"From the crude cacophony of Inferno 
to the celestial music of the spheres in 

Paradise, music abounds in 
The Divine Comedy." 



M U S I C AS M I R R O R 

Dante's Treatment of Music in the Divine Comedy 

KRI S T I N A A S T E 

A T I M E O F G R E A T M U S I C A L D E V E L O P M E N T , T H E F O U R T E E N T H C E N T U R Y I S T H E 

P E R F E C T B A C K D R O P F O R T H E A U D I T O R Y A L L U S I O N S O F D A N T E A L I G H I E R l ' s DIVINE 

COMEDY. T H I S A R T I C L E A R G U E S T H A T D A N T E U T I L I Z E S M U S I C A L I M A G E R Y A S A N 

E S S E N T I A L C O M P O N E N T O F H I S A L L E G O R Y . I N F L U E N C E D B Y B O T H C H R I S T I A N 

T H I N K E R S A N D P H I L O S O P H E R S , D A N T E L I K E L Y V I E W E D S C H O L A S T I C M U S I C A S A N 

A D J U N C T O F R E L I G I O N . I N T H E DIVINE COMEDY, T H E R E F O R E , D A N T E P R E S E N T S 

A U D I T O R Y A L L U S I O N S A S A N I N E X T R I C A B L E F A C T O R O F T H E P R O T A G O N I S T ' S E P I C 

P I L G R I M A G E T H R O U G H H E L L , P U R G A T O R Y , A N D H E A V E N . T H R O U G H A P R O G R E S S I O N 

O F A N T I - M U S I C I N I N F E R N O T O H U M A N C O N T E X T I N P U R G A T O R Y T O T H E M U S I C O F 

T H E S P H E R E S I N P A R A D I S E , T H I S E S S A Y E X P L O R E S H O W T H E M U S I C A L L A N G U A G E O F 

D A N T E ' S DIVINE COMEDY C O N V E Y S H U M A N I T Y ' S I N N A T E C O N N E C T I O N W I T H G O D . 



From the crude cacophony of Inferno to the celestial music 

of the spheres in Paradise, music abounds in The Divine 

Comedy. The text contains one hundred and forty-six refer-

ences to music: twenty-nine in Inferno, fifty-nine in 

Purgatory, and fifty-seven in Paradise. Rich in hymns and 

liturgical songs, including "Regina Coelis", "Gloria", 

"Sanctus", "Miserere", "Agnus Dei", "Te Deum 

Laudamus", and " I n Exitu Israel", The Divine Comedy also 

features instruments of all kinds: drums, horns, trumpets, 

harps, kitharas, and lutes. There are choirs, polyphonic 

choruses, and even dances, from the fickleness of Dame 

Fortune in Inferno to the joyful symmetries of the blessed 

in Paradise. 

with the lukewarm in Inferno, the song of Casella in 

Purgatory, and the celestial music of the spheres in 

Paradise. Each specific passage, especially seen in context 

of the Comedy's other musical references, illustrates 

Dante's overall thematic thesis of humanity's relationship 

with God. In Inferno, the auditory atmosphere of chaos and 

suffering expresses estrangement from God. In Purgatory, 

psalms and hymns have an active role in purification, 

where Dante emphasizes the distinction between 'good' 

music of expiation and 'bad' music of sheer enjoyment." 

Even the celestial music of the spheres encountered in 

Paradise symbolizes perfect union with God. Music plays 

distinct, specific roles in each book and respective realm. 

Undoubtedly, Dante Alighieri was deliberate in creating 

such an overwhelming number of musical references. 

These allusions thematically unite the three books of the 

Comedy, and as the academic Robert Lansing contends, 

"The Commedia is a phonic structure whose mortar is 

music." 1 Dante's philosophical training and his personal 

interest in music suggest that he employs the language of 

music throughout the Divine Comedy to support his alle-

gory. Three key passages of Inferno, Purgatory, and 

Paradise outline this assertion: Dante's auditory experience 

Discussion of Dante's work must begin with its biographi-

cal and cultural context. For example, it is impossible to 

read his poetry without understanding his great love for the 

city of Florence and his adoration of Beatrice. Biographies 

of Dante likewise reveal that he was also an enthusiast of 

music. In Vita di Dante, Giovanni Boccaccio writes: 

