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Educational Renaissance Vol. 7  (2018)

Collaborat ion and Connect ions: Invest igat ing t he Use 
of  Teacher  Candidat e-Creat ed Prot ocols t o Connect  
Research t o Classroom  Pract ice in an Educat or  
Preparat ion Program

Jannah Ner ren, PhD. Sam Houston State University, College of Education

     email: jannahnerren@shsu.edu

Tracey Covingt on Hasbun, PhD. Stephen F. Austin State University, James I. Perkins College of
     Education

     email: tlcovington@sfasu.edu

Feature Article

Int roduct ion  

Numerous studies have been conducted on the 
importance of teachers being knowledgeable 
about research-based practices and how to use 
that research to guide their instruction in the 
classroom (Buysse & Wesley 2006; Henderson, 
Meier, Perry, & Stremmel, 2012; Hoppey, 
Morewood, & Bolyard, 2010). There are also 
several studies that show the positive effects that 
research-based instruction has on student 
achievement (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). 

Winton, Buysse, Rous, Lim, & Epstein (2012) stated 
that while evidence-based practices are important 
strategies to use in instruction, they should be 

integrated with ?practitioner experience and 
deeply held beliefs with research findings in ways 
that inform decisions and actions? (p. 6). This 
integration takes skill, experience, and expertise in 
many areas. While a veteran teacher might not 
find this difficult, it could be problematic for 
pre-service teachers or teacher candidates, who 
are just beginning to gain experience in the 
classroom and an understanding of research and 
theory. 

While pre-service teachers or teacher candidates 
may learn about research- based practices in their 
college classrooms, they are not always placed in 
field experience or clinical placement sites where 

Abst ract   

This study investigated the effects of using teacher candidate-created observation protocols based on 
current research on classroom practices to connect research to practice. The study examined the 
extent to which mentor teachers modeled current research-based practices as measured by the 
protocols and explored the frequency with which the practices were observed. Findings indicated that 
teacher candidates had a positive experience applying research to practice, that utilization of the 
protocols created an awareness of best practices being used, and the importance of individualizing 
the practices to meet student needs.  Individualization of utilization based on mentor teacher 
personalities was also observed and many practices the teacher candidates selected were utilized in 
the mentor classrooms, particularly in the areas of lesson planning and reading instruction.



NERREN & HASBUN|  2 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

they can observe or use research-based practices. 
This is particularly concerning as, while some 
aspects of the knowledge necessary for becoming 
a teacher can be taught in college classrooms, 
several decades of research indicate that a 
number of crucial elements of professional 
practice can only be learned in the context of the 
classroom under the guidance of a strong mentor 
(Ball & Cohen, 1999; Feiman-Nemser, 2010). To 
further complicate matters, even for the 
pre-service teachers or teacher candidates that are 
placed with strong mentor teachers, identifying 
research-based practices in action can be difficult 
(Roehrig, Duggar, Moats, Glover, & Mincey, 2008). 
Some of the literature on the topic indicates that 
many pre-service teachers or teacher candidates 
are unable to distinguish when a mentor teacher is 
using the most effective practices (Roehrig, et al., 
2008). Finding a way to help pre-service teachers 
or teacher candidates become familiar with 
research-based practices, identify those practices 
in action, and then discuss what they did or did 
not see modeled is one way to begin bridging the 
gap from research to practice with these novice 
educators. 

Theoret ical Fram ework  

While several theoretical frameworks could be 
applied to the area of pre-service teachers or 
teacher candidates learning to connect research to 
practice through self-created protocols, 
observation, and modeling by mentors, this study 
is based upon Bandura?s Social Cognitive Theory 
(Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1986) and portions of 
Kolb?s Experiential Learning Theory (1984). Social 
Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1986) 
emphasizes the idea that learning occurs in a 
social context, particularly through observation, 
and that an individual?s continuous functioning or 
learning is due to ongoing interaction between 
behavioral, cognitive, and contextual elements. 
This relates to the observations and social contexts 
in which teacher candidates in this study were 
engaged. 

