Singleton (2021) Final


Educational Renaissance Vol. 10 (2021)

Cradle-t o-Pr ison Pipeline: Im pact  on Black , Hispanic, 
and Indigenous St udent s

Everet t  Singlet on, PhD. School of Education, Northwest Missouri State University

     email: esingleton@nwmissouri.edu

Essay

Youth who experience academic failure are at a 
greater risk for involvement in delinquency. 
Studies have revealed a myriad of both structural 
and societal factors for such failure, impacting 
youth of color, those living in poverty, and those 
whose primary language is not English (Mitchell & 
Leachman, 2014). Structural issues include 
institutions, polices, and practices that govern and 
control our society. Within the realm of education 
such policies include Get Tough and ?Zero-
Tolerance? Polices that contribute to a 
phenomenon known as the Cradle-to-Prison-
Pipeline (CTPP), which creates systematic barriers 
for youth of color in schools and pushes them 
towards the juvenile justice system (Milner et al., 
2018). 

The CTPP is one of the most pressing issues facing 
our schools and, by extension our society, today 
(Tuzzolo & Hewitt, 2006). In fact, it has been 

described as one of the greatest threats to civil 
rights issues of our time (Samel et al., 2011).  I can 
personally attest to this, having served as a 
counselor, teacher and principal in the juvenile 
correctional system for eighteen years. Indeed, for 
the vast majority of the youth I worked with the 
path from early childhood to incarceration was 
disturbingly straightforward. It also robbed them 
of opportunities to obtain employment and be 
productive members of society. Their stories and 
lived experiences left an indelible mark on me 
both personally and professionally, and made me 
even more aware of the urgent need to address 
structural racism within the educational arena. As 
Dr. King famously wrote in 1963 after being 
arrested during a non-violent protest, ?I am here 
because injustice is here? (King, 1994).   

In his Letter From a Birmingham Jail, Dr. King also 
noted that, ?injustices anywhere is a threat to 

Abst ract  

Youth who experience academic failure are at a greater risk for involvement in delinquency. While 
studies have revealed a myriad of factors for such failure, the perceptions of these youth regarding 
their educational experiences have proven to be one of the most valuable resources regarding the 
systematic barriers to academic achievement. The purpose of this essay is to examine how youth of 
color are overwhelming affected by a phenomenon known as Cradle-to-Prison Pipeline. Several school 
districts in the U. S. employ harsh discipline practices that inevitably push students out of classrooms, 
on the streets, and in the juvenile justice system at an astounding rate. Students of color experience 
higher rates of suspensions, expulsion, truancy, retention, and academic failure in schools. Harsh 
discipline polices, along with bias and discrimination have a direct or indirect impact on their 
academic journey, including feeling of inferiority due to their academic shortcomings. 

mailto:esingleton@nwmissouri.edu


SINGLETON| CRADLE-TO-PRISON PIPELINE

justice everywhere." We are caught in an 
inescapable network of mutuality tied in a single 
garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly 
affects all indirectly? (King, 1994, p. 2-3).  These 
powerful words written over fifty years ago still 
speak truth to systemic injustices inflicted on the 
overwhelmingly disproportionate number of 
young Black men who become victims of the 
Cradle-to-Prison Pipeline.   Any serious attempt to 
dismantle the CTTP must include an examination 
of best practices around strategies, research, 
equality, and equity initiatives for marginalized 
youth.

Understanding the educational experiences of 
youth of color can yield valuable information 
regarding the complexities of the Pipeline.  For 
example, issues such as disengagement, 
suspensions, expulsion, truancy, academic failure, 
substance abuse, systemic inequities, school 
violence, poverty and parental neglect are all 
significant contributors and predictors of dropout 
and delinquency. Furthermore, youth?s personal 
challenges, including feelings of inferiority, also 
have a direct and/or indirect impact on their 
academic journey, including an increased 
likelihood that this journey will end in, or be 
disrupted by, incarceration (Henry et al., 2012). 

