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31 

IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON WOMEN    

AND CHILDREN 
 

Prof. Ikechukwu Anthony, KANU (OSA) 
Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies 

Tansian University, Umunya 
Anambra State 

ikee_mario@yahoo.com 
& 

Mike Boni, BAZZA, Ph.D 
Department of History and International Relations 

Veritas University Abuja (The Catholic University of Nigeria) 
danbazza68@gmail.com 

& 
Immaculata Olu, OMOJOLA, (SSMA), Ph.D 

Department of Business Administration and Management 
Villanova Polytechnic 

Imesi Ile 
Osun State 

omojolassma@yahoo.co.uk 
 
Abstract 
This paper provides a thematic discourse on the impact of migration on 
women and children. The study aims to contribute to deepening the 
understanding of migration as a gendered phenomenon and its impact on 
women and children and human rights in general. Women comprise 
slightly less than half of the international migrant population. While 
women and men decide to migrate for similar reasons, gender-specific 
social and cultural norms also play decisive roles in the migration process 
and therefore, affect the experience of migrant women and children. 
Furthermore, the paper juxtaposes that a greater understanding of 
migration as a gendered phenomenon can enable States to better protect 
migrant women and children from gender based discrimination, abuse 
and violations at all stages of migration, and fulfill their human rights. 
The study focuses on the impact of migration on women and children, 
especially girls, given that they are uniquely and disproportionately 
affected by gender-based discrimination, abuse and violence. The paper 



420 Formation of the Human Person in the 21st Century 

concludes by submitting that migrant women, who comprise half of the 
total migrant population in the world, provide important social and 
economic contributions to their countries of origin and destination. For 
many women and children, migration provides opportunities for their 
economic and social development. Indeed, migration experiences can 
contribute to the empowerment of women and children by increasing 
their self-confidence, autonomy and control over their lives. Finally, the 
paper notes, their exposure to different gender norms may contribute to 
the achievement of gender equality in their societies of origin. 
 
Keywords: Migration, Women, Children, Human Rights, Gender 
norms, Socio- Cultural norms 
 
Introduction 
The number of migrant women is said to have doubled between 1960 
and 2015. In 2017, women comprised slightly less than half, or 48 per 
cent, of the international migrant population. Interestingly, they 
outnumbered men in all regions except Africa and Asia.1 Data indicate 
that the rate of female migration is growing faster than male migration in 
many receiving countries  

While migration has moved up in the international policy 
agenda, its wide-ranging implications for children have received little 
attention. Children are affected by migration when they are left behind 
by one or both migrating parents, migrating with parents (or born 
abroad), or migrating alone.2 The impact of migration on children and 
adolescents must be seen in the broader context of poverty and conflict, 
and within the perspectives of vulnerability and resilience, gender 
relations and children’s rights. 

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) protects 
every child, regardless of nationality or immigration status. States have 
obligations to respect the provisions of the Convention in their policies 
and actions toward each and every child within their jurisdiction. These 
provisions include the right to citizenship, physical integrity, health and 
education as well as the right to be free from discrimination, exploitation, 
and abuse. The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights 
of All Migrant Workers reaffirms these rights set forth in the CRC.3  

Policies should protect children’s rights by enhancing access to 
the potential benefits created by migration, while also providing 
protection for those who are vulnerable to its negative consequences. 
Effective migration policies need to be accompanied by additional 
investments in health, education and social protection to address the 
risks faced by children and adolescents who are migrating or left behind.4 

 



Section III: Religious/Socio-Cultural Perspectives And Human Formation    421 

Definitions of Terms  
Children: According to international standards, children are defined as 
“individuals below the age of 18” (CRC, Article1). However, it is 
important to note that only some of the documents included in this 
paper provide information disaggregated to specify the 0-18 age group.5 
In most of the research examined children are defined by the age group 
0-15, and youth by the age group 16-24.6   
 
Migration: The United Nations defines a migrant as “any person who 
changes his or her country of usual residence”.7 Identifying who is a 
migrant can be difficult due to the dynamic nature of migration, which 
in turn implies defining and assessing temporal and spatial criteria. 
Migration can be permanent, if a person never return to his or her place 
of origin, or long term if a person moves to a country other than that of 
his or her usual residence for a period of at least a year, so that the 
country of destination effectively becomes his or her new country of 
usual residence. 

