"Munch transcended the artistic conventions of his time and began to formulate ideas that would lay the groundwork for Expressionism in art." D R I P S , SCRATCHES, A N D STROKES The New Language of Expressionism from Edvard Munch to Willem de Kooning S V E T L A N A T U R O V A W H E T H E R O N O D D L Y - S H A P E D P I L L O W S , S H R I E K I N G D O L L S , O R B A S I C C O F F E E M U G S , T H E E M A C I A T E D P R O T A G O N I S T W I T H G A P I N G M O U T H A N D T H E S W I R L I N G L A N D S C A P E O F E D V A R D M U N C H ' S THE SCREAM I S O N E O F T O D A Y ' S M O S T W I D E S P R E A D I M A G E S . T H O U G H M U N C H D I E D J U S T A S A B S T R A C T E X P R E S S I O N I S M W A S B E I N G B O R N , H I S E M P H A S I S O N T H E H I G H L Y P E R S O N A L A N D T H E U N C O N S C I O U S T H R O U G H A B S T R A C ­ T I O N , B R U S H W O R K , A N D I N T E N S E L Y E V O C A T I V E C O L O R S L I N K H I M C L O S E L Y T O T H I S I M P O R T A N T A M E R I C A N A R T M O V E M E N T . T H R O U G H T H E S P E C I F I C C O M P A R I S O N O F T H E OEUVRE O F M U N C H A N D T H E A B S T R A C T E X P R E S S I O N I S T W I L L E M D E K O O N I N G , T H I S E S S A Y W I L L E X A M I N E H O W A N D W H Y T H E N O R W E G I A N PA I N T E R B E C A M E K N O W N A S T H E " F A T H E R O F E X P R E S S I O N I S M " I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F A R T . THE SCREAM IS N O T C E N T R A L T O T H I S D I S C U S S I O N , B U T I N S T E A D W I L L B E L O O K E D A T I N C O N J U N C T I O N W I T H O T H E R E A R L Y P A I N T I N G S A N D P R I N T S , S U C H A S THE SICK CHILD A N D THE KISS. T H E S E W O R K S A N D O T H E R S R E V E A L M U N C H ' S A R T I S T I C P H I L O S O P H Y A N D T E C H N I Q U E A N D A L L O W U S T O D R A W B R O A D E R C O N N E C T I O N S T O F U T U R E M O V E M E N T S , N E O - D A D A I S M A N D E X P R E S S I O N I S M A M O N G T H E M . Norway, 1893: one of the most repeated, exploited, and rec- ognized images in the history of Western art is born. 1 The Scream (figure 1) by Edvard Munch (1863-1944)11 is famil- iar and identifiable today, yet, when first exhibited the painting shocked most audiences, spurring harsh criticism from art critics and viewers alike. Munch had clearly defied traditional views of painting. More than half a century later across the Atlantic, Dutch-born Abstract Expressionist Willem de Kooning proclaimed, "Every so often a painter has to destroy painting. Cezanne did it and then Picasso did it again with Cubism. Then Pollock did it—he busted given to the following works by Munch: The Sick Child (1885-6), The Scream (1893), and The Kiss (1898). I n the process, surprising connections to the works of Arshile Gorky and Jackson Pollock wi l l be discussed. Munch transcended the artistic conventions of his time and began to formulate ideas that would lay the groundwork for Expressionism in art. Norwegian painters of the late nine- teenth century gravitated toward Naturalism, Realism, and Impressionism, drawing inspiration from the external world and relying on observation in their creation of art. v "Every so often a painter has to destroy painting. Cezanne did it and then Picasso did it again ... Then Pollock did it—he busted our idea of a picture all to hell. Then there could be new pictures again." our idea of a picture all to hell. Then there could be new pictures again." 1 1 1 After a closer look at the Scandinavian master's oeuvre, it is not only tempting but highly appropri- ate to squeeze Munch between Cezanne and Picasso in this list of "destroyers." De Kooning's word choice above is provocative, indeed; while "destruction" implies violence and annihilation in most contexts, de Kooning applies i t to art, designating it a harbinger of renaissance, a sort of tabula rasa for the artist, a chance to redefine the artistic vo- cabulary and revolutionize painting. Edvard Munch's "proto-expressionist formal vocabulary" i v—his exploitation of line, color, and form to convey subjectivity—and his enlistment of the uncon- scious in the artistic process foreshadowed major twentieth-century artistic movements, such as Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism. This essay wi l l relate Munch's work method, technique, and themes to those of de Kooning in order to examine Munch's broader relationship to Abstract Expressionism. Particular attention wi l l be Landscapes were especially popular. The landscape paint- ing might encompass Naturalist themes, but Munch would instead portray it as reflection of inner feeling and the soul. Munch received formal education i n the arts i n Oslo and even obtained several grants to study in France, the latter of which would forever alter his outlook on painting. In Modern Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition, Robert