

























22    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

 

 

 

C H A P T E R  2  

 

 

 

Philosophy and  
Priestly Formation 

 

Isaac Ehaleoye Ukpokolo 

 
 

 

Ought not a Minister to have, First a good 

understanding, a clear apprehension, a sound 

judgment, and a capacity of reasoning with some 

closeness…. Is not some acquaintance with what has 

been termed the second part of logic, (metaphysics), if 

not so necessary as [logic itself], yet highly 

expedient? Should not a minister be acquainted with 

at least the general grounds of natural philosophy?  

John Wesley, Address to the Clergy1 

 

Introduction 

I consider it simply appropriate to bring into a discourse titled 

‘formation, the Catholic priesthood and the modern age’, some candid 
reflections on the place of philosophy in priestly formation, 

particularly as attempts have been made in some quarters to represent 

certain aversion to reason when matters of faith come up. This is 

known to manifest not only in popular arguments and street 

conversations but even among pastors, preachers and teachers at Bible 

schools and Christian communities as noted above by John Wesley. 

From manifest experience, to embrace faith without reason would 

either produce a fundamentalist mindset or a fanatical disposition, 

while of course, reason without faith would either lead to agnosticism 

or atheism.  After all, an act of faith is an intelligent act.2  And in 

Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC 155) we are admonished that 



Philosophy and Priestly Formation         23 

“in faith, the human intellect and will cooperate with divine grace: 
believing is an act of the intellect assenting to the divine truth by 

command of the will moved by God through grace.  And, I take it to 

be a privilege to be invited to do an essay in this regard, particularly 

in honour of a renowned philosopher, teacher and preacher of our 

time.  For me, that an essay on philosophy and priesthood is relevant 

in contemporary times, stands evident in the light of a number of 

encounters I have personally had.  I would mention just two of many 

occasions. First, many years ago, I was introduced by a Professor of 

Medicine at the University College Hospital (U.C.H) Ibadan to a 

woman who was introduced to me as the wife of the founder of “Faith 
Clinic,” a worship centre at Ibadan city. Hearing that I am a 
philosopher she exclaimed: “So, you don’t believe in God?” Yet, I 
could not readily relate my identity as a philosopher with atheism. I 

took the time to explain to her and allay her fears. Well, I hope I 

succeeded. The second instance occurred in Israel, while on a 

pilgrimage to the Holy Land, leading a group of Catholic Charismatic 

Renewal members, where I was serving as National President of the 

Group and Co-ordinator of Anglophone West Africa. The Tour Guide 

could not hide his astonishment when I disclosed to him that I am a 

teacher of philosophy, not only in a university but also in a Catholic 

Major Seminary in Nigeria. His question was, “How do you manage 
the marriage between philosophy and Catholic Charismatic 

spirituality?” My response was simple, “Philosophy and Catholic 
Charismatic spirituality are faithful spouses in me; complimenting 

and mutually assisting”. “Philosophy endowed me with reasoning 
capacity, leading me to the reasonableness of faith”. Catholic 
Charismatic spirituality, on the other hand, intervenes in my 

encounter with reality, with truths, and the good when reason 

becomes impotent and unable to lead me on. For instance, we say 

seeing is believing, but I dare to say, it is not.  We must believe that a 

thing is possible before we should believe it even though we saw it 

(John 20:29)3.  And so, in this essay, I attempt to highlight the place 

of philosophy in priestly formation.  For the avoidance of doubt, it is 

not possible to establish in one essay of less than five thousand 

(5,000) words, all that philosophy has to do in priestly formation.  I 

would just attempt to identify specific areas in philosophy, and how 

these areas stand relevant to the training of priest for the church.  

Thus, I do not intend to go into the history of the relationship between 



24    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

philosophy and priestly formation, or how and when it started, I 

would rather attempt some highlight in the relationship.   

I begin with the question of methodology, wherein critical 

thinking and sceptical attitude are brought in as philosophical ideals.  

I then go further to represent certain epistemic modes required for 

dealing with the surrounding reality.  Next is an attempt to establish 

the need for a given metaphysics at every point in our daily 

experience.  The essay goes further to examine some ethical stances 

in relating with others. Finally, I present in a nutshell, that philosophy 

in its appeal to reason, does not deny the application of faith in our 

daily experiences, and vice versa.  All these, stand necessary not only 

as points of direction for pastoral ministries outside the Catholic 

Church but even in the Catholic Church that is usually seen as the 

church wherein the ideal church subsist.  