A short-term migrant is defined as a person moving to a 
country other than that of his or her usual residence for a period of at 
least 3 months but less than a year (12 months), and often is the status of 
a person who moves from one region to another in accordance to the 
seasons. However, if a person moves to a new country for purposes of 
recreation, holiday, visits to friends and relatives, business, medical 
treatment, or religious pilgrimages, he or she is not considered a 
migrant.8 In terms of space patterns, migration can imply the movement 
from one country to another (international migration), or movement 
within a country (internal migration, particularly between rural and 
urban areas), or movement transnationally if migrants “forge and sustain 
multi-stranded relations that link together their societies of origin and 
settlement”.9  
 
The Conventions on: 
The Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: 
Under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of 
Discrimination against Women, discrimination against women is 
prohibited and States are obliged to eliminate discrimination against 
women. There are 189 States parties to the Convention, which includes 
obligations to suppress trafficking in women (art. 6); grant women equal 
rights with men to acquire, change or retain nationality (art. 9); eliminate 
discrimination against women in the field of employment (art. 11); 
eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health care and 
ensure access to health-care services, including those related to family 
planning and maternal care (art. 12); and accord to men and women the 



422 Formation of the Human Person in the 21st Century 

same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons 
and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile (art. 15 (4).10  
 
The Rights of the Child: The principle of non-discrimination is 
codified in article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In 
joint general comment No. 3 (2017) of the Committee on the protection 
of the rights of all migrant workers and members of their families and 
No. 22 (2017) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the 
general principles regarding the human rights of children in the context 
of international migration, both Committees gave their interpretation of 
the application of the non-discrimination principle in the context of 
international migration. The non-discrimination principle in the 
Convention on the Rights of the Child stipulates that States parties 
should respect and ensure the rights set forth in the Convention for all 
children, whether they are considered, inter alia, migrants in regular or 
irregular situations, asylum seekers, refugees, stateless or victims of 
trafficking, including in situations of return or deportation to their 
country of origin, irrespective of their or their parents’ or legal guardians’ 
nationality, migration status or statelessness.11 
 
Migration Channels and Specific Challenges while Migrating 
Until recently, women were thought to migrate primarily to join a 
partner or for family reunification. Today, an increasing number of 
women are moving on their own,12 notably to find work, which is 
leading to a so-called feminization of migration. While the way in which 
women are migrating is changing, more women are also likely to be the 
lead migrant, that is, the first member of the family to migrate. Highly 
skilled women are more likely to migrate on their own than low-skilled 
women.13Some women, however, still face difficulties in leaving their 
countries because of prohibitive, gender-specific discriminatory laws or 
restrictive social norms. Those measures can push them to migrate 
through irregular channels14 which is more common when coupled with 
institutional failures to address the obstacles, as well as insufficient 
information on the migration process and a low level of education. It 
should be noted here that a network of migrant women in their 
countries of origin, or previous experience of women’s migration, can 
help to stimulate migration. Social networks, as a set of interpersonal ties 
that connect migrants, former migrants and non-migrants in origin, 
transit and destination countries through kinship, friendship or a shared 
community of origin, can prompt rural women to migrate across 
borders. 

In countries of destination, regardless of their migratory status, 
migrant women encounter multiple and intersecting forms of 



Section III: Religious/Socio-Cultural Perspectives And Human Formation    423 

discrimination, not only as women and as migrants, but also on other 
grounds, including age, race and ethnicity, nationality, religion, marital 
and family status, sexual orientation and gender identity. As a result, they 
are at risk of abuse and exploitation. It is well documented that migrant 
women in general struggle in many countries to have their credentials 
recognized, which leads to “deskilling” as a result of being 
underemployed.15  
 
Migration and Socio-Cultural Gender Norms 
The migration of women may amend the social and gender norms both 
for migrants themselves and for their home communities. It may 
influence their home communities to adopt more equitable norms with 
regard to education, reproductive rights, marriage and the organization of 
families and communities.16The migration of women has the potential to 
contribute to a reformulation of gender roles and cultural norms, and 
may improve women’s autonomy, self-esteem and social standing.17 For 
example, in one study, South Asian migrant women reportedly used 
their increased decision‐making power to direct their remittances to 
health care and education for their families.18 
 