Kolb?s Experiential Learning Theory (1984) 
presents a cyclical model of learning in which 

participants engage in an experience, observe and 
reflect, abstractly conceptualize, and then test in 
new situations. In this study, teacher candidates 
actively engaged by reading research-based 
articles and creating an observation protocol. They 
then observed their mentor teacher with the 
protocol and reflected upon and discussed the 
elements they saw, or did not see, in practice. 
Finally, they were asked to conceptualize answers 
to questions such as why do you think this action 
was not observed, why do you think this action was 
observed the most, and why do you think this action 
was observed the least. They were not asked to 
complete the fourth step in Kolb?s (1984) cycle 
during this study. However, it is important to note 
that many teacher candidates informally stated 
that they applied the fourth step by implementing 
research-based practices in their own lessons that 
were or were not modeled by the mentor teacher. 

Purpose of  t he St udy 

In the current study, teacher candidates were 
asked to read current research on best practices 
for elementary classroom teaching, to create 
observation protocols based on the information 
they deemed most important in the readings, and 
then to observe in assigned elementary 
classrooms for use of the research-based practices 
by classroom teachers. The study sought to 
immerse teacher candidates in current 
research-based readings, to have the candidates 
think critically about the research to determine key 
themes, to use this information to collaboratively 
create observation protocols, and then to 
subsequently observe the practices and /or 
strategies of mentor teachers in field experience 
classrooms to connect the readings to classroom 
practice. 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the 
effects of having teacher candidates 
collaboratively create observation protocols based 
on assigned readings of current research on 
classroom practices, in order to connect research 
to practice. In addition, the study examined the 
extent to which mentor teachers modeled current 
research-based practices as measured by teacher 



NERREN & HASBUN|  3 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

candidate-created observation protocols. Finally, 
the study explored which areas of research-based 
practices were observed the most and the least. 

Research Quest ions 

The following research questions will be addressed 
in the present study: 

1. What are the effects of this project on teacher 
candidates? ability to connect research to 
classroom practice? 

2. To what extent are mentor teachers modeling 
current research-based practices as measured 
by teacher candidate-created observation 
protocols? 

3. Which areas of research-based practices are 
observed the most? 

4. Which areas of research-based practices are 
observed the  least?   

Lit erat ure Review    

Research-Based Pract ices and Ef fect s 

The importance of using research-based practices 
in teaching or instruction is well documented in 
the literature (Buysse & Wesley 2006; Henderson 
et al., 2012; Hoppey et al., 2010). In content areas 
such as reading and mathematics, evidence-based 
learning has been noted to be of value (Committee 
on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young 
Children & The National Research Council, 1998; 
U.S. Department of Education, 2009). 
Evidence-based practices have also been shown to 
be beneficial with English Language Learners, 
students with disabilit ies, and students who are 
identified as gifted and/or talented (August & 
Hakuta, 1997; Vaughn, Klingner, & Hughes, 2000). 
Repeatedly, studies have shown the positive 
effects that research-based instruction has on 
students and on student achievement (Marzano et 
al., 2001). 

The use of research-based practices is particularly 
important in the early grades, as it is often a 
student?s first entry into formal schooling. Young 
children are often learning to read, write, and lay 

the foundation for future learning and, thus, it is 
critical that students are taught in a 
developmentally appropriate way and that 
teachers have knowledge of what is appropriate 
(Head Start, 2008; Piaget, 1972; Vygotsky, 1978). 
The National Association for the Education of 
Young Children (NAEYC) supports this idea and 
writes that, ?Research gives early childhood 
practitioners and policymakers essential 
knowledge to use in making decisions on behalf of 
young children and families? (2015, p.1). However, 
they also note that the research should be used in 
combination with the ?wisdom and values of 
professionals and families? (NAEYC, 2015, p.1). 
Integrating research, values, and wisdom takes 
experience and skill, which can be a challenge for 
pre-service teachers or teacher candidates, due to 
their limited experiences with research and 
classroom practice. 

  

Research-Based Pract ices w it h Teacher  
Candidat es 

Classroom  lect ure and placem ent s. It would be 
fair to say that in most, if not all, teacher 
preparation programs in higher education, 
pre-service teachers, and teacher candidates are 
receiving classroom instruction in theory and how 
children learn best. Historically, pre-service 
teacher education programs have used what 
Zeichner (2010) refers to as an ?application of 
theory model? (p. 90). In this model, teacher 
candidates learn theory in a college classroom and 
then are expected to apply that theory in school 
classrooms. This could be a positive situation if the 
teacher candidates are placed with skilled and fully 
trained mentors who are informed with current, 
evidence-based practices and who can use his or 
her wisdom and values to make the best decisions 
for children and who then allow the teacher 
candidate to practice and receive feedback on 
those practices (NAEYC, 2015). Unfortunately, that 
is not always the case. 