 

Priestly Formation Project 

The entire training of students (at priestly formation) 

should be oriented to the formation of true shepherds 

of souls after the model of our Lord Jesus Christ, 

teacher, priest and shepherd.  They are therefore to be 

prepared for the ministry of the word: that they might 

understand ever more perfectly the revealed word of 

God; that, meditating on it they might possess it more 

firmly, and that they might express it in words and in 

example; for the ministry of worship and of 

sanctification: that through their prayers and their 

carrying out of the sacred liturgical celebrations they 

might perfect the work of salvation through the 

Eucharistic sacrifice and the sacraments; for the 

ministry of the parish: that they might know how to 

make Christ present to men, Him who did not “come 
to be served but to serve and to give His life as a 

ransom for many” (Mark 10:45;cf. John 13:12-17), 

and that, having become the servants of all, they might 

win over all the more (cf. 1 Cor. 9:19). Therefore, all 

the forms of training, spiritual, intellectual, 

disciplinary, are to be ordered with concerted effort 

towards this pastoral end.4 



Philosophy and Priestly Formation         25 

Perhaps, a rather succinct statement of the above representation of the 

project of priestly formation is that, the entire training is meant to 

produce men of proven integrity, strength of character and wisdom of 

the ancients as espoused in the scripture as well as in the teaching 

authority of the church dedicated to the service of God and his people.   

It is however very pertinent to note that such candidates are taken 

from among men – from specific human contexts, which inevitably 

influenced them; and to these same contexts, the priests are sent for 

the service of the people.5  Yet, the life and ministry of these men 

must adapt to every era and circumstance of life.6  Such is the ground, 

as well as the goal of priestly education - to bring forth the ‘seed’ of 
God in the person.  The term ‘education’ to be sure, derives from the 

Latin word educare or educo ere, which means ‘to bring out’.  And 
so, to educate a person is to bring forth a reality that lies latent in the 

being.  Thus understood, the idea of education invokes a certain kind 

of Platonic innatism assisted through effective instruction and 

learning to be brought forth to manifest in words, thoughts and 

actions.  It could be added here, that, the term education derives from 

the same root as ‘exodus’ implying a sort of liberation. 
The foregoing conception of education as a process is brought to bear 

on the candidate for priesthood in the Seminary.   

As generally understood, the word ‘seminary’ derives from 
the Latin semine  which means ‘seed’.  The seminary is thus the 
ground – the nursery – wherein the seeds are sown:   the seminarians 

as it were are seeds, nurtured and carefully bred through watering, 

pruning, fertilizing, weeding and even grafting until they bloom with 

the best of values both in Faith and Reason.  

 

The Place Of Philosophy  

According to Bertrand Russell, the conceptions of life, and the world, 

we call “philosophical” are a product of two factors: one, inherited 
religious and ethical conception; the other, the sort of investigation 

which may be called “scientific”.7 Individual philosophers have 

differed widely in regard to the proportions in which these two factors 

entered into their systems, but it is the presence of both, to some 

degree, that characterizes philosophy.8  The point here is that faith 

and reason are not necessarily mutually exclusive as it is believed in 

certain quarters of human culture. Philosophy is something 

overlapping between theology and science.9 Like theology, it consists 



26    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has, so far, 

been unascertainable: but like science, it appeals to human reason 

rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of 

revelation.10 Thus understood, definite knowledge belongs to science, 

while all dogmas as to what surpasses definite knowledge belong to 

theology.  Yet, interpenetrating the spaces of science and theology is 

philosophy.   

For the purpose of clarity, philosophy by its etymology is the 

love of wisdom.  But this is not the same thing as love of knowledge, 

in the sense in which an inquisitive man may be said to love 

knowledge; “vulgar curiosity does not make a philosopher.” And so, 
properly defined, philosophy is the love of the ‘vision of truth’.  And 
here lies the meeting point of faith and reason.  