Migration and Economic Empowerment of Women 
In his opening remarks at the Intergovernmental Conference to Adopt 
the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration, the 
Secretary-General emphasized how important migration was for the 
functioning of economies, as migrants performed vital roles, such as in 
health care and care for elderly persons.19 Migration can fill critical gaps 
in labour markets in countries of destination, with a positive impact on 
employment, production and the country’s gross domestic product. It is 
important to note that the migration of women also leaves gaps in their 
countries of origin. In 2011, the World Bank pointed out that physicians 
and nurses were the professionals that migrated most often than other 
classes of professionals.20It is therefore not surprising that according to 
one study; sub-Saharan countries are experiencing a shortage of 600,000 
nurses. It was found in another study that from 1999 to 2001, 60 per cent 
of registered nurses left tertiary hospitals in Malawi, likely to migrate. As 
a result, 64 per cent of nursing positions (heavily dominated by women) 
remain unfilled, with medical centres operating with no nurses or with 
employees who have as little as 10 weeks of medical training.21  
 
The Impact of Migration on: 
Children in general: In order to formulate policy recommendations 
that enhance children’s welfare, there is a need for reliable data that allow 
the assessment of positive and negative effects of migration. UNICEF, in 



424 Formation of the Human Person in the 21st Century 

collaboration with UNDP and the Special Unit for South-South 
Cooperation (SU-SSC), has initiated policy research and operational 
work in six countries (Ecuador, Albania, Moldova, Philippines, Mexico, 
Morocco) on the impact of migration on women and children left 
behind. Some preliminary results from country-level studies and a 
review of current literature highlight the magnitude of the impact of 
migration on families.  

According to a report by (Save the Children, 2006), around 1 
million Sri Lankan children are left behind by their mothers, who 
migrate in search of work. In the Philippines, it is estimated that between 
8.8 and 9 million children, or around 27% of all minors in the country, 
live separated from one or both parents. In Moldova, a study estimated 
that 31% of children aged 0-14 have been left behind by one parent and 
5.4% by both parents.22  In 2002, 13% of Mexican and almost 22% of 
Salvadoran immigrants living in the U.S had children left behind in their 
home countries.23  
 
Children Left Behind: The social cost of migration can be very high, 
particularly due to the lack of parental care. Children left behind 
inevitably grow up in single-headed families (if only one parent is 
migrating), or with grandparents and other relatives (if both of the 
parents are migrating), filling the vacuum left by migrant parents. 
Negative effects can be exacerbated if long term migration of one of the 
parents may lead to permanent disruption of family unity. Absence of 
men can create material and psychological insecurity, leading mothers 
(or children when both the parents are migrating) to pressures and 
negotiations with wider family members. Migrants may start having 
“dual families” relationships: one in the country of origin and one in the 
country of destination; this phenomenon may actually reduce the 
amount of remittances sent home.24 However it is important to stress the 
fact that children left behind are not orphans and most of them do keep 
some sort of contact with their migrant parents. 

The impact of the absence of one of the parents on children can 
be mediated by an extended family safety net, which is an effective 
response to economic and social crises, particularly in sub-Saharan 
Africa. For this reason, children in left-behind households do not appear 
to suffer greater social or economic problems than their peers in non-
remittance-receiving households, with the exception of younger 
children.25 However, care by the extended family, or community or 
institutional care, often does not provide as much protection from abuse 
and exploitation as parental care.   
 



Section III: Religious/Socio-Cultural Perspectives And Human Formation    425 

Children’s Health: The effects of migration on child health are 
contested and complex. Whereas on the one hand, migration itself poses 
significant hazards to children and their health, movement to a 
destination country also can increase access to health care. Moving to 
countries or regions with better health services will have a positive 
impact on children. Migrant children moving from a rural area to the 
urban area are more likely to survive due to a greater number of hospitals 
and doctors, improved infrastructure including potable water, flush 
toilets, and refrigeration, and better health information (prompting 
cleaner food preparation and storage and improved hygiene practices). 