In some teacher preparation programs, candidates 
may receive ample information on theory and 



NERREN & HASBUN|  4 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

evidence-based practices in the college classroom 
but may receive very litt le opportunity to observe 
and apply those theories and practices before they 
are responsible for a classroom of students 
(Zeichner, 2010). For those teacher candidates that 
are spending an adequate portion of their 
preparation in elementary classrooms where 
research-based practices are used, research has 
shown that identifying research-based strategies in 
action can be difficult for pre-service teachers or 
teacher candidates (Roehrig, et al., 2008). It 
requires practice and support. 

Regardless if teacher candidates complete 
pre-service teacher education programs that have 
field or clinical experiences before becoming fully 
responsible for classrooms or not, there is no 
guarantee that the field or clinical preparation is of 
high quality, nor if it has supported the level of 
professional learning that is needed in order for 
teachers to be successful (Valencia, Martin, Place, 
& Grossman, 2009). Once a pre-service teacher or 
teacher candidate has mastered the craft of 
identifying effective practices, they are not always 
afforded the opportunity to observe, practice, and 
receive feedback on the practices that the teacher 
preparation program intends for them to acquire 
(Zeichner, 2010). 

In some field experience or clinical placement 
settings, universities may have minimal sites from 
which to select, due to location. This could limit the 
number of suitable mentor teachers available, 
leaving programs to place teacher candidates with 
mentors who may not use research-based 
practices, may not be as experienced as they had 
hoped, or may not even have the desire to mentor 
teacher candidates. In fact, regardless of location, 
teacher candidates are often placed in classrooms 
with mentor teachers who are not knowledgeable 
on the subject matter that the teacher preparation 
program intends for the candidates to learn 
(Zeichner, 2010). This creates conflict as it is 
important that teacher candidates understand 
research-based practices, be able to observe and 
identify those practices, and, eventually, be given 
considerable time to implement those practices. 

Act ion research. One possible way to assist 
teacher candidates in becoming more familiar with 
the use of and practice in research-based 
strategies is through action research. According to 
the Association for Supervision and Curriculum 
Development (ASCD), action research is ?is a 
disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for 
those taking the action. The primary reason for 
engaging in action research is to assist the ?actor? 
in improving and/or refining his or her actions? 
(ASCD, 2015, p.1). The idea of action research by 
classroom teachers in collaboration with other 
stakeholders, be that university partnerships, 
teacher candidates, or community activists, is an 
important part of educational research (Cochran- 
Smith & Lytle, 2009; Price, 2001). It has been noted 
that action research can be particularly important 
in promoting reflective practice and educational 
change (Price, 2001). However, there is limited 
research involving pre-service teachers or teacher 
candidates using research to inform their own 
individual experiences in field or clinical 
placements (Cochran- Smith & Lytle, 2009; Price, 
2001). What is documented is the critical nature of 
teacher candidates being data literate, 
knowledgeable about research-based practices, 
and able to understand how to use this 
information to guide their instruction (Hoppey, et 
al., 2010). 

Noffke (1995) noted that action research ?carries 
with it the dual potential of helping pre- service. . . 
teachers to seek alternatives to current practice 
and also of helping them reproduce what already 
exists? (p. 7). This is important for two reasons. 
First, if a teacher candidate is placed with a skilled 
mentor who implements the use of 
research-based strategies, the candidate can use 
this action research to help him or her replicate 
what is seen in the field or clinical placement site. 
Second, if the teacher candidate, does not have 
the opportunity to observe a skilled mentor who is 
using research-based practices in their field or 
clinical placement sites, he or she can reflect on 
what is observed through the research and seek 
answers as to why or why not those practices are 
observed, how he or she can prevent that from 



NERREN & HASBUN|  5 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

happening in their own practice, and how those 
practices can be replaced by more effective 
alternatives. Ross and Kyle (1990) agree that it is 
necessary for teacher candidates to engage in 
educational research and to develop the ability to 
use and reflect on conflicting research findings. 
This study is an attempt to further contribute to 
this line of inquiry. 