In the light of reason, philosophy employs the aid of critical 

thinking, endowing the human person with the power of disciplined 

thought life, an important fruit of college education. Critical thinking 

fosters high-order active, intelligent evaluation of ideas and 

information. More precisely, it is the general term given to a wide 

range of cognitive skills and intellectual disposition needed to 

effectively identify, analyse and evaluate beliefs and truth claims; to 

discover and overcome personal preconception and biases; to 

formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusion, 

and to make reasonable, intelligent decision about what to believe and 

what to do.11  Put somewhat differently, “critical thinking is governed 
by certain intellectual standards such as; clarity, precision, accuracy, 

relevance, consistency, logical correctness, completeness and 

fairness.”12 All these, present philosophy as an activity – a critical, 

rational reflection on already existing beliefs employing the tools of 

logic, language and rigour.  By these we get easily acquainted with 

ideas as Friedrich von Schelling would say:  

 

the fear of speculation, the ostensible rush from the 

theoretical to the practical, brings about the same 

shallowness in action that it does in knowledge.  It is 

by studying a strictly theoretical philosophy that we 

become most immediately acquainted with Ideas, and 

only Ideas provide action with energy and ethical 

significance.13 

 



Philosophy and Priestly Formation         27 

From the above, those ideas that provide human actions with energy 

and ethical significance are arrived at through theoretical 

philosophising employing the tools of critical thinking.  

In addition to critical thinking as a mindset, is the closely 

related disposition of scepticism.  This is perhaps one of the reasons 

why it is assumed that philosophy or reason is averse to faith.  

However, it is important to stress here that, the sceptical attitude 

referred to here is not the reckless rejection of Absolute Deity by the 

atheist, neither is it the methodic doubt of Rene Descartes, who 

derives the existence of the Absolute Deity from the ego rather than 

the ego from the existence of the Absolute Deity. This scepticism of 

philosophical prescription is not the scepticism of David Hume who 

in attempt to take empiricism to its logical conclusion rejected the 

essence of causality, the practice of induction and the projection that 

the future could resemble the past, thereby creating a problematic at 

the very foundation of scientific knowledge.  Of course, it is not the 

scepticism of the Sophist indicating some reckless current of 

relativism and its related tyranny. The scepticism here referred to in 

philosophical prescription is the scepticism of George Santayana. His 

words:  

 

Scepticism is an exercise, not a life; it is a discipline 

fit to purify the mind of prejudice and render it all the 

more apt, when the time comes, to believe and to act 

wisely; and meantime the pure sceptic need take no 

offence at the multiplicity of images that crowd upon 

him, if he is scrupulous not to trust them and to assert 

nothing at their prompting.  Scepticism is the chastity 

of the intellect, and it is shameful to surrender it too 

soon or to the first comer: there is nobility in 

preserving it coolly and proudly through a long youth, 

until at last, in the ripeness of instinct and discretion, 

it can be safely exchanged for fidelity and happiness.14  

 

From the above, philosophy prepares a mind to engage its reality – 

material, social, spiritual-, with care and caution, fairness and 

modesty, firmness and rigour, and yet, a readiness to consider what is 

before it.  In other words, the mind encounters the environment with a 

certain epistemic mode characterized by respect for ‘the other’.  What 



28    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

this means is that philosophy equips the candidate undergoing 

priestly training and formation with certain methodological skills, 

cognitive mode, metaphysical grounding and moral attitude. This is 

the contribution of philosophy to the wholistic development and 

formation of the priest.  

Having highlighted the nature of the methodological skills 

(critical thinking and sceptical attitude) in the preceding paragraphs, 

it is now time to examine the cognitive or epistemic mode onto which 

the candidate is introduced.  Here the question is that of 

‘epistemology’, or ‘theory of knowledge’. And, the history of 
epistemology reconstructed as a judicial hearing would be deciding 

one singular question: How is reliable knowledge possible? And by 

extension, how are we to differentiate knowledge (episteme) from 

mere opinion (doxa) as we are more rationally right to depend on 

knowledge rather than opinion. The one who possesses the 

knowledge, possesses knowledge of something, that is to say, of 

something that exists, as what does not exist is nothing.15 To be sure, 

knowledge or ‘episteme’ is always true and is infallible, as it is 

logically impossible for it to be mistaken. However, opinion or ‘doxa’ 
can be mistaken.  Opinion cannot be of what is not, for that is 

impossible; nor of what is, for then it would be knowledge.16  If this 

is so, an opinion must be of what both is and is not. But how is this 

possible?  Bertrand Russell responds: 

 

particular things always partake of opposite 

characters: what is beautiful is also, in some respects, 

ugly; what is just is, in some respects, unjust; and so 

on.  All particular sensible objects, so Plato contends, 

have this contradictory characters, they are thus 

intermediate between being and not-being, and are 

suitable as objects of opinion, but not of knowledge.  