Health benefits of migration, due to access to better health 
services and information, are sharply contrasted with the inherent health 
risks to moving in the first place. According to Whitehead and Hashim, 
child health is often directly associated with the type of work child 
migrants find, whether it be abusive work, sex work, hazardous work in 
the informal economy, or physically beyond the child’s capacities.26 The 
working conditions, if illegal (i.e. prostitution) may also prevent child 
access to health care if there is a fear of raid, discovery, or deportation. 

Finally migrant may face serious difficulties in accessing health 
services if based on a registered residence system. In China, for example, 
migrants may face a lack of adequate health care for a variety of reasons: 
caretaker lack of knowledge, both in terms of prevention and access to 
care; passive attention to disease; poor economic situations. These factors 
lead to higher child mortality rates among migrants.27  
 
Education and Economic Activity of Migrant Children 
Migration may also have a negative impact on education attainment of 
children. Children of migrant workers and children migrating alone face 
serious exclusion from education due to social and cultural isolation, 
strenuous and hazardous work, extreme poverty, poor health conditions 
and language barriers. Children may leave the household of origin with 
the objective of performing economic activities that may keep them out 
of school. Comparing education achievement between migrants and 
non-migrant children in a given country may be misleading in assessing 
the impact of migration on migrant children. In order to measure how 
and whether the decision to migrate has increased school attainment, it 
will be necessary to compare levels with children of the same age group 
in the country of origin, and not the population of children in the 
country of destination.28 

Children who migrate may end up in being involved in 
economic activities as a specific decision (work migration) or as a result 
of the conditions, need and opportunities in destination countries. 
Regardless of the extensive literature on child work, disproportionately 



426 Formation of the Human Person in the 21st Century 

focused on children who work in the worst form of child labour (i.e. 
trafficked jobs, prostitution), there is a lack of quantitative research 
looking specifically at economic activity patterns of migrant children. 
Child migrant workers have a variety of experiences due to a complex set 
of factors, and often one child will have a mixture of positive and 
negative experiences.29 Negative effects may include exploitation, poor 
working conditions, physical, verbal, or sexual abuse from employers and 
foregone access to school. 
 
Psycho-Social: Migration may have psycho-social impacts on children 
due to the experience moving from the country of origin to the country 
of destination, and also due to exclusion and marginalization in countries 
of destination. Leaving their communities, migrant children lose contact 
with their family and friends, as well as lose customs and traditions. At 
the same time, coming into a new community, they may be required to 
become accustomed to new language, culture and lifestyle.30 Even if 
children may adapt to new contexts more quickly than adults, this may 
generate conflict with parent or other members of same migrant group. 
As in the cases of health and education, the psycho-social impact of 
migration varied greatly depending on specific characteristics of the 
migrant group and its receiving country, as well as other methodological 
factors such as variance in data collection.  
 
Children in Host Countries: Children of migrants face challenges in 
adapting to host societies. They stand a greater risk of dropping out of 
school, teenage pregnancy and juvenile crime; they get exposed to 
incomplete citizenship rights and therefore, may have difficult access to 
social services which may also lead to the danger of social exclusion. 
 
Ensure Respect for the Rights of Migrant Women and Children 
In order to ensure the rights of migrant women and children, the 
following steps should be aggressively taken:  
 
(a)  Promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and 

children in efforts to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable 
Development;  

 
(b)  Ensure that the implementation, review and follow-up of the 

Global Compact for Migration is human rights-based, gender-
responsive and child-sensitive;  

 



Section III: Religious/Socio-Cultural Perspectives And Human Formation    427 

(c)  Formulate human rights-based, gender-responsive and child-
sensitive policies to govern migration that promote gender equality 
and non-discrimination;  

 
(d)  Increase avenues for regular migration, where migrants, including 

women and children, can make informed choices and have access to 
legal protection, services and social networks in countries of origin, 
transit and destination;  

 
(e)  Revise national laws and regulations governing migration to make 

them more gender-responsive by including provisions on anti-
discrimination, equality between men and women, mandatory 
health insurance for migrant workers at all levels and special 
protection for vulnerable categories of workers, including domestic 
workers;  