Met hodology 

This was a qualitative pilot study involving nine 
mentor teachers and fourteen teacher candidates 
serving as participants. Mentor teachers are 
defined in this project as classroom teachers in 
P-12 settings who mentor undergraduate teacher 
candidates seeking educator certification. In this 
case, the mentor teachers were elementary 
teachers working with teacher candidates seeking 
Early Childhood through Grade 6 (EC-6) 
certification in the state of Texas. All mentor 
teachers in the study were female and ranged in 
age from mid-20s to mid- 40s. The mentor 
teachers had an average of 12 years? experience 
and served as mentor teachers to teacher 
candidates enrolled at a local university.

The mentor teachers all served on one elementary 
school campus, located in rural East Texas. The 
elementary school is located in a district that had 
1753 students enrolled (Texas Education Agency, 
2013a) in 2011. The elementary campus housed 
525 students in the 2011-2012 academic year, 
received Recognized status by the Texas Education 
Agency (TEA) in 2011, and served the following 
student populations: 3.2% African American, 5.1% 
Hispanic, 87.6% White, 1.5% American Indian, .4% 
Asian, and 2.1% Two or More Races (TEA, 2012). At 
the time of the study, the campus was listed as 
being 61.5% Economically Disadvantaged (TEA, 
2012). The study was conducted in the 2012-2013 
academic year, making the information noted 
above pertinent and relevant as it reflects the 
demographics of the school at the time. 

The teacher candidates were all enrolled at a 
regional, accredited university, located 40 miles 
from the elementary campus where the study took 

place. The university is located in rural East Texas 
and served 12,702 students in 2011-2012 
academic year (Stephen F. Austin State University, 
2015). The College of Education, the largest college 
on the campus, served over 4,000 students during 
2011-2012 (Stephen F. Austin State University, 
2015). The teacher candidates serving as 
participants were Elementary Education (EC-6) 
majors in the second semester of their junior year. 
All were enrolled in their first field experience 
course, entitled Practicum I. These teacher 
candidates enrolled in Practicum I were assigned 
to the elementary campus involved in the study at 
their registration for Practicum I. They had no prior 
knowledge of the study and participated in the 
study as an assignment for the course. All teacher 
candidate participants were female and were 
traditional college students in their early 20s at the 
time of the study. Practicum I requires teacher 
candidates to observe and engage with the 
mentor teacher and elementary students in their 
classrooms two hours per day, 4 days per week, 
under the guidance of a university professor and 
the mentor teacher. 

At the onset of the project, teacher candidates 
were randomly paired into research dyads. Each 
teacher candidate was tasked with reading a series 
of current literature from research journals on 
best practices in elementary classrooms. The 
researchers on the topics of classroom 
management, lesson planning, reading instruction, 
writing assessment, and classroom environment 
carefully selected the articles. Each topic was 
researched and observed individually for 
approximately two weeks, to allow teacher 
candidates to focus on each topic individually. 
After each teacher candidate read the assigned 
journal articles per topic, they then worked within 
the dyads to discuss the readings and collaborate 
to create observation protocols containing what 
they found to be the critical pieces of information. 
The protocols were constructed entirely by the 
teacher candidates and varied from dyad to dyad, 
based upon their own interpretation of what they 
found to be the most critical elements. The 
teacher candidates then used the protocols in the 



NERREN & HASBUN|  6 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

classrooms to identify the utilization of the 
research-based practices. Each individual teacher 
candidate used their created protocols to observe 
within their assigned classroom for use of the 
practices they included in the protocols on a daily 
basis as they completed their assigned time. Each 
topic was observed for an average of six to eight 
class days. 

At the conclusion of two to three observation 
periods, the teacher candidates were randomly 
divided into two focus groups (n=7) to discuss their 
observations. Each focus group was led through a 
series of semi-structured questions facilitated by a 
principle investigator. Each focus group session 
was held within one class period and lasted 
approximately one hour. The focus group 
questions were created by the investigators and 
addressed the creation of the protocols, the 
selection of the elements included on the 
protocols, the frequency with which the elements 
were observed, and the teacher candidates? 
thoughts about the process. The semi- structured 
questions were designed to gauge the participants 
understanding of the research, the frequency with 
which they observed (or did not observe) the 
research-based practices in the elementary 
classrooms, and their ability to connect the 
research and practice. Each focus group was 
recorded and transcribed. 