He greatly delighted in playing and singing in his youth, 

and was a friend to all who at that time excelled in singing 

and playing, and frequented their company . . . as a youth, 

E L E M E N T S : : F A L L 0 8 



he derived great pleasure from music and songs. He also 

cherished the friendship and company of all the best singers 

and musicians of his day. Drawn on by this delight, he 

composed many lyrics, which were then embellished by 

pleasant and masterful melodies.111 

This excerpt illuminates two distinctions in Dante's musi-

cal experience. Michele Croese divides his exposure to 

music into a first stage of experience and a second stage of 

exploration. The first stage includes the practical musical 

training Dante received due to his high class. For example, 

Dante and his contemporaries who wrote in the dolce stil 

nuovo, or the "sweet new style" of Italian lyric poetry consid-

ered music a critical pastime. The second stage regards 

Dante's own philosophy of music. This probably developed 

during his highly scholastic period prompted by the death 

of Beatrice. During this time, Dante encountered philo-

sophical texts that likely pushed his musical knowledge 

from the practical world to the theoretical realm. 

Among these philosophical texts was Aristotle's Politics, 

which states that music has the power to affect the morality 

of society.IN As a humanist and a theologian, Dante pre-

sumably combined this principle with the thoughts of early 

Christian thinkers such as Augustine and Cassiodorus. 

.. music is often the way 
characters express their 

union or lament their 
dissociation from God." 

These scholars felt that music was an essential component 

of religion. In Psalmum XXXII Enarratio, St. Augustine 

writes, "The sound of jubilation signifies unspoken 

love . . . i f you cannot speak H i m into words, and yet you 

cannot remain silent, what else is left to you i f not the song 

of jubilation, the rejoicing of your heart beyond all words, 

the immense latitude of joy without limits of syllables?"" 

These combined Christian and philosophical influences 

propelled Dante to a scholastic view of music as an adjunct 

of religion, an art capable of promoting contemplation and 

inspiration in the faithful. This philosophy seems to be the 

theoretical backdrop for the auditory allusions of The 

Divine Comedy, which presents music as an inextricable 

component of the protagonist's epic pilgrimage through 

Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. 

Dante's primary and practical exposure to the art also likely 

influenced his writing. The Dante Encyclopedia states that 

Dante "saw music involved in the human activities of 

singing, playing, and dancing. He saw music in the 

macrocosm and the microcosm, hence his musica 

mundana, musica humana, and musica instrumentalis."" 

Originally penned by Boethius in his Fundamentals of 

Music, thistripartite division was standard in medieval 

musical thought. Musica mundana refers to the music of 

the universe; musica humana represents the human soul 

and body; and, musica instrumentalis classifies sounds of 

the voice and instruments. 

Dante wrote about these three categories precisely in Vita 

Nuova, but explored them thematically in The Divine 

Comedy: "The troubadour song in Purgatory is the worldly 

musica instrumentalis, the shades sing hymns to . . . reach 

musica humana, and the celestial 'armonia' of Paradise as-

cends to musica mundana, the music of the spheres."v" 

Dante the Pilgrim realizes that music is often the way char-

acters express their union or lament their dissociation 

from God. This is another characteristic of the medieval 

era, when often "the purpose of singing was to offer praise 

to God in a heartfelt, joyful way." u" In Paradise, music is 

"an outward expression of an inward bliss. The picture of 

a kind of choric dance often rises before us as we read of the 

manifestations of joy in the successive spheres."1*1 In an 

ideal form, music represents positive expressions of God's 

love. 

M U S I C A S M I R R O R 



Therefore, the reverse applies for those who are farthest 

from God—those in Inferno. Inferno, the physical center 

of Dante's universe but the farthest from its spiritual cen-

ter, is the realm of disharmony. Dante combines the ideas 

of eternal confinement and lack of harmony with his usual 

forcefulness: he dubs Inferno a cattivo coro, or "petty 

choir". This cattivo coro is the definition of anti-music: 

"There sighs and moans and utter wailing swept / resound-

ing through the dark and starless air. I heard them for the 

first time, and I wept." x Screams and sighs resound instead 

of song, an experience that is more than the pilgrim can 

bear. He weeps because the hopelessness of this anti-

music is beyond his expectations for humanity. 