 
(f)  Take measures to ensure that family reunion policies are applicable 

to women migrant workers at all levels, including domestic 
workers, in order to enable their spouses and children to join them 
in their country of destination;  

 
(g)  Involve migrant women and relevant civil society organizations in 

the formulation, implementation and review of policies and 
regulations governing migration to ensure that the specific needs of 
migrant women and children are addressed;  

 
(h)  Provide pre-departure orientation training specific to migrant 

women, which should include information on their human rights, 
potential methods of exploitation and available complaint 
mechanisms; and make financial literacy programmes available to 
migrant women to enable them to better manage their earnings;  

 
(i)  Ensure the provision of basic services as enshrined in international 

human rights law, so that citizens do not have to rely on remittances 
to compensate for the absence of affordable, accessible, publicly 
funded services and social protection;  

 
(j)  Ensure the provision of human rights-based, gender-responsive and 

child-sensitive reintegration programmes for migrants who return 
to their countries of origin, and more specifically, ensure that 
economic, sociocultural and psychosocial support is provided to 
returnee migrants and communities in their countries of origin 
prior, during and after their return;  



428 Formation of the Human Person in the 21st Century 

(k)  Provide gender-sensitive human rights training to immigration 
officials, border police, social workers, health-care providers, 
educators, judicial officers and media workers to raise their 
awareness of the human rights of migrant women and children;  

 
(l)  Take all measures necessary to prevent, investigate, prosecute and 

sanction human rights violations and abuse against migrant women 
and children, whether perpetrated by public officials or private 
individuals;  

 
(m) Guarantee adequate recognition of foreign qualifications and skills to 

ensure that migrant women do not become underemployed or 
“deskilled”, and to ensure that their professional experience and 
skills are fully recognized;  

 
(n)  Lift sex-specific bans and discriminatory restrictions on the 

migration of women, whether they are based on age, pregnancy or 
marital or maternity status, and particularly restrictions that require 
women or children to obtain permission from male family 
members in order to travel;  

 
(o)  Strengthen State oversight and monitoring of private recruitment 

agencies and brokers to ensure that overseas employment 
programmes and work permits are administered in a manner that 
respects gender equality and the rights of migrant women;  

 
(p)  Ensure that migrant women have equal access to legal remedies and 

complaint mechanisms, and provide legal, vocational, medical and 
psychological assistance to victims of trafficking, particularly female 
victims;  

 
(q)  Ensure that migrant women and children have access to education, 

social protection, health care, including reproductive health care, 
and other basic services;  

 
(r)  Establish firewalls between public service providers and 

immigration authorities to allow access to justice for migrant 
women and girls without fear of being reported, detained or 
deported;  

 
(s)  Invest in and support the capacity of national agencies to collect and 

use sex- and age-disaggregated data on migrants regardless of their 



Section III: Religious/Socio-Cultural Perspectives And Human Formation    429 

migratory status, and support research initiatives to better 
understand the impact of migration on women and children;  

 
(t)  Conduct awareness-raising campaigns to better uphold the dignity 

of migrant women and children, and to highlight their social and 
economic contributions to society;  

 
(u)  Include the protection of the rights of migrant women and children 

on the agenda of intergovernmental dialogues on migration-related 
issues at the global, regional and bilateral levels. 

 
Conclusions and Recommendations 
Migrant women, who comprise half of the total migrant population in 
the world, provide important social and economic contributions to their 
countries of origin and destination. For many women and children, 
migration provides opportunities for their economic and social 
development. Migration experiences can contribute to the empowerment 
of women and girls by increasing their self-confidence, autonomy and 
control over their lives. Their exposure to different gender norms may 
contribute to the achievement of gender equality in their societies of 
origin. However, circumstances such as discriminatory social and 
cultural norms and policies have contributed to the specific 
vulnerabilities of migrant women and children. Many are 
disproportionately affected by gender-based discrimination, abuse and 
violations of their rights during migration. A limited understanding of 
the realities faced by migrant women and children affects the ability of 
States to formulate and implement gender-responsive migration laws, 
policies and programmes, and ensure that women and children can enjoy 
their human rights throughout their migration journey. 