Result s 

Focus group data from this pilot study were coded 
and analyzed for themes in the participants? 
responses to the semi-structured questions (see 
Table 1, below, for analysis codes) and produced 
results that indicate a strong positive response by 
the teacher candidates to the use of 
research-based observation protocols as an 
effective means to connect current research to 
practice. While the findings indicated variability in 
the amount of current research-based practices 
being used in the classrooms in which the 
observations took place, the results indicate the 
use of the candidate-created protocols provide a 
useful catalyst for connecting best practices theory 
to actual classroom practice, as well as prompt 

teacher candidate reflection on why or why not 
best practices are employed. See Table 1 for the 
codes and examples that were utilized for 
transcript analysis. 

Table 1 
Codes and Examples for Transcript Analysis

Research Quest ions Answered 

The specific themes that were identified for each 
of the semi-structured research questions were 
applied to the corresponding research questions. 
The pages of transcripts from the focus group 
sessions provided rich detail into the teacher 
candidates perspectives on the effects of the 

 Codes  Exam ples

Mentor teacher models current 

research-based practices.

Classroom size, positive 

relations, consistency, mobility, 

concrete examples

Mentor teacher does NOT 

model current research-based 

practices.

Not utilizing space, attention to 

mobility issues, language

Beliefs on factors contributing 

to low frequency of observed 

practices.

Time-consuming, planning 

issues, scheduling

Beliefs on factors contributing 

to high frequency of observed 

practices.

No examples.

Useful information learned from 

developing the protocol.

What not to do, don?t get 

complacent

Least observed-trends/patterns What mentor teacher doesn?t do

Most observed ? 

trends/patterns.

Repeated, same 

worksheets/monotonous

Elements selected for protocols List; relevant reading topics

Reasons cited for selection of 

elements

Seen as most important; want in 

classroom



NERREN & HASBUN|  7 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

project on their own learning, the extent to which 
mentor teachers were utilizing the best-practices 
that the teacher candidates found to be most 
important from the readings, and the frequency 
with which the practices were observed. 

Research Quest ion 1. What are the effects of this 
project on teacher candidates? ability to connect 
research to classroom practice? The overarching 
findings for this question indicated that teacher 
candidates had an overall positive experience 
utilizing the protocols to observe for best 
practices. Results indicated that this was because 
of the specificity of the practices for which they 
were observing. Focus group questions revealed 
that the process of reading the research 
individually, collaborating with a partner to discuss 
shared ideas about the important elements, and 
then observing for those specifically identified 
elements gave a purpose to their daily classroom 
observations, and heavily influenced the ways in 
which they saw the day-to-day classroom 
operations. The focus group discussions indicated 
that by utilizing observation protocols with 
self-selected items from the research provided the 
candidates the opportunity to seek out best 
practices and to turn their focus away from 
thinking about what they themselves should be 
doing in the classroom, but rather to take full 
advantage of being placed in classrooms where 
they could seek out and observe first-hand best 
practices in action, or when these were not 
observed in action, to think more critically about 
why that might be the case. As one candidate 
stated ?I didn?t know to look for what I didn?t 
know.? 

It was also discovered that utilization of the 
protocols created an awareness of the best 
practices being used, but also shed light on the 
importance of individualizing the practices to meet 
student needs. Additionally, a theme emerged that 
indicated the teacher candidates saw the 
utilization of the best-practices as influenced by 
the differing personalities of the mentor teachers. 
The project indicated that many of the practices 
that the teacher candidates selected for their 

protocols were being used in the mentor 
classrooms. These were most heavily seen in the 
areas of writing instruction, assessment, and 
classroom environment. 

Another important finding related to the effects of 
the project on teacher candidates was the topic 
areas that were most heavily observed during the 
project. Teacher candidates reflected more on 
their observations in the areas of classroom 
environment, assessment, and writing instruction, 
indicating a greater awareness of the practices in 
these areas being used in the classrooms. See 
Table 2 for candidates? observations to address the 
question: What are the effects of this project on 
teacher candidates? ability to connect research to 
classroom practice? 