"Shuddering din of strange and various tongues / sorrow-

ful words and accents pitched with rage / shrill and harsh 

voices, blows of hands with these." This infernal dishar-

mony is chaotic, abrasive, and devoid of order. A strict stu-

dent might classify these indications as musica instrumen-

talis; however, it suits Dante's overall theme to suggest 

instead that this is tumultuous noise devoid of any human 

qualities. Dante the Pilgrim even inquires, "My Teacher, 

what are all these cries I hear?... What grief is it that makes 

them wail so loud?" x" He discovers that these neutrals re-

ceived what they deserve and what their own disordered 

love has warranted. Their grief is their absence from God's 

presence. Their utter loneliness manifests itself through 

noise, but this same anti-music compounds their pain. 

This infernal disharmony continues in the "noise" of the 

suicides in Canto X I I I v i l and the "harsh and clacking 

rhymes" of Canto X X X I I . x i v The lustful cry "as the cranes 

go singing their lays," and the diviners silently advance 

"at the pace taken by litanies."X V I Virgil even announces 

Lucifer by stating: "Vexilla Regis prodeunt" or "the stan-

dards of the king of Hell advance."XV1 1 This is a play on a 

liturgical hymn: "The parody of a liturgical hymn—more 

symbolic than ironic—heralds the presence of the prince of 

darkness." x v i i i By sardonically referencing a hymn, Virgil 

hints at Hell's desolate nature by suggesting the distorted 

humanity and estranged nature of Inferno. 

Dante also makes intriguing references to musical instru-

ments throughout Inferno. In the medieval era, instru-

ments were often too costly to be commonplace. 

Vernacular aside, the inclusion of instrumental imagery 

indicates an attempt to reach an audience of the merchant 

middle class, a group that would have had the ability to pur-

chase instruments. Nevertheless, Dante still uses this im-

agery to emphasize his theme of man's relationship with 

God. His first instrumental reference is a description of 

Master Adam of Brescia. The poet plays on the duplicitous 

nature of this counterfeiter and describes Master Adam in 

terms of two instruments. His swollen body is a "fat 

lute , " x l x he says, and, after another sinner strikes h im, his 

stomach "booms as i f it were a kettledrum. " x x The counter-

feiter first appears as what he is not, a superior instrument 

of perfection. When sounded, however, his body "produces 

the disharmonious sounds of an inferior instrument, a 

drum."™ 

Canto XXXI continues this instrument metaphor when 

Barbariccia, a devil torturing the barrators, "made a bugle 

of his arse." x x" Additionally, Dante the Pilgrim notes 

Nimrod's babbling as the "deep blast of a horn / loud 

enough to make roaring thunder fa int . " x x i i i These two ex-

amples imply, like the parody of the hymn, the distortion of 

humanity that occurs in the miserable landscape of Hell. 

Even the chattering teeth of the traitors in Canto XXXII 

contribute to the wretchedness of Dante's auditory inferno. 

Characterized by silence, screams, or disharmonious 

noises, Inferno demonstrates that those disconnected from 

God have also separated themselves from their ability to 

utilize music in a positive manner. 

As Dante the Pilgrim moves beyond Inferno to Purgatory, 

he notices a distinct change in auditory atmosphere: "How 

different are these holes from those below! / Here you go 

accompanied by song, / down there you pass the jaws with 

cries of woe . " A 1 V In this passage, Dante underscores the 

contrast between Hell and Purgatory through musical lan-

guage. In Inferno, the damned utter vivid cries of anguish, 

including shouts, sighs, wails, and shrieks. This 

E L E M E N T S F A L L 0 8 



T H E L O U D B L A S T O F A H O R N I N C A N T O X X X I O F T H E INFERNO A D D S T O T H E O V E R A L L D I S H A R M O N Y . 



cacophony remains consistent with Dante's unrelenting 

belief that mortal disconnection from God leads to eternal 

loneliness and pain. However, the souls in Purgatory all 

know that they wi l l eventually ascend to heaven. While 

their counterparts are in endless agony, those in Purgatory 

still maintain hope. In Purgatory, spirits endure their 

punishments with prayer and song rather than cries of 

pain. While Inferno featured anti-musical moments that 

echoed the hopeless nature of damned souls, Purgatory 

reminds the reader that its inhabitants are only there unti l 

they reach complete purification—they sing a "song" 

instead of "cries of woe" .™ 

In Purgatory, musica humana serves three functions for re-

pairing a relationship with God: soothing, worshipping, 

and teaching. Al l souls in Purgatory are en route to achiev-

ing happiness with God after his or her allotted time; there-

fore, the hopeless nature of Inferno disappears. There is 

still one similarity to Inferno, though: the worship hymns , 

or antiphons, sung as part of the purification process often 

echo the virtue of the specific sin purged from the souls. 