“But those who see the absolute and eternal and 
immutable may be said to know, and not to have 

opinion only. Thus we arrive at the conclusion that 

opinion is of the world presented to the senses, 

whereas knowledge is of super-sensible eternal world; 

for instance, opinion is concerned with particular 

beautiful things, but knowledge is concerned with 

beauty in itself.17  



Philosophy and Priestly Formation         29 

To this extent, philosophy arms the human mind with the capacity to 

transcend particular, sensible, transient, context-dependent objects 

and phenomena to locate the pure, eternal immutable reality.  In the 

light of this epistemic mode, the mind is able to engage the vision of 

truth which is the task of philosophy.   

The foregoing present a strong link between epistemology 

and metaphysics or ontology which has to do with the nature of 

reality in itself or the study of being.  Ontology, for instance, has been 

characterized as the study of the most general kinds that exist in the 

universe.  Usually, the emphasis has been on demarcation: which 

candidate for existence really does exist. Aristotle and Plato disagreed 

in their answers, and philosophers have gone on disagreeing ever 

since. Think of W. V.  O. Quine’s Ontological aphorism, “to be is to 
be the value of a variable.”18 Ontology in itself is an aspect of 

metaphysics, that branch of philosophy that inquires into the general 

fundamental normative principles of reality, and how this can be 

distinguished from appearance.  The conception of the reality we 

have is very functional in the way we relate with the world and our 

environment in general. It is my belief that every position held and 

maintained rests on a given metaphysics be it personal, social, 

political, intellectual, moral or relational, all must rest on some 

metaphysics, although one may not know this. Thus, it is very 

important to have epistemic consciousness of one’s guiding 
metaphysics.19  In examining the nature of reality, we do not aim at a 

detailed knowledge of particular things, such as the special sciences 

might give, but rather at an outline conception of reality within which 

all knowledge of particular things must fall, and by which such 

knowledge must be judged.  There are certain general conceptions 

which make up at once the framework of knowledge at the 

framework of existence.  Such are the categories of being and cause, 

change and identity, space and time: and our knowledge of particular 

things would depend on the conception we form of these basic 

categories.  On its part, epistemology has shown them to be principles 

of thought while metaphysics on its part inquires into their real 

significance. Metaphysics as an area of discourse consist in a study of 

the ontological meaning of the categories, either in themselves or in 

their specification, thereby marking off its field of concern from that 

of the special sciences.20   



30    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

Part of the reality encountered by our minds is human.  And 

so, philosophy projects that branch of discourse that aids the human 

person to relate with other human persons.  This is the area of ethics 

or moral philosophy concerned with bringing to the fore, those 

general fundamental normative, immutable principles of behaviour, 

distinguishing right from wrong, just from unjust, good from evil as 

we relate with one another. Of course, it has been argued in some 

quarters, that the moral life did not begin by laying down general 

principles or conduct, but by forming codes of concrete duties.  

Duties to parents, children, neighbours, and nations.  These were the 

concrete forms in which the moral nature first manifested itself, and 

in which also is still finds its chief expression. In this respect, it is 

argued, the moral life is analogous to the mental life, which does not 

begin with abstract speculative principles, or with theories of 

knowledge, but with specific acts of knowing.  In both alike, the 

knowledge of principles was second and not first; and in both alike 

principles were implicit from the beginning.21  And so, it is suggested 

here that, these implicit nature or principles from the beginning 

makes the search for some overarching ground totalizing framework 

of reference for moral actions not only necessary but innate in us.  

And such is the object of focus of the human mind to which a 

seminarian is exposed. These are normative, axiomatic and 

fundamental assumptions, precepts, theories and procedures of right 

action.   

Three of the leading moral ideas are: the good, duty, and 

virtue.  Each of these is essential in a system which is to express the 

complete moral consciousness of a people.  Where there is no good to 

be reached by action, there can be no rational duty, and without the 

notion of duty, the idea of virtue vanishes.  Furthermore, where there 

is no sense of duty, but only a calculation of consequences, we would 

have merely a system of prudence.  This may be good enough in a 

way but lacks moral quality. Such conduct may be natural and 

allowed but it is not virtuous. For in such conduct, we miss the 

reference to a moral agent.  It is a matter of wit and shrewdness only 

and is not a manifestation of virtuous character.22 These later attitudes 

and dispositions the seminarians are trained to approach with 

leprosorial disdain. 