Table 2  
Candidates? Ability to Connect Research to Classroom 
Practice  

Research-Based 

Pract ices

Observat ion

Classroom 

Management

- Consistency in routine and 

expectations

- Reinforce a positive student teacher 

relationship

- Maintain a healthy balance of 

authority figure and friendship

Lesson Planning - What not to do in the classroom        

- Utilize educational energizers  

- Tailor lesson plans for students

- Give students the opportunity to ask 

questions

Reading 

Protocols

- Importance of peer reading and 

discussion

- Opportunity for different groups: 

guided group, paired students, 

individual reading

- Introduce vocabulary concepts

- Ask many questions for gauging 

comprehension

Writing Protocols - Teach writing throughout the day

- Guided writing

- Provide lots of encouragement

- Provide the chance for students to 

share what they are writing

- Make connections to what is being 

written to the child?s life



NERREN & HASBUN|  8 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

Table 2 (continued)

Research Quest ion 2. To what extent are mentor 
teachers modeling current research-based practices 
as measured by teacher candidate-created 
observation protocols? The focus group sessions 
indicated that the teacher candidates observed 
many of the best practices from the literature. 
Especially important to the teacher candidates was 
the fact that they were able to see these practices 
from the readings in concrete, tangible ways. While 
the results indicated a higher number of 
best-practice observations in some areas than in 
others, as one would expect, it was a positive 
finding to see that some measure of current best 
practices from the literature was being modeled, 
to some extent, in every area identified and 
included on the protocols. Additionally, it was 
interesting to note from the focus group 
discussions, that the candidates felt strongly that 
teacher personality was a key factor in influencing 
the frequency of best practices being utilized, and 
in what ways. This was important to the 
candidates, as it caused them to reflect on their 
own personalities and tendencies when thinking to 
their own future use of strategies once in the role 
of classroom teacher rather than pre-service 
teacher. Again, while all techniques were modeled 
and observed to some extent, research questions 
3 and 4 indicate how the extent of usage was 
distributed. As one might expect, there was 
minimal usage of some techniques, and more 
extensive usage of others. See Table 3 for 
candidates? observations to address the question: 
To what extent are teachers modeling current 

research-based practices as measured by teacher 
candidate-created observation protocol? 

Table 3
Teachers? Modeling of Current Research-based 
Practices  

Research-Based 

Pract ices

Observat ion

Classroom 
Environment

- Possible to make do with what you 
have

- Flexibility is key

- You can never have enough items 

on the wall

- You can never have enough books

- Student teachers more aware of 

what to look for in a classroom

Research-Based 
Pract ices 

 Observat ion  

 Classroom 
Management 

- Consistency in demands Positive 
teacher interaction 

- Healthy balance of nurture and 
control 

 Lesson Planning - Lesson presented in a multisensory 
way 

- Visual aids at every center 
- Introduce new weekly topic with 

anecdote, cartoon, parts of drama, 
or story 

- Movement (physical)  
- Repetition with AR books 
- Different lessons may be presented 

in the same format 

 Reading 
Protocols 

- Exposure to expository text  
- AR books 
- Continually engaged in discussions 

after reading  
- Teacher asks questions for 

comprehension 
- Teacher connects the lesson for real- 

life perspective  
- Multiple opportunities to engage in 

reading 

 Writing 
Protocols 

- Teachers model and prompt 
students then step back  

- Daily journal writing 
- Handwriting practice 
- Assists students in writing 

assignments and provides feedback 
- Teacher scaffolds and guides them 

through their thinking 

 Teacher 
Assessment  

- Journal writing every day 
- Running records of each student 

(notes of progress)  
- Teacher provides descriptive 

feedback 
- Teacher engages students in lesson 

topics and provides constructive 
feedback 



NERREN & HASBUN|  9 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

Table 3 (continued)

Research Quest ion 3. Which areas of 
research-based practices are observed the most? The 
area that was indicated as having the greatest 
amount of best-practice modeling was in the area 
of reading instruction. Teacher candidates cited 
multiple examples of reading practices that were 
exemplified in the research articles. Additionally, 
lesson planning was highly referenced as a 
practice that was on-target with the literature. 
Writing instruction was the third highest in the 
frequency of observed best practices, with 
assessment and classroom environment being 
almost equal in comparison. See Table 5 for 
candidates? observations to address the question:  
Which areas of research-based practices are observed 
the most? 

