policy using a 
social justice lens. Relationships along with cultures are seen as crucial elements in teaching and 
learning because social interactions are foundational to the cognitive process. Within this 
framework, teachers can utilize student-lived experiences and knowledge as building blocks in 
the learning process so that students construct meaning themselves (Pang, 2010).  

The more comprehensive Caring-centered framework for Multicultural Education is 
culture-centered and relationship-centered with foundations in educational psychology, the ethic 
of care, and citizenship education. Though other multicultural educational frameworks do not 
include cognitive theory, in order to address achievement issues, it is critical that teachers have 
strong knowledge of how students learn. 

Integrating the work of Vygotsky guides teachers to understand the importance of social 
interactions as core to learning. Teachers use language, cultural models, and examples from the 
lives of students as tools which act as bridges between what students know and what they are 
learning. Within this process, teachers serve as knowledgeable mentors who can assist student 
performance as she/he develops her/his potential (Glassman, 2001). 

 



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Multicultural Teacher Education 
If the goal of Teacher Education is to prepare teachers who can deliver rigorous 

instruction to all students including diverse learners, then the professional development of 
teachers must be intimately connected to Multicultural Education. Educators know that teaching 
demands content knowledge mastery and pedagogical knowledge expertise; however, many 
agree that new teachers complete their pre-service credential programs not fully trained to 
effectively reach socioeconomically, ethnically, and linguistically diverse students.  Many 
educators believe that if teacher education preparation programs are to produce highly-effective 
multicultural teachers, they must include culturally responsive and relevant education in their K-
12 curriculum and instructional preparation (Banks & Banks, 2010; Bennett, 2001; Gay, 2010; 
Pang, 2010). Hence, pre-service teacher preparation programs must guide teacher candidates to 
reflect on their instruction not only as being culturally relevant but also as transformative, an 
educational experience that focuses on social change.  In order for teaching and learning to be 
transformative, teachers must realize that students are not empty vessels; instead, they must 
accept that students arrive at schools with beliefs, values, abilities, social group identities, and 
social norms – the students’ cultures, which define who they are and shape their thought 
processes and behaviors (Gay, 2010). This is what Gay refers to as culturally responsive teaching 
where teachers use cultural traits, experiences, and perspectives of students as assets and means 
by which to leverage teaching, thereby making learning more personal and relevant.  

In order to enhance the professional development of teachers, Multicultural Teacher 
Education frameworks must include cognitive theory. For example, Vygotsky’s theory includes 
not only discussion of developmental maturity of the learner, but also the importance of learner 
culture as part of social interactions (Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992). The addition of learning theory 
can assist teacher educators in two ways. First, Vygotsky’s cognitive theory calls for teacher self-
regulation which begins by mentors questioning, scaffolding, modeling, and providing feedback 
to apprentice teachers (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). This self-regulation is followed by a period of 
extensive reflection. Teachers learn to make decisions about their instructional strategies based 
on knowledge of Vygotsky’s cognitive principles. Educators are able to think about their own 
practice, and develop structures and instructional strategies that enhance the learning of their 
students based upon Vygotsky’s theory. Teachers believe that learning is, initially, a social 
process, and therefore students develop individualistic functions of the mind (Wertsch & 
Tulviste, 1992). The second way that Vygotsky’s theory assists teachers is that they learn how to 
reflect on the lived experiences of their students. Teachers are taught to consider and create ways 
to structure connections for students in the learning process; teachers may use many local 
examples, cultural models, and student knowledge from the lives of their pupils in order to assist 
them in making connections between the known to the unknown (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). 
Programs that consider students’ lived experiences and effectively utilize culturally relevant 
approaches to teaching and learning can range from mathematics instruction to early childhood 
education. 

The Algebra Project is one example of a culturally relevant and transformative 
curriculum; it grapples with the relevance of algebra by declaring that algebra is inaccessible to 
many students of color, and therefore constitutes a civil rights issue. According to Moses and 
Cobb (2001), mathematics must become a tool of educational and political liberation; they 
believed that math literacy and economic access give hope to young generations. Why algebra?  
According to Moses, algebra provides the means by which the hidden language of mathematical 
symbols is visibly manifested, which in turn, has an effect on one’s success in the workforce. 



 

Multicultural Education 61 
 

What makes the Algebra Project culturally relevant is its transition curriculum which uses 
cultural models and real-life situations such as riding the subway, and converting their informal 
talk about an event into formalized mathematical language. One of the math and science 
concepts taught by Moses was displacement, and the construct is not only culturally relevant but 
can be modified depending on the region in which algebra is taught.  Students become self-
regulated learners whose performance and mastery of the content increases as a consequence of 
being taught by teachers who use a culturally and transformative curriculum in the learning 
process.  

Another example of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning can be seen in the 
Kamehameha Early Education Project (KEEP). The central goal of KEEP was to develop 
literacy and cognitive development in Native Hawaiian children who were not doing well in 
school; this included sight vocabulary development, analytic phonics, and comprehension (Tharp 
& Gallimore, 1988). The research program included kindergarteners through grade-three 
students from Hawaii. Teachers were the more knowledgeable mentors who assisted students in 
developing language skills and cognitive processing. In these classrooms, teachers carefully 
listened to children and simplified their own language if students did not understand lessons that 
they were conveying. The educators in this program provided students with opportunities to 
interact with each other. Teachers discovered that students were most comfortable working 
together rather than studying independently. The students did not want to present themselves as 
individual “stars.” Students were more secure encouraging and interacting with each other; they 
liked learning in teams. This cultural orientation became an important structural element of the 
classroom. The research demonstrated that specific cultural practices did make a difference with 
Native Hawaiian children, and also the overarching use of culturally-relevant instructional 
strategies can be utilized with many different populations. 

 
Conclusion 

Multicultural Education is a field in education that focuses on the integration of the 
values of social justice, equality, and culture.  Since Teacher Education is a field that is highly 
aligned with Multicultural Education, it is the professional responsibility of teachers to learn 
about and expand on their philosophical and knowledge base of Multicultural Education. It is 
crucial that Multicultural Teacher Education includes a framework that builds in cognitive theory 
such as in the Caring-centered Multicultural framework. The inclusion of learning theory 
provides a much needed foundation for teachers who must reflect upon and decide which 
strategies of learning are most effective with their students.  

Teachers must take a comprehensive orientation towards Multicultural Education which 
includes understanding how people learn. In this way educators will create environments where 
students become engaged in the learning process and create their own meaning of what is being 
taught while becoming self-regulated, successful learners. Educators must put into practice 
theoretical understandings about cognitive development to ensure that all students have the 
opportunity to achieve and develop their individual potentials regardless of their linguistic 
diversity, gender, social class, ethnicity/cultural backgrounds, racial memberships, disabilities, 
sexual orientation, and/or religion. Cognitive theory must be a core facet of Multicultural 
Teacher Education. 

 
 

 



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