The gluttonous sing, "O Lord, open thou my lips" in Canto 

LI, mirroring similar acts of Dante's contrapasso.xxvi 

Additionally, the souls of the violently slain sing the 

"Miserere", and the souls of those purified from the sin of 

avarice repeat the verse, "my soul cleaveth to the dust" . x x v i i 

These psalms and hymns help souls to expiate their specific 

sins. Those killed by violence and saved from damnation 

sing the "Miserere", for example, and Dante reinforces 

their humility by having them sing "Beati pauperes 

spiritu," a hymn based on the first Beatitude—"blessed are 

the poor in s p i r i t " . x x v m The envious sing "Beati miseri-

cordes," or "Blessed are the merciful," because while on 

earth they were far from gracious.X X i The two songs of the 

Siren also demonstrate the educative aspect of music: "the 

dream of the Siren warns against the spiritual dangers of 

music's misuse, and the singing of Lia is a symbol of the 

power given to music of stirring and spurring men to 

action."' 0 0 ' 

It is through Casella's song that Dante explores the sooth-

ing aspects of music. "The Purgatory is full of sounding 

music—musica instrumentalis. Yet it is not a place for the 

pleasures of music ." x x x l Evident in Dante's own canzone, 

"Amor che nella mente m i ragiona", which the actual 

Casella set to music, this song is not for mere joy, although 

it may appear as such at first glance. The composer sings it 

to h i m beautifully as the poet reflects on how music "used 

to quiet all my desires."X X X 1 1 

"If no new law has stripped you of your art / or seized your 

memory of those songs of love / which used to still the yearn-

ings of my heart,'/ said I, 'oh let it please you now awhile / 

to soothe my soul, which has, in coming here, / walked with 

my body many a weary mile."*™11 

This passage exemplifies the soothing quality of music. 

"Amor che nella mente m i ragiona', indicates music's 

power of soothing and diverting the m i n d . " x x x i v What be-

gins as soothing, however, goes too far and becomes dis-

comforting. As the passage continues, this otherworldly 

music takes hold of both Dante the Pilgrim and others: "So 

sweetly did he then begin to sing / I can still hear the sweet-

ness of his sound. / And so my Teacher and that throng of 

souls and I stood listening so contentedly / it seemed our 

minds were touched by nothing else." x x x v Transfixed in 

aesthetic admiration, the pilgrim and his fellow fans en-

counter the emotive aspects of music, a concept that 

romantic madrigals were beginning to introduce i n 

medieval Italy. These madrigals emphasized the expressive 

nature of music by creating a close connection between 

lyrics and overall musical effect.X X X V 1 

Ultimately, Cato's harsh reproaches break the spell; 

"What's this, you sluggish souls! Get to the hi l l ! / What l in-

gering, what carelessness down here! " x x x v i i This rebuke in-

dicates that only a particular kind of musica instrumentalis 

may enhance our relationship with God. For example, 

there is no ethical or spiritual content within profane lyrics. 

Rather than inspiring the pilgrim to love God further, the 

sweet sound of Casella's song distracts souls from devotion 

E L E M E N T S 
F A L L 08 



MUSIC BECOMES EXU LTATIVE AS DANTE ASCENDS 
T H R O U G H PARADISE. 

to God. Therefore, the only music heard after this incident 

is such that it "is instrumental to the purgation and perfec-

tion of the soul, to the full realization of the highest values 

of musica humana. Thus, prevailing in the Purgatory is 

either the sound of psalms or, still attuned to the stern 

recitation of psalm tunes, that of other religious texts. " X X 5 a ' i i i 

Although Dante makes allusions to the new style of emo-

tive music, in doing so he also indicates its dangers. I f one 

is to maintain a pure soul in his or her relationship with 

God, he or she must not allow canzones to sweep them off 

their feet. Only a focus on the pragmatic psalms and 

hymns that purge the soul of wrongdoing is truly safe. This 

accounts for the constant singing of hymns such as "Salve 

Regina", "Te Lucis Ante", and "Te Deum". Through their 

soothing, worshipping, and teaching aspects, musica 

humana, or music of the mind and body, dominates. These 

three components combine when souls of the Wrathful 

repeat with one accord the "Agnus Dei", the whole of 

Purgatory sings the "Gloria in Excelsis" as a purified soul 

rises to true life, and the mystic group around Beatrice 

sings the "Benedictus qui venis". 