Rosenblum comments on Munch's experiences abroad: "Like Van Gogh, Munch changed drastically the surface appearance of his painting by absorbing the newest artistic vocabularies that he could study during his frequent sojourns in France," adding that, like Van Gogh, "Munch could almost always mold this foreign vocabulary to his own emotional needs."V! Indeed, the thirst to express his moods and emotions became Munch's dominating motivation. The Munch household was one of repressed anguish; in fact, Edvard Munch commented about his childhood, " I was born dying." V i i Both Munch's mother and sister died of F I G U R E 1 . E D V A R D M U N C H , THE SCREAM ( 1 8 9 3 ) . tuberculosis within a decade of one another. Munch suf- fered from bouts of life-threatening bronchitis at a young age. The patriarch of the family Dr. Christian Munch, fell into severe depression as a result of his helplessness in the face of the disease and, being a Christian fundamentalist, attributed the illness as a form of punishment from God. These experiences would doubtless haunt Edvard Munch for the rest of his life and career. Hence, while i n France, Munch became extremely receptive to experimental artistic forms and methods, most likely searching for a way to exorcise the traumatizing memories of his childhood. Regardless of the true reason for Munch's attraction to works by Van Gogh and Gauguin, it is evident that Munch began to reform his artistic philosophy and to develop Expressionist aesthetic vocabulary and ideas. In Expressionism: Art and Idea, Donald Gordon outlines the "ground rules" of Expressionism as dictated in 1937 by The Ten, one of the first publicly recognized Expressionist art groups in the United States: 1. The attempt to reduce the interpretation of nature or life in general to the rawest emotional elements. 2. A complete and utter dependence on pigment as an expressive agency rather than an imitative or descrip- tive one. 3. A n intensity of vision which tries to catch the throb of life, necessarily doing violence to external facts to lay bare internal facts. v i i i Gordon adds that Expressionism was first and foremost a familial revolution because " i t was a protest by adolescents against [the] ignorance, intolerance, and materialism of their parents and teachers." 1X He cites Munch, who came from a conservative background, as a prime example of those liberated by Expressionist art and culture. How did Munch then relate to the Expressionist ideals enu- merated above? On New Year's Eve i n the year 1889, Munch articulated his artistic aspirations in the so-called St. Cloud Manifesto: "No longer would interiors, people who only read and knit, be painted. There should rather be living people breathing and feeling, suffering and loving. I felt I have to do this. It would be so simple. The flesh would take on form and the colours come to l i fe." x This vision re- jects the goal of the Naturalists and the Impressionists to paint objectively, that is, directly from nature. Instead of painting what he sees, the artist should paint what he saw i n that specific moment, allowing it to be molded by his mind and soul. " I t is true that a chair can be just as inter- esting as a man," Munch explained, "but the chair must be seen by a man. I n one way or another, he must have had an emotional reaction to it and the painter must cause the viewer to react in the same way." x l The external is subordi- nated to the internal, and the internal, i n turn, is projected onto nature. His insistence that the audience be moved by the picture suggests that his "subjective psychological expe- riences" can be raised to the level of "universal statements analyzing the soul of modern man. " x l i In his oeuvre, Munch aspired to express the first impression or moment of an experience. One of Munch's intellectual companions, Swedish playwright, sculptor, and painter August Strindberg, may have encouraged Munch to pursue this agenda more fervently. I n his essay, "The New Arts, or the Role of Chance in Artistic Creation" from 1894, he wrote: Now freed from the trouble of finding the right colours, the soul of the painter enjoys the freedom to elicit shapes, and as his hand manipulates the spatula at random, still retaining nature's model in mind without seeking to copy it, the result reveals itself as a charming combination of the conscious and the unconscious.xm The juxtaposition of the words "manipulates" and "at ran- dom" is peculiar because it foreshadows the remarkable paradox so apparent in paintings by the best known Abstract Expressionist, Jackson Pollock. The idea of "ran- domness" is more complicated than it seems and rather difficult to achieve. While the artist relinquishes control, allowing his conscience, not his intellect, to guide h im, he still manages to "manipulate" or control the composition of the piece. The "alloverness"—the fact that the viewer's eye travels all