Table 4 
Research-based Practices Observed the Most  

 Table 4 (continued)

Research Quest ion 4. Which areas of 
research-based practices are observed the least? The 
element that was observed the least in a positive 
correlation to the literature was the area of 
classroom management. The references in the 
transcripts regarding classroom management 
were interesting, in that the teacher candidates 
gleaned much practical information regarding 
classroom management to include on the 
observation protocols but were unable to see the 
best practices fully modeled in the classrooms. See 
Table 6 for candidates? observations to address the 
question: Which areas of research-based practices 
are observed the least? 

 Research-Based Observat ion

Classroom 
Environment 

- Multipurpose functioning spaces 
- Daily routine to promote student 

learning 
- Organized and well-structured 

classroom 
- Print rich environment 

Research-Based 
Pract ices 

 Observat ion  

Classroom 
Management 

- Classroom Management  
- Signal system 
- Did not observe the neglectful 

parenting style 

Lesson Planning - Use of manipulatives  
- Frequent mobility 
- Alternative ways for demonstrating 

mastery of objectives  
- Transitions 
- Tailoring lesson to specific groups of 

learners 

Research-Based 
Pract ices 

 Observat ion  

 Reading Protocols - Teaching instruction then talk 
about content 

- Teacher as facilitator without 
imposing own interpretations 

- Assessing for comprehension 
- Peer reading 

 Writing Protocols - Collaborative writing 
- Students being taught how to 

write 
- Provision of mental, linguistic, and 

physical tools  
- Small group work 
- Sharing activity field trip sources 

 Teacher 
Assessment  

- Formative assessment 
- Equal use of formative and 

summative assessment  
- Involving students in the 

assessment practice  
- Gathering evidence of each child's 

work 

 Classroom 
Environment 

- Greener classroom 
- Class walls didn't always tell a 

story (inside classroom)  
- Color on the walls 
- Organization/tools and materials 

are not labeled 



NERREN & HASBUN|  10 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

Table 5
Research-based Practices Observed the Least  

Discussion  

It is not surprising that teacher candidates found 
the protocols to be helpful. Because the literature 
indicates that inexperienced teacher candidates 
may have difficulty recognizing best practices in 
action, having the protocol could have assisted the 
teacher candidates in recognizing research-based 
practices as they were used (Roehrig et al., 2008). 
Having something concrete for which to observe 
could have been the reason the protocols were 
beneficial to the students. 

Teacher candidates did see all practices observed 
to some extent in their mentor teachers? 
classrooms. This could be due to the fact that the 
campus is consistently rated as an exemplar 
campus. It would stand to reason that the 
exemplary campus would employ teachers that 
are using best practices. It is true that identifying 
research-based strategies in action can be difficult 
for teacher candidates and it is possible that some 
of what teacher candidates in this study observed 
were not best practices. However, the use of the 
protocols and the support provided through 
reflection and discussion could have enabled them 
to more correctly identify the best practices they 
noted (Roehrig, et al., 2008).  

It would seem reasonable that candidates would 
cite observation of best practices more often in 
reading and writing instruction, as these two are 
both components of a strong literacy program. 
Another factor that might have influenced the 
frequency of observations cited for best practices 
in reading and writing instruction is the fact that 
these observations took place in primary grades, 
where literacy instruction is often an area of focus, 
as the key component of successful future learning 
in other content areas. 

It is entirely possible that classroom management 
was observed the least because many aspects of 
facilitating optimal classroom behavior is 
imbedded in within the environment that the 
classroom teacher establishes early in the 
academic year, and, therefore, might have been 
imperceptible to the teacher candidates. 