Background

Currently, approximately 48,000 youth, ages 13 to 
18, are confined in correctional facilit ies in the 
United States, which exposes them to greater risk 
of assault and other abusive treatment (Prison 
Policy Initiative, 2019). ?At a cost of approximately 
$90,000 per juvenile in a facility per year, this is 
both a massive waste of taxpayer funds and an 
unconscionable waste of the potential of 
thousands of young people? (Carter, 2018, p. 373).  
Additionally, an Office of Juvenile Justice and 
Delinquency Prevention (2020) report showed that 
43,580 youth had been remanded to residential 
facilit ies during 2017, inevitably at a cost to states 
(Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 
Prevention (OJJDP), 2020). Perhaps most 
concerning is the overrepresentation of Black, 
Latino, and  Indigenous male youth housed in 

detention facilit ies and the clear link between 
these groups and academic failure.  It is estimated 
that more than half of adolescent male youth 
attending urban high schools fail to obtain a 
diploma (Lynch, 2017). Of the dropouts, nearly 60 
percent will go to prison at some point via a 
phenomenon known as the 
?School-to-Prison-Pipeline,? which funnels 
?students out of school and into the streets and 
the juvenile correction system,? depriving them ?of 
meaningful opportunities for education, future 
employment, and participation in our democracy? 
(Tyner, 2014, p.1). 

Historical Influences Pipeline

This disturbing trend follows the historical 
treatment of African American youth in the U.S., 
namely a racial caste system of institutional 
slavery, the Jim Crow era, the convict lease system, 
and racial profiling (Alexander, 2010). During 
colonial times, juvenile offenders were subject to 
the same punishments as adults, and they usually 
lived in inhumane conditions (Bartollas & Miller, 
2001). Youth of color were disproportionately 
affected by this, as slavery was the law of the land, 
rendering Black people the property of White 
slaveholders and thus ineligible for basic rights 
afforded to ?human beings? (Bell, 2017), including 
due process. Although legislation in 1804 brought 
an end to slavery in the North, the institution 
would persist in the South until the Civil War and 
eventually evolve into the system of Jim Crow (Bell, 
2017). As noted in Michelle Alexander?s book, The 
New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of 
Colorblindness, after losing the War and the 
institution of slavery upon which their economic 
system was based, Southern Whites needed to 
create ?a new racial order? (Alexander, 2010, p. 28) 
of control. In the 1890s, the southern states 
enacted notorious ?Black Codes? (p. 28), or 
vagrancy laws designed to establish a new system 
of forced labor (Alexander, 2010). These laws 
affected youths and adults alike, and though in 
the mid-1800s penalties for juveniles decreased 
and the government established separate facilit ies 
to house delinquent youth, youth of color were 

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still denied equal access to the services their 
White counterparts were afforded.  

Disproportionate Representation

During a single year, an estimated 744,451 
thousand youth under the age of 18 are arrested 
in the United States, with delinquency cases 
reaching juvenile courts each year (Sickmond et 
al., 2020). Equally alarming is the vastly 
disproportionate numbers of children who are 
poor and members of racial and ethnic minority 
groups who populate the delinquency system.  
The data show that disparities are particularly 
pronounced among youth of color, who have a 
greater likelihood of being incarcerated than their 
White counterparts (Sawyer, 2019). The 
disproportionate numbers of African American 
youth in the justice system, moreover, reflect the 
harsh reality that society imposes unequal and 
discriminatory treatment upon poor children of 
color (Sawyer, 2019).  

Pathway to Delinquency

By the time most juveniles enter the justice 
system, they have already displayed a downward 
trend in most areas of their life (Rider-Hankins, 
1992). They likely began to express delinquent 
behavior at an early age and are defiant, hostile, 
resentful, and frustrated. Much of this is 
exacerbated by ?structural, systemic, institutional 
and societal challenges and barriers that produce 
inequity, inequality, racism and various other 
forms of discrimination? (Milner et al., 2018, p. 33). 
Since the 1970s, the number of suspensions 
involving Black high school students have grown 
to eleven times that of Whites, and currently Black 
students are almost four times more likely than 
their White counterparts to be suspended. Those 
students who receive suspensions during their 
freshman year of high school are twice as likely to 
drop out of high school altogether. Furthermore, 
there is strong evidence that young men who 
experience discipline in K-12 schools through 
suspension and expulsions are at greater risk for 
ending up incarcerated later in life, and in fact 
nearly 68 percent of all adult men in federal 

prison have never earned a high school diploma 
(Lynch, 2017). 

What we need to understand is that most youth 
entering the system have been traumatized both 
physically and emotionally. Delinquents have 
frequently expressed feeling that they are victims 
of society (Rider-Hankins, 1992), most notably in 
our schools.  

Our Black males do not enter a domain that 
represents their community. The textbooks 
that are used, the authors that are esteemed, 
the art on the walls, and the ideas that are 
embraced are those that emanate from a 
system that sustains itself by requiring the 
participation of Black males as ?workers,? 
members of the ?underclass,? and ?prisoners". 
(Woods, 2018, p. 5). 