over the painting without settling on any single focal point, a term coined by art critic Clement Greenberg—of Pollock's larger paintings and the seem- ingly spontaneous curves and sinews of the poured paint, to which the mainstream audience often responds, "Anyone could do that!" illustrates the contradiction. Several of Munch's paintings, among them The Madonna and The Scream, contain drips, a result of the runny, thin quality of the paint Munch employed. Heller explores this detail in his thorough discussion of The Scream: "Like the visible retention of changes in other paintings by h im, these drips are intended to leave the impression that the artist created during a fit of passion, almost unconsciously, instinctively and directly without prior thought or study." x l v This idea of the passion, instinct, and the unconscious—all removed from the cerebral realm—prefigures the Surrealists. I n his essay, Strindberg also introduces the term "art automatique," x v the same term used thirty years later by the "Pope" of Surrealism, Andre Breton, and other Surrealist artists like Max Ernst. The spontaneous technique of writ- ing, drawing, and painting extended into Jackson Pollock's vocabulary and was monumentally reconfigured to "de- stroy painting" only decades later. While it is intriguing to associate the drips on Munch's canvases with those of Pollock's, one must take care to distinguish the working methods of the two artists. While Munch propped the can- vas or board vertically so the thin paint ran down it as he worked (it was not necessarily splattered), Pollock placed the canvas on the floor and enlisted gravity to create his poured paintings. Apart from drips or pours, however, the sinuous, impulsive line imbued with blood-red hues in Munch's fjord sky demonstrates his use of color and line to evoke emotion. In Munch's case, the artist finds inspiration in introspec- tion, and the sensations conjured up by this reflection cause h i m to manipulate the medium, thereby distorting the features of nature, unti l he has fully conveyed what the original psychological experience inspired in h im. Nearly ten years after the death of his sister Sophie, Munch painted The Sick Child (figure 2), a clear departure point for his mature works. He was continually disturbed by the memory of her suffering, perhaps by the horrific image of the coughing up of blood, and would even paint several ver- sions of this work at later stages of his life. He commented, "When I saw the sick child for the first time—the pale head with the vividly red hair against the white pillow—it gave F IGURE 2. EDVARD M U N C H , THE SICK CHILD ( 1 8 8 5 - 6 ) . me an impression which disappeared while I was work- i n g . " x v l Munch later "discovered that my own eyelashes had contributed to the impression of the picture—I there- fore painted them as hints of shadows across the picture." x v n After painting the figures and periphery of this key work, Munch scratched and scored the surface, destroy- ing the polished look that had characterized a "finished" work in Western art for centuries. I n this sense, one can see where de Kooning got his idea of "destroying" painting. D R I P S , S C R A T C H E S , A N D S T R O K E S On the one hand, the violation of the canvas renders the work raw and immediate. On the other hand, it expresses Munch's frustration or failure i n seizing the initial feeling of the original experience. John Boulton Smith expounds on this issue, quoting Munch within, ' " I n the course of a year I scratched it out countless times—I wanted to catch the first impression—but gradually I tired out and the colours became grey', an effect exacerbated by the careless treatment the work received later, being left outdoors to gain a 'patina' as might a sculpture."™ 1 1 Exposing the work to the elements might not have been unintentional on Munch's part. This "weathering" may have added expres- sive value to Munch's work, just as Munch deliberately ex- posed the grain of the wood or the bare canvas beneath the paint to intensify the evocative powers of the painting or print as a whole. The deliberate distancing of the artist from the total control of his work foreshadows twentieth-century composer John Cage and his musical composition "Four Minutes and Thirty-Three Seconds" (1952), in which Cage instructed the performers to not play their instruments. The result con- sisted not of pure silence, of course, but of the sounds of the environment (e.g. an audience member coughing, a truck passing by the venue outside, the faint hum of the central air, etc.). x l x Around this time Robert Rauschenberg created his White Canvases. The viewer, part of the environment, would influence the work of art in this case by standing in front of the blank canvas, thereby projecting his or her shadow onto it . The unpredictability of how the environ- ment could impact the work reflects