 

 



Philosophy and Priestly Formation         31 

Faith And Science  

The life of the Catholic Christian and indeed, the life of a priest in the 

Catholic Church is a life of faith. It is a form of life in which the 

individual agent understands himself first as a contingent being 

whose existence and those of other beings (human and non-human) 

proceeds from the Being of the Supreme God who originates and 

sustains the entirety of reality. Since the Priest more specifically 

receives a vocation to propagate this faith in the providence of God 

who sustains all things in the universe; one who aspires to be a priest, 

therefore, must as a matter of necessity be an exemplar of faith in 

God.  

Yet, the man of faith also lives in a contemporary world that 

is also driven by the advancements of science. By science, reference 

is made here to the totality of knowledge which comes to us through 

the deployment of ratio – reason. Here, a distinction is therefore 

made between matters of faith and science. Given the differing 

methods of faith and science (reason) the debate about the 

compatibility (if any) of the both has continued even unto 

contemporary times. We are better off when we conceive of faith and 

science has being endowments given to the human person by God. 

Hence, there can never be any real discrepancy between faith and 

reason.  Since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith 

has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind, God cannot 

deny himself, nor can truth ever contradict truth.  In this connection, 

Pope (St.) John Paul II in the opening of his encyclical letter, Fides et 

Ratio stated that “faith and reason are like two wings on which the 
human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth.”23  Reason here is not 

restricted only to the activities of the natural sciences; it rather 

includes the logical ratiocinations that are typically characteristic of 

philosophical inquiries into ultimate reality. 

Insight from the Catechism of the Catholic Church is apt in 

this regard: 

 

Methodical research in all branches of knowledge 

provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner 

and does not override moral laws, can never conflict 

with the faith, because the things of the world and the 

things of faith are derived from the same God.  The 

humble and preserving investigator of the secrets of 



32    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

nature is being led, as it were, by the hand of God in 

spite of himself, for it is God, the conserver of all 

things, who made them what they are.24  

 

The Seminarian, therefore, is not formed only to perform parochial 

duties without the use of reason. I dare to say here that the entirety of 

the mission of a priest is short-circuited if his activities are not 

moderated by the use of reason which itself is God’s own gift. The 
onus is therefore on formators to underscore this important aspect of 

a holistic formation of priests which combines faith in God with the 

rational faculties which the same God has bequeathed to humanity. 

The one in formation too must gradually develop an understanding of 

the complementarity of the gifts of faith and reason and the 

importance of both gifts for the nurturing of a divine vocation. 

 

Concluding Remarks  

It would be rather odd to end this reflection without pointing out some 

practical signposts by which philosophy is identified in the training of 

priests.  First of such is that the activity of philosophising aids us in 

the task of apologetics25 – the task of giving a reasoned defence of 

Christian theism in the light of objections raised against it and offering 

positive evidence on its behalf (1 Pet. 3:15).   This has to do with 

making a reasoned articulation of the faith and be ready to disarm any 

attacks mounted against it.  Second, philosophy also is meant to aid us 

in the task of polemics. Whereas apologetics involves the defence of 

Christian faith, polemics is the task of criticizing and refuting 

alternative views of the world.26  Third, philosophy is very central to 

an expression of the image of God in us.  This image refers to God as 

a rational Being.27  Fourth, philosophy in priestly training curriculum 

permeates systematic theology and serves as its hand made in several 

ways.  It helps to add clarity to the concepts of systematic theology.28  

A fifth consideration is that the discipline of philosophy facilitates the 

spiritual discipline of study.  Study is itself a spiritual discipline, and 

the very act of study can change the self.29  Anyone who undergoes the 

discipline of study lives through certain types of experiences where 

certain skills are developed through habitual study: framing an issue, 

solving problems, learning how to weigh a piece of evidence and 

eliminate irrelevant factors, cultivate the ability to see important 

distinctions instead of blurring them, and so on. The discipline of 



Philosophy and Priestly Formation         33 

philosophy also aids in the development of certain virtues and values. 