Studies have demonstrated that the incarceration 
rate in the United States is one of the highest in 
the world, with a strong correlation to racial 
discrimination experienced by African American 
youth in schools (Walmsley, 2015) that hinders 
their ability to establish healthy social bonds and 
impedes their opportunities to pursue educational 
dreams, goals, and aspirations (Unnever & 
Gibbidon, 2011). Research shows that a Black 
male growing up in the United States faces a 
one-in-three chance of entering the prison system 
during his lifetime, a Latino male has a one-in-six 
chance, and a White male has a one-in-seventeen 
chance. It is important to note that racially 
disproportionate distributions also play out 
among females, with Black females having had a 
one-in-seventeen chance of going to prison in her 
lifetime, a Latina female has a one-in-forty-five 
chances (The Sentencing Project, 2017).  

Approaches and St rat egies for  Dism ant l ing t he 
Pipeline

Classroom management has tremendous 
influence on student success, an influence 
considerably greater than social standing, drive 
and determination, or student intellect (Weinstein 
et al., 2004). Effective classroom management 
remains one of the most challenging tasks facing 

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educators in schools (Rose & Gallup, 2002) and is 
directly connected to learning and academics. The 
goal of effective classroom management is to 
decrease negative disruptive behaviors and 
increase time spent on academic engagement. 
Teachers possessing effective skills in classroom 
management are able to provide a safe space 
conducive to teaching and learning. Furthermore, 
effective classroom management can be used to 
prevent unnecessary disciplinary referrals that 
lead to suspension or expulsion, and protect 
academic learning time (Milner, 2013). 

Research shows, ?the disproportionate office 
referrals of students of color, those with learning 
differences, and those who live below the poverty 
line" (Girvan et al., 2017; Skiba et al., 2011, p. 11). 
Thus, culturally responsive classroom 
management (CRCM) practices are essential for 
teaching in today?s diverse schools and 
classrooms. CRCM requires educators to recognize 
one?s own culture and prejudices; acknowledge 
the cultural backgrounds of students; and 
understand the broader social, economic, and 
political context that encompass the lives of 
students.  Culturally responsive educators must 
have the skills, readiness, and commitment to 
employ culturally relevant strategies to foster and 
sustain caring classroom environments (Weinstein 
et al., 2004).

Cult urally Responsive Managem ent  
Approaches

Research based in CRCM protocols that could be 
used to address discipline problems include 
fostering positive relationships, culturally 
responsive classroom management, and family 
communication: 

- Fostering caring relationships with students 
is an important element in the teaching and 
learning process. Research shows the 
relationships that teachers and 
stakeholders forge with students can bridge 
disconnections and nurture academic and 
social achievement, which is vital to 
classroom success (Noguera, 2003). 

Weinstein et al. (2004) noted that a 
student?s perception of care for their 
well-being was significant in determining if 
they chose to cooperate or resist teacher 
expectations. It is important for students to 
know that teachers genuinely care about 
them through action (Bondy et al., 2012). 
Students are more academically 
empowered, and more likely to behave in 
more pro-social ways, when teachers invest 
in them (Weinstein et al., 2004).

- CRCM practices, which encompass 
culturally relevant pedagogy 
(Ladson-Billings, 1995) and culturally 
responsive teaching (Gay, 2000), help 
teachers cultivate the awareness, ability, 
and the appropriate attitude to address 
issues with students from a variety of 
backgrounds. At some point all teachers will 
deal with conflicts in the classroom, despite 
the best protocols put in place to handle 
them. ?Culturally responsive classroom 
managers reflect on the kinds of behaviors 
they judge to be problematic? (Irvine, 1990, 
p. 274). 

- Communicating and working with family 
members is essential to addressing issues 
and changes in students? behaviors. 
Teachers should provide a safe, supportive, 
and caring space for family members to 
come and discuss issues. The goal is to 
actively listen to their advice and concerns, 
foster relationship-building and resolution 
(Whitbourne, 2012), and use the ?funds of 
knowledge,? expertise, and experiences of 
family members to inform current and 
future management practices (Moll, et al., 
1992). Additionally, teachers can use the 
cultural experiences of students and 
families to filter perceptions based on 
different cultural views. This does not 
necessarily mean changing every practice 
to satisfy the parent and child, but rather 
seeking to understand how the role of 
family culture, context, and interactions 
play in classroom behavior management. 

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SINGLETON| CRADLE-TO-PRISON PIPELINE

?When the teacher is culturally aware, the 
conflict between systems is minimized, and 
there is formulation of strategies to work 
around differences? (LaRocque, et al., 2011, 
p. 120). 