Strindberg's fascina- tion with the unconscious and spontaneous. While Munch's immediate influence can be felt more strongly in Abstract Expressionism, the circulation of these neo- Dadaist ideas hark back to some of the most influential fig- ures in Munch's career, namely Strindberg and his ideas in the "Role of Chance in Artistic Creation". Munch's frustration with The Sick Child and his conse- quent reworking of the painting through deliberate damage to the canvas recalls Willem de Kooning's tenden- cies i n the Woman Series. Woman I (figure 3), executed over two years in six documented stages, also witnessed a type of gradual obliteration. I n de Kooning's painting, however, the destruction did not involve scraping the surface, but rather abstracting the figure in a tornado of agitated brush- strokes. I n his discussion of Abstract Expressionists, Donald Gordon explains that the "gestural activity of Woman I, i f taken literally, records the countless hours, days, and months of rapid but wholly tiring arm and hand movements, movements which bespeak aesthetic tension, artistic frustration, and motor conflict. " x x This citation brings to mind the idea of the work of art as a process rather than a finished product, exhibited in the working method and oeuvre of both Munch and de Kooning. American critic Harold Rosenberg created the term "Action Painting" in 1952. Just as Munch subordinated external re- ality to internal subjectivity in his works, Rosenberg's the- ory argued that the aesthetic product is always subordinate E L E M E N T S F A L L 08 to the event of painting. Thus, the act of painting is also an existential affirmation for the artist, blurring "every distinc- tion between art and life." : Rosenberg's favorite Action Painters included Pollock, Gorky, and de Kooning. The pouring of paint across a large surface in Pollock, the scum- bling of the wax crayon in Gorky, x x 1 1 the innumerable cam- paigns i n de Kooning, and finally the scratching and scour- ing of the canvas i n Munch are all labor-intensive processes through which the artist manipulates his medium not only to make his mark, but to also transmit the essentials of his unconscious at the moment of inspiration. Munch's repertoire embodied and foresaw recurring Expressionist themes and techniques, but what did it share with the "abstract" nature of Abstract Expressionism? Munch's use of symbols and his eclectic portrayal of figures adhered to the path towards abstraction. Nearing abstrac- tion is yet another way to interpret de Kooning's idea of the destruction of painting since Western art, unlike Islamic art, which has a strong tradition of geometric and floral motifs, has for centuries been so invested in figural representation. Both Munch and de Kooning diminished the figure-ground relationship in their works. They achieved this effect by flattening forms, expanding solid areas of color, and almost completely eliminating modula- tion. They reduced the sense of illusion so the figures are simplified and distorted, thus less lifelike. The works were no longer descriptive of what the artist sees, but rather a sign of their subjective vision. The Kyss (figure 4) of 1897-1902 exemplifies Munch's em- brace of abstraction. Interestingly enough, Strindberg de- scribed the pictures with misogynistic overtones: "The fu- sion of two beings, the smaller of which, shaped like a carp, seems on the point of devouring the larger as is the habit of vermin, microbes, vampires, or w o m e n . " x x m The figures constitute a black and white blob; this form even predates Picasso's biomorphic forms. The complete "fusion" of the faces summons the psychological melting together and the loss of individuality of two beings engaged in an erotic act. In a different version of the same year, the grain of the wood with nails visible reinforces the flatness of the figures; moreover, its curvilinear pattern echoes the gentle wave that forms the figures. Perhaps Munch saw the rings in the wood in this particular woodcut as a symbol for infinity, a reflection that he took love extremely seriously. He might have also associated the shape with the never-ending cycle of love and death that he witnessed and himself experi- enced throughout his childhood and adolescence. De Kooning's Woman I is arguably less abstracted than the figures in Munch's comparable image. De Kooning repre- sented the looming eyes and the large, swelling breasts of the female figure, reminiscent of ancient goddesses of fer- tility, with simple ovals; the skirt, with swabs of red and ochre; and the legs, with flesh-toned rectangles. The gestural commotion around the torso is evocative of de Kooning's pentimenti**™; the need for abstraction attained via multiple campaigns attests to the "utter dependence on pigment as an expressive agency" and to the fact that the process of creating, destroying, and recreating reveals something fundamental