Sixth, philosophy can enhance the boldness and self-image of the 

Christian community in general.30  Finally, discipline is most essential 

for the task of integration - to blend or form into a whole. In this sense, 

integration occurs when one’s belief, primarily rooted in scripture, are 
blended and unified with propositions judged as rational from other 

sources into a coherent intellectually adequate Christian world 

views.31   

I have in this essay attempted to show that the various 

elements of critical thinking, which itself generates a positive form of 

scepticism, and the need to understand the importance of ontology in 

the grounding of reality, are all crucial to the development of a culture 

of philosophising which in itself is always at the service of the 

Christian gospel and its ministers. The necessary connection between 

ethics and human relation was also briefly drawn in view of the nature 

of the ministry of Priests to which seminarians aspire to embrace. I 

have insisted here on the complementarity of faith and reason in the 

human quest for truth and meaning. These various elements highlight 

the importance of philosophical reasoning to priestly formation. 

Indeed, these various elements are means to a wholistic formation of 

priests. 

I like to restate that priestly formation is always a continuum 

which does not cease at ordination to the priesthood but continues 

through a lifetime. Just like the Church that is always being reformed, 

the Priest too continues to be reformed by applying himself to the 

demands of faith and reason as the times demand. The result of such 

continuous reformation is always a Christian community whose roots 

grow deeper in the soil while bearing a variety of good fruits for the 

wellbeing of God’s creation. 
 

 

Endnotes 
                                                           
1 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, Philosophical Foundation for a    

Christian Worldview (Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 11 
2 Anthony A. Akinwale ‘On the Relationship between Faith and Reason’, in 
Academia.edu. Ibadan 
3 Oswald Chambers Making all Things New (Hants: Oswald Chambers 

Publications Association & Marshall Moegan and Scott) pp.   



34    Formation, The Catholic Priesthood and The Modern Age 

                                                                                                                                  
4 Pope Paul VI ‘Decree on Priestly Training - Optatam Totius’ Proclaimed by 

His Holiness, (1965), No.4 
5 Pastores Dabo Vobis ‘Pastoral Exhortation of John Paul II’ No. 5 
6 Pastores Dabo Vobis ‘Pastoral Exhortation of John Paul II’ No. 5 
7 Bertrand Resells A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & 

Schuster, 1945), 10 
8 Bertrand Resells A History of Western Philosophy“  10 
9 Bertrand Resells A History of Western Philosophy“  10 
10 Bertrand Resells A History of Western Philosophy“ 10 
11 Gregory Bassham, William Irwin, Henry Nardone, James M. Wallace  

Critical Thinking A Student’s Introduction (New York: McGraw Hill 

Companies, 2013), 1 
12 Richard Paul, Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a 

Rapidly Changing World (Rohnert Park, CA: Centre for Critical Thinking and 

Moral Critique, 1990), 51-52 
13 Friedrich W. J. von Schelling, Werke, ed. Manfred Schroter (Munich: Beck, 

1958 -59), 3:299 
14 George Santayana Scepticism and Animal Faith Introduction to a System of 

Philosophy (New York: Dover Publication, 1955), 69-70 
15 Bertrand Resells A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & 

Schuster, 1945), 10 
16 Bertrand Resell “A History of Western Philosophy“ 11 
17 Bertrand Russell “A History of Western Philosophy“  11 
18 Ian Hacking, Historical Ontology (London: Harvard University Press,  

    2002), 1-2 
19 Borden Parker Bowne, Metaphysics (New York: American Book Co., 1910),1 
20 Borden Parker Bowne, Metaphysics (New York: American Book Co., 1910),2 
21 Borden Parker Bowne, Metaphysics (New York: American Book Co., 1910),2 
22 Borden Parker Bowne, Principles of Ethics (New York: American Book Co., 

1892), 1-2 
23 John Paul II, Fides et Ratio: On the Relationship between Faith and Reason, 

(1998), no. 1  
24 Catechism of the Catholic Church , no. 159 
25 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, Philosophical Foundation for a 

Christian Worldview (Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 14 
26 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, “Philosophical Foundation for a 

Christian Worldview (Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 14 
27 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, “Philosophical Foundation” 14 
28 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, “Philosophical Foundation” 14-15 
29 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, “Philosophical Foundation” 15 
30 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, “Philosophical Foundation” 15 
31 Moreland J.  P. and William Lane Craig, Philosophical Foundation for a 

Christian Worldview (Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 15 