This merger leads the Pilgrim to witness musica mundada, 

which heralds the beginning of Dante's heavenly journey 

through Paradise. Dante's "trasumanar," his experience in 

the first canto of Paradise of transcendence beyond human-

ity that "cannot be expressed in words," has as its first con-

notation the perception of an omnipresent concord.X A S ; 1 

The experience moves the pilgrim to be "intent to hear the 

harmony. " x l This implies the music of the spheres, or notes 

that compose an intellectual harmony of ultimate beauty. 

Dating from the tradition of ancient Greek philosophers, 

the medieval notion of the music of the spheres empha-

sizes celestial order. This is music where God tunes the rel-

evant notes and determines their pitch. Therefore, its 

perfection is quite different from the earthly music that the 

pilgrim previously encountered. 

As a result, Dante the Pilgrim speaks in amazement: "The 

newness of the sound, the swelling gleam / lighted desire 

i n me to learn their cause— / keener than any appetite I 'd 

known." x ! i As the pilgrim ascends higher into Paradise, 

something else becomes even more apparent. Song in the 

lower spheres often accompanies symbolic pageantry or 

elaborates on theological concepts. However, the higher 

the pilgrim ascends, the tropes shift to simpler, purely 

exclamatory texts, such as "Gloria", "Sanctus", and 

"Hosanna". These texts maintain complexity through their 

polyphonic setting, but have simple words. This is a direct 

contrast to the monophonic setting of the psalms of 

Purgatory, where there was simple music but many words. 

This progression indicates Dante's deliberate reflection on 

the musical evolution of his own society from monophony 

to polyphony. His declaration of Gabriel's song to the 

Virgin Mary in Canto XXII I as a circular melody and his 

notation of a harmonizing circle of theologians in 

Canto XI I cements Dante's nod towards emerging 

polyphonic tradition. 

M U S I C A S M I R R O R 



"This language is logical, for 
one cannot read Dante's 

Divine Comedy in a 
vacuum. His attitudes 

regarding polyphonic 
celestial music resonate for 

a dramatically changing 
cultural world.77 

'"Hosanna, holy God of power and might, / illuminating 

with your clarity / these armies and their joyful flames of 

light!' / I heard, in rhythm with the harmony / of hosts, the 

singing of that rad iance . " 'These seemingly simple yet 

eloquent exclamations of praise and joy facilitate the 

pilgrim's discovery of the reality that a closer relationship to 

God sweeps earthly matters away. While theological 

concepts and pageantry are a part of humanity, these 

matters are inconsequential in God's presence. He states 

that heavenly music remains superior—"such songs as 

puts our poetry to r o u t . " x l n l When he describes Gabriel's 

song to Mary, he comments, "The earthly melody of sweet-

est tone / pulling the human soul with fullest power / 

would seem the thunder of a flatted cloud / Compared 

against the sounding of that ly re . " x h v Therefore, the heav-

enly music of Paradise far surpasses earthly music. 

Those in Paradise enjoy the presence of God through song. 

Their music represents the solace that they have achieved; 

"Various voices make the sweeter song: / here in our life the 

various thrones endow / the wheels of Heaven with sweet 

harmony." v ' However, this superior music may yet be 

beyond mortal human comprehension. The Eagle in 

Jupiter informs Dante: "As my song is unfathomable to you 

/ so too to man, the judgments of the King." x i : The mortal 

pilgrim attempts to describe heavenly music using earthly 

musical terms. These include musical instruments, poly-

phonic song, and dances. There is a vibrating cross in 

Canto XIV, a lyre tuned by God in Canto XV, and a compar-

ison of the singing of both the Eagle and Gabriel to a heav-

enly lyre. Dante the Pilgrim even claims in Canto XXX that 

his trumpet is too lowly to herald the transcendent beauty 

of Beatrice. 

This language is logical, for one cannot read Dante's Divine 

Comedy in a vacuum. His attitudes regarding polyphonic 

celestial music resonate for a dramatically changing 

cultural world. Nevertheless, his insistence on the 

purificative psalm texts found in Purgatory also reflects 

several medieval ideas, particularly the evolving musical 

traditions of his society. Even his statements regarding the 

anti-music of Inferno model tropes of his time. While his 

affinity for music explains the prevalence of his references 

to it, his philosophical and religious background also 

certainly account for the way he uses musical language to 

explain one's relationship with God. 