We conclude this discourse on the impacts of migration on women 
and children with the following recommendations: 
1. Children and adolescents must matter in migration policies and 

debates. Children and adolescents affected by migration are 
particularly vulnerable and should receive special protection.  

2. To increase the visibility of children in policy agendas, more research 
and comparable global data on how children are affected by 
migration are needed. ƒ 

3. Policy and programme interventions should aim at maximizing the 
benefits of remittances and limiting the negative effects of migration 
on children and families left behind.  

4. Governments, international organizations, and civil society 
stakeholders must collaborate (a) to advocate for the rights of 
children and women affected by migration, (b) to monitor and 



430 Formation of the Human Person in the 21st Century 

gather information on the well-being of children in migrant 
communities and (c) to promote awareness in sending migrants to 
host societies so that the risks of discrimination and social exclusion 
are reduced. 

 
 
Endnotes  
____________________ 
 
1. International Migration Report 2017 (Highlights), United Nations publication, 

Sales No. E.18.XIII.4) 
2. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) 
3. International Migration Policy Programme, Meeting the Challenges of Migration: 

Progress since the ICPD (2004), p. 13. 
4. The impact of migration on migrant women and girls: a gender perspective: 

Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants 

(A/HRC/41/38) (EN/AR/RU) 
5. The lack of disaggregated data specifying 0-18 as an age group includes 

international statistics that should follow the definition in the Convention on the 

Rights of the Child. 
6. Ibid. 
7. In the 1976 recommendation, a migrant was defined as person who has entered 

a country with the intention of remaining for more than one year and who either 

must never have been in that country continuously for more than one year or, 

having been in the country at least once continuously for more than one year, 

must have been away continuously for more than one year since the last stay of 

more than one involved (United Nations, 1998) 
8. Ibid. 
9. www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/speeches/2018-12-10/remarks-

intergovernmental-conferenceadopt-the-global-compact-for-migration 
10. Nicola Piper, ed., New Perspectives on Gender and Migration: Livelihood, Rights 

and Entitlements, Oxon: Routledge, 2007, pp. 1–2.  
11. See also Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 6 (2005) on 

the treatment of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of 

origin, paragraph 12. 
12. Alyson L., Dimmit Gnam, “Mexico’s missed opportunities to protect irregular 

women trans migrants: applying a gender lens to migration law reform” in Pacific 

Rim Law & Policy Journal, vol. 22, No. 3 (2013), pp. 713–749.  
13. O’Neil, Fleury and Foresti, “Women on the move”, p. 9.  
14. Bandita Sijapati, “Women’s labour migration from Asia and the Pacific: 

opportunities and challenges”, IOM Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and 

Migration Policy Institute, 2015, p. 8. 
15. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Global 

Education Monitoring Report Team, “The intersections between education, 

migration and displacement are not gender-neutral”, document 

ED/GEM/MRT/2019/WP1, p. 4.) 



Section III: Religious/Socio-Cultural Perspectives And Human Formation    431 

16. O’Neil, Fleury and Foresti, “Women on the move”, p. 5. 
17. Rita Afsar, “Contextualizing gender and migration in South Asia: critical insights” 

in Gender, Technology and Development, vol. 15, No. 3 (2011), pp. 389–410. 
18. www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/speeches/2018-12-10/remarks-

intergovernmental-conferenceadopt-the-global-compact-for-migration 
19. Camilla Spadavecchia, “Migration of women from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe”, 

p. 108.  
20. Ibid. 
21. UNICEF Moldova / SU-SSC, 2006)  
22. Cortina & de la Garza, 2004) 
23. Nyiri and Saveliev 2002 
24. In the available policy literature on development, the term “children left behind” 

is sometime also used to refer to children orphans due to HIV/AIDS. 
25. Whitehead and Hashim (2005) 
26. Beijing Health Bureau’s (2007). 
27.  The effect of a lack of parental care on children has been addressed in detail in a 

series of recent studies looking at the conditions of the large number of children 

orphans due to HIV/AIDS, and some of the policy concerns and interventions are 

similar to the ones developed for of abandoned children or orphans. 
28. Ibid. 
29. Ibid. 
30. Camilla Spadavecchia, “Migration of women from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe”, 

p. 108.  

 