Research-Based 
Pract ices 

 Observat ion  

Classroom 
Management 

- Classroom Management  
- Signal system 
- Did not observe the neglectful 

parenting style 

Lesson Planning - Use of manipulatives  
- Frequent mobility 
- Alternative ways for 

demonstrating mastery of   
objectives  

- Transitions 
- Tailoring lesson to specific groups 

of learners 

Reading 
Protocols 

- Teaching instruction then talk 
about content 

- Teacher as facilitator without 
imposing own interpretations 

- Assessing for comprehension 
- Peer reading 

Writing 
Protocols 

-  Collaborative writing 
- Students being taught how to 

write 
- Provision of mental, linguistic, 

and physical tools  
- Small group work 
- Sharing activity field trip sources 

Teacher 
Assessment  

- Formative assessment 
- Equal use of formative and 

summative assessment  
- Involving students in the 

assessment practice  
- Gathering evidence of each 

child's work 

Classroom 
Environment 

- Greener classroom 
- Class walls didn't always tell a 

story (inside   classroom)  
- Color on the walls 
- Organization/tools and materials 

are not labeled 



NERREN & HASBUN|  11 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

Additionally, if a classroom teacher is masterful at 
facilitating a classroom environment that 
effectually reduces instances of classroom 
misbehavior, there would be litt le opportunity for 
candidates to observe classroom management 
techniques to address behavioral issues when they 
occur. It is also possible that the students did not 
see strong classroom management techniques but 
it is not known as questions did not specifically ask 
if poor practices were used. 

Lim it at ions of  t he St udy 

This was a pilot study, which took place as a 
semester-long course assignment in a controlled 
environment. Because the study took place at an 
elementary school located 40 miles away from the 
university campus, the teacher-candidates may 
have self-selected into a group of highly motivated 
participants. Although the students had no 
knowledge of the project prior to registering for 
the site, the fact that each of the 14 students 
selected a practicum site located 40 miles from 
campus indicates a high level of motivation. Often, 
teacher candidates who choose this site are 
honors students willing to travel a bit further for 
what they consider to be an optimal field 
experience location. This self-selection may have 
created a group of teacher candidates who were 
particularly committed to utilizing the protocols to 
the fullest extent possible. The same level of 
engagement may not be achieved in another 
group of teacher candidates. Nonetheless, the 
impact on these teacher candidates was evident. 
Additionally, the results on the extent of the usage 
of the techniques at this school cannot be 
generalized to other elementary campuses. This 
particular campus is consistently rated as a TEA 
Exemplary School. At a school with this rating, one 
would expect that many, if not most, of the 
classroom teachers were modeling current best 
practices. 

Conclusions 
This study is significant because it illuminates the 
importance of the ?application of theory model? 

(Zeichner, 2010, p. 90). Many teacher education 
programs spend ample time immersing teacher 
candidates in theory and/or in research-based 
practices in the lecture classroom, but it is equally 
important that teacher candidates are given 
adequate time to observe those theories in action 
(Zeichner, 2010). Given that it can be difficult for 
pre-service teachers or teacher candidates to 
identify research-based practices in action, this 
study also suggests the importance of using 
research-based protocols with teacher candidates 
as they observe mentor teachers in the field, 
particularly when coupled with reflective 
discussions as a means of support (Roehrig, et al., 
2008). Based on the results of this study, teacher 
candidates seemed to be more able to connect 
research to practice through the use of this 
combination. This finding could be of particular 
value to other teacher education programs. 

Additionally, outcomes from this study suggest 
that teacher candidates observed more 
research-based practices in reading and writing 
but fewer in classroom management. Given the 
importance of a positive classroom environment 
that is conducive to learning, a future 
consideration would be to have teacher 
candidates create research-based observation 
protocols and, at some point in their clinical 
practice or field experiences, have the opportunity 
to observe mentor teachers, focusing solely on 
classroom environment and classroom 
management practices.  

Finally, this study served as a method to support 
teacher candidates in thinking critically about 
current literature in order to determine essential 
information, and, in turn, to question what takes 
place in classrooms that contradicts research (Ross 
& Kyle, 1990). It also provided an opportunity for 
teacher candidates to engage in discussions as to 
what actions to take when one is bound by certain 
directives or practices that contradict the research 
(Ross & Kyle, 1990). This is important as many 
novice teachers may ?wash out? and discontinue 
use of effective, research-based practices when 
overwhelmed, when faced with colleagues who 



NERREN & HASBUN|  12 COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS

use less effective practices or leaders who do not 
support the research-based practices, and when a 
focus is placed on standardized testing outcomes 
at the expense of research-based best practices.  
  

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