Long-Term  Recom m endat ions

Practicum and observation phases are valuable 
aspects of the preparation of teacher candidates 
and preservice teachers; thus, they should be 
restructured to ensure that candidates are aware 
of disparities that place some students at risk for 
incarceration. It is important to address the 
disproportionate rates at which students, 
particularly males, of color experience the 
School-to-Prison Pipeline and other systemic 
issues present in K?12 settings. Undoubtably, the 
academic and social conditions of Black boys can 
get better if the majority of their time is spent 
inside the classroom rather than outside 
classroom spaces (Howard, 2014; Wright & Ford 
2016), for example, due to suspensions and 
expulsions. It is essential therefore that White K ? 
12 educators evaluate and change their 
disciplinary measures. This shift will not only 
dramatically decrease the dehumanization of 
Black boys but create opportunities for teacher 
candidates to observe fair and restorative 
practices being used to address student behavior 
in the classroom. The potential here is to produce 
teachers who come to value Black males and set 
examples for White students who might otherwise 
spend years of watching White teachers mistreat 
Black males in classrooms (Bryan, 2017).

Recom m endat ions

A national study is needed to assess the 
effectiveness and rigor of educational programs in 
juvenile correctional settings and determine how 
these programs can be improved. Most programs 
in juvenile settings have been designed to provide 
minimal services to youth. Educators within these 
settings are bound by outdated pedagogy, limited 
technology, poorly trained teachers, and a 
transient student population. This is compounded 

by administrative issues such as the transfer of 
previous school records and multiple school 
placements. A large percentage of incarcerated 
youths have been diagnosed with some type of 
mental health issue that requires other specialized 
services; and, if they are to successfully transition 
back into their respective communities, 
correctional facilit ies must look beyond preventing 
recidivism and toward preparing them for 
employment and other aspects of daily life. It 
should be noted that one positive aspect of many 
of these programs is mandatory attendance and 
participation, which eliminates the truancy issue 
and presents a real opportunity to effect change.

Also necessary is the identification of 
interventions that improve juveniles? educational, 
employment, and recidivism outcomes in less 
restrictive settings such as alternative and 
traditional schools. Evidence shows that 
incarceration in and of itself may hinder 
educational achievement and increase the 
likelihood of recidivism, as opposed to placements 
in less restrictive settings (Aizer & Doyle, 2013). A 
current positive trend shows a decline in the 
number of juveniles incarcerated in correctional 
facilit ies in the United States; in fact, between 
1997 and 2011 the number of youths 
apprehended, redirected, or committed in this 
country dropped from 105,000 to 61,000. While it 
must be acknowledged that incarceration is often 
necessary for violent and serious crimes, one can 
make the argument that juvenile correctional 
facilit ies should be reserved for the most 
dangerous youthful offenders.

Perhaps more importantly a determination must 
be made with regard to effective methods, 
strategies, and decision-making around 
race-based disparities in the juvenile justice 
system. While crimes being committed by youth 
appear to be similar regardless of race, social 
class, and environment, it appears that youth of 
color have higher rates of incarceration than their 
White counterparts. Data revealed that in 2010 
youth of color comprised of 17 percent of 
juveniles committed to facilit ies, but accounted for 

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only 31 percent of total arrests (Puzzanchera & 
Hockenberry, 2013).  There has been litt le to no 
change in this rate from previous decades; 
however, the data with regard to ethnic disparities 
appears to be limited (Puzzanchera & 
Hockenberry, 2013). We do know that their issues 
usually begin in school, with higher rates of 
truancy, suspensions and expulsion far exceeding 
those of White youth. Examining these disparities 
could reveal more concise information regarding 
the racial and ethnic makeup in the juvenile 
correctional populations. 

Conclusion

The information presented in this paper affirms 
the need to address structural issues that create 
barriers for marginalized students of color in 
schools across this country. Chief among these 
issues is the disproportionate targeting of Black, 
Latino, and  Indigenous youth for subjective 
behavioral infractions and the imposition of 
extreme disciplinary measures. Indeed, an 
overreliance on suspension and expulsion in 
response to normal classroom behaviors feeds 
the perception of youth of color as criminals, thus 
perpetuating the Cradle-to-Prison Pipeline 
responsible for increased incarceration rates 
among these populations. A key component in 
reducing these rates is gaining a deeper 
understanding of the various insidious complex 
and often interlocking aspects of this Pipeline and 
tackling them in culturally responsive and 
empowering ways. 

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