about the artist. D R I P S , S C R A T C H E S , A N D S T R O K E S Although Munch abstracted the figures in The Kiss to a con- siderable degree, the human power of projection would almost immediately create for us the image of a man and woman embracing, even i f we had never seen the work i n alternative media. In this sense, Abstract Expressionism is misleading. The degree to which Expressionists can reveal the inner workings of their soul through pure abstrac- t i o n — i f there even is such a thing—has been tested. Mark Rothko oscillated between Abstract Expressionism and Color Field Painting by replacing the human figure first with symbols, then with colored shapes, which seem to float off the canvas.30™ De Kooning, on the other hand, felt uncomfortable with completely abandoning figuration. Even his most renowned works Attic and Excavation recall human form i n their fleshy tones, limb-like linear forms, and faint refer- ences to women's breasts and buttocks. For this reason, British art critic and curator David Sylvester observes that de Kooning's work "reflects a total commitment to an ongo- ing dialectic between figuration and abstraction.' > x x v l Despite his significant experimentation with abstraction, de Kooning himself admitted that "even abstract shapes must have a likeness.' , X X V H I n 2001, the Arken Museum of Modern Art i n Denmark and the Munch Museum in Oslo organized Echoes of the Scream, a stimulating exhibition that compared Munch to artists of the second half of the twentieth century, among them Jasper Johns and Francis Bacon. The curator Holger Reenberg encapsulated the overarching theme of the ex- hibit in the following quote: The artists in Echoes of the Scream all evince a striving to- wards Man, however removed or absent the figure of man may seem. When the artist Jasper Johns (1930) says of his abstract pictures that they are meant to suggest physical presence and closeness, he is in effect describing many of the works included in the exhibition—an exhibition very much about the question of how to liberate oneself from figurative painting without surrendering the story of man.™-™1 D M U N C H , MADONNA ( 18 Since many Abstract Expressionists found the complete avoidance of figuration challenging and seemed to return to the figure i n one way or another, it can be devised that Munch's frequent depiction of figures does not distance h i m from said movement, but instead intensifies his connection to it. Apart from figural depiction, another interesting relation- ship between the two artists' oeuvre is the environment i n which the figure is placed. The sharp angle formed by the bridge barrier in The Scream, Despair, and Angst, among others, creates an antagonism between figure and setting. This is also the line that divides the "twisting torso" and the "art nouveau curvature of the landscape" x x i x and symboli- cally alienates the artist as he hears the infamous shriek pierce through nature. Munch has painted not a landscape but a "soulscape" x x x and "inscape," an idea theorized by Jesuit poet Gerard Manley Hopkins. Christian Gether E L E M E N T S F A L L 08 wrote in Echoes of the Scream, "Here we no longer find the ideal, geometric space of the Renaissance, symbolising God's perfect Creation and occasioning Utopian dreams— instead we find a whirling vortex of colours and shapes, breaking and straining against each other in a dystopian vi- sion of horror. " X X X 1 He highlighted defining features of our century such as electricity, nuclear power, and mass con- sumerism in order to illustrate how The Scream's easily comprehensible themes of fear, suffering, and isolation reverberate in our era. The vortex to which Christian Gether referred is also present in de Kooning. The jagged, agitated brushwork that envelopes Woman I without concealing or revealing makes up the "no-environment" of many of de Kooning's Woman paintings. The eroticism and overwhelming phys- ical presence of the woman echos Munch's Madonna (figure 5). The Madonna has her arms behind her back, F IGURE 6. EDVARD MUNCH , THE HANDS (1893). thrusting her chest forward. The neutral yet incredibly sen- sual facial features reflect the importance of the uncon- scious in erotic and religious experiences alike. Indeed, the vortex of swirling colors that extend at the tips of the Madonna's hair and surround her immaculate body, create a "sense of liquid space, a type of fluid environment." x x x u This attribute, while still implying some depth of space, places the figure in an ambiguous setting. Here the early portraits of seated men by Arshile Gorky and de Kooning come to mind. The painting of The Hands (figure 6) by Munch shares the no-environment, the vortex, and even the color scheme of Woman I. I n de Kooning, restless smears of heavy impasto replace the truncated hands reaching for the naked figure in Munch's Hands. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, de Kooning continued this trend by blurring the distinction between the human figure and na- ture in such works as Woman in Landscape III.xxxm I n all these ways, Munch and de Kooning can be united across the century-old history of Expressionism. Such a connection allows the art historian to discover even more relationships among Munch and other modern artists. I n particular, Arshile Gorky, Jackson Pollock, and Francis Bacon share many formal and thematic aspects with Edvard Munch. One of the recurring ideas in the work of all these artists is unmistakably the role of the unconscious and the enlistment of randomness, spontaneity, and chance in artistic creation. Certainly the duality of a work of art as both process and product reveals the importance of the self to the artist and hints at the many philosophers and theorists whose writings paralleled and perhaps inspired these creative minds and talented hands, whether it be S0ren Kierkegaard or Claude Levi-Strauss. Lastly, one can- not ignore the overlapping sensations and moods evoked by these works. Fear, hopelessness, isolation, even revela- tion and irony, constitute the universal emotions that these works help us clarify for ourselves. In 1953, Austrian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka, in- evitably influenced by Munch, wrote the following words: D R I P S , S C R A T C H E S , A N D S T R O K E S Edvard Munch, too, has turned to ashes; but as long as he lived he wore no blindfold. He kept his eyes wide open, his gaze reached into our time of transition, into our most inti- mate self where fear lodges in our hearts. I ask: can anyone ask for a better public? Does not his art show the solution of the problem of life to the many who today believe in a third world war as in an inevitable catastrophe? . . . He knew that he had breathed a new spirit into the language of pictograms which is older than all spoken or written language.™™ Kokoschka's reference to a blindfold stresses the indiffer- ence and impersonality of the modern society scarred by the horrors of war; in fact, for modern audiences the war imbued Munch s art with so much significance and rele- vance. Munch "wore no blindfold" because he was not in- timidated by the inner world. He yearned to look inside himself and contemplate what he found, no matter how dreadful or uninviting. Through hundreds of pages of writing, Munch constantly reflected on his moods, often provoked by the emotive Norwegian landscape, and chan- neled his fear and anxiety into countless paintings and prints. Perhaps the "solution to the problem of life" is to ex- ercise our creativity and thus reflect more deeply on our ex- ternal and internal realities. Kokoschka's view of Munch as the creator of a new artistic language, echoed by the many art critics who have dubbed Munch the "Father of Expressionism," appropriately parallels de Kooning's com- ment on the destruction of painting that served as the de- parture point for this fascinating discussion. E N D N O T E S i . Artists Rights Society i i . Edvard Munch bestowed 1,000 paintings, 15,400 etchings, lithographs, and woodcuts, 4,500 watercolors and drawings, and six sculptures to his hometown of Oslo, Norway upon his death i n 1944. Clark (13) h i . Quoted i n Gordon (198) iv. Heller, Edvard Munch: The Scream, 1972 (43) v. Heller, "Munch, Edvard", 2007 vi . Rosenblum (104) vi i . Heller (2007) v i i i . Gordon (195) ix. Ibid (27) x. Clark (12) xi . Heller (1972) (23) x i i . Ibid. (39) x i i i . Strindberg (103) xiv. Heller, 1972 (52) xv. Strindberg (106) xvi. Munch (147) xvii. Ibid. (147) xvii i . Smith (42) xix. Kostelanetz (69-70) xx. Gordon (203-4) xxi. Carpenter xxii. Messinger (55) xxii i . Quoted i n Clark (7) xxiv. A n underlying image i n a painting, as an earlier painting, part of a painting, or original draft, that shows through, usually when the top layer of paint has become transparent wi th age. xxv. Clearwater xxvi. Sylvester (29) xxvii. Prather (93) xxviii. Reenberg (36) xxix. Heller, 1972 (90) xxx. Ibid. (96) xxxi. Gether (16) xxxii. Heller (i972)(53) xxxiii. Grunenberg (3) xxxiv. Kokoschka (17) R E F E R E N C E S Artists Rights Society. 2007. "Most Frequently Requested Artists." New York, http://www.arsny.com/requested.html. Accessed 16 December 2007. Carpenter, Ken. 2007. "Rosenberg, Harold." Grove Art Online. 7 December 2007. http://www.groveart.com. Clark, Kenneth. 1974. "Edvard Munch" i n Edvard Munch: 1863- 1944. Great Britain: Arts Council. Clearwater, Bonnie. 2007. 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Michael Robinson. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sylvester, David. 1994. "Flesh was the Reason." I n Willem de Kooning: Paintings, ed. Maria Prather. New Haven: Yale University Press. D R I P S , S C R A T C H E S , A N D S T R O K E S http://www.groveart.com http://www.jstor.org http://www.dictionary.com