From the first mention in Inferno of "where the sun is 

silent" 1 , 1 to the "sweet symphony of Paradise," x l v u i it is 

evident that musical references pervade the text of the 

Divine Comedy. Representative of an increasingly musical 

trend within the medieval world, Dante uses this terminol-

ogy to his advantage. Dante's auditory experience with the 

lukewarm of Inferno, Casella's song in Purgatory, and 

Gabriel's song to Mary in Paradise are each distinct ways in 

which music conveys the nature of humanity's connection 

with God. 

For those who reject H i m and encounter Inferno, the anti-

music of silence and screams is torturous. Al l noises in this 

realm are abhorrable. For those who are not yet ready to be 

in His presence, the souls of Purgatory, music soothes their 

minds and teaches them throughout this interim state. 

Dante even designates 'good' music that helps souls atone 

for their sins and 'bad' music that distracts t h e m . x l i x For 

E L E M E N T S " F A L L 08 



those i n Paradise, or true harmony with God, music 

expresses humanity's ultimate fulfillment. Although 

unintelligible to a mortal ear, it is of the highest quality. 

While the anti-music of Inferno reflects dissociation from 

God and the purifying music of Purgatory echoes progress 

towards God, the sublime music of Paradise indicates unity 

with God. Through this progression from anti-music to 

human music to celestial music, Dante effectively utilizes 

musical language to represent the various states of 

humanity's relationship with God. 

E N D N O T E S 

i . Lansing (252) 
i i . Ibid (632) 
i i i . Musical Times Publications (446) 
iv. Wright (27) 
v. Pirrotta (257) 
vi . Lansing (251-252) 
vi i . Pirrotta (21) 
v i i i . Wright (21) 
ix. Musical Times Publications (447) 
x. Inferno (III.22-24) 
xi . Ibid. (III.25-27) 
x i i . Ibid. (III.32, 44) 
x i i i . Ibid. (XIII.15) 
xiv. Ibid. (XXXII. i) 
xv. Ibid. (V.46) 
xvi. Ibid. (XX.8-9) 
xvii. Ibid. (XXXIV.i) 
xvii i . Pirrotta (253) 
xix. Inferno (XXX.49) 
xx. Ibid. (XXX.103) 
xxi. Lansing (632) 
xxii. Inferno (XXI.139) 
xxii i . Ibid. (XXXI.12-13) 
xxiv. Purgatory (XII.112-114) 
xxv. Ibid. (I.38) 
xxvi. Ibid. (XXIII.11) 
xxvii. Ibid. (XIX.73) 
xxviii. Ibid. (XI I .no) 
xxix. Ibid. (XII.112) 
xxx. Pirrotta (254) 
xxxi. Ibid. (254) 
xxxii. Purgatory (II.108) 
xxxiii. Ibid. (II.109-111) 
xxxiv. Pirrotta (254) 
xxxv. Purgatory (II.113-117) 
xxxvi. Wright (86) 
xxxvii. Purgatory (II.120-121) 
xxxviii. Pirrotta (254) 

xxxix. Paradise (I.70) 
xl. Ibid. (I.78) 
xl i . Ibid. (I.82-84) 
x l i i . Ibid. (VII.1-5) 
x l i i i . Ibid. (XI1.7) 
xliv. Ibid. (XXIII.97-100) 
xlv. Ibid. (VI.124-126) 
xlvi. Ibid. (XIX.98-99) 
xlvii . Inferno (1.60) 
xlvi i i . Paradise (XXI.59) 
xlix. Purgatory (XXIV.49) 

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Alighieri , Dante. The Divine Comedy. Trans. Anthony Esolen. 
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Ferrante, Joan. 1993. "Poetics of Chaos and Harmony." The 
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Cambridge University Press, pp. 153-172. 

Gallagher, Joseph. 1999. A Modem Reader's Guide to Dante's 
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Lansing, Richard ed. 2000. "Dante and Music." The Dante 
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Musical Times Publications. Jul. 1,1895. "Music i n Dante's 
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Pirrotta, Nino. "Dante Musicus: Gothicism, Scholasticism, and 
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M U S I C A S M I R R O R 

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