"La Dolce Vita aspired with unprecedented ambition to make film a core media of high modern art, and the cultural conditions of its production could not have been more auspicious for such an ambition." F I L M AS HISTORY Fdlini's La Dolce Vita as a Historical Artifact Z A C H Z I M M E R M A N N , C IN 1960, ITALY WAS A COUNTRY IN RAPID CULTURAL T R A N S I T I O N . NOWHERE WAS THIS CULTURAL CURRENT, THIS EBB OF CONSERVATIVE ITALIAN VIRTUE AND FLOW OF FLASHY ITALIAN C O N S U M E R - ISM, MORE EVIDENT THAN IN ITALY'S A G E - O L D SEAT OF POWER: ROME. DURING THIS TIME, FAMED DIRECTOR F E D E R I C O FELLINI UNDERTOOK TO ENLIST T H E ELEMENTS O F H I G H - M O D E R N I S M AND AUTEURISM IN T H E CREATION OF A WORK OF ART THAT WOULD CAPTURE S O M E T H I N G OF T H E NEW CULTURE RISING IN ROME. T H E RESULT WAS T H E NOW CANONICAL FILM LA DOLCE VITA. INFA- MOUS FOR ITS SENSUALITY, BUT E M I N E N T FOR ITS MASTERLY ARTISTIC STORY-TELLING, FIFTY YEARS HAVE S E E N T H E VALUE OF F E L L I N l ' S FILM FOR FILM CRITICS AND HISTORIANS ALIKE INCREASE SUBSTANTIALLY. HERE, THAT VALUE WILL BE ASSESSED BY AN ANALYSIS OF T H E FILM'S RECEPTION AT T H E TIME OF ITS RELEASE, FOLLOWED BY A C L O S E LOOK AT T H E FILM ITSELF. AN EXPLORATION OF HOW LA DOLCE VITA SIMULTANEOUSLY CAPTURES AND CRITICIZES T H E PERIOD OF ITS PRODUC- TION DEMONSTRATES THIS WORK O F ART'S INVALUABLE STATUS AS A HISTORICAL ARTIFACT. o I N T R O D U C T I O N As Federico Fell ini 's in famous f i l m La Dolce Vita begins, a hel icopter suspends a statue o f Chr i s t as i t flies over the city o f Rome, The helicopter, a man-made marve l , passes an ancient R o m a n aqueduct as i t nears h is tor ic St. Peter's Basilica. W i t h this p o w e r f u l v isual , Fe l l in i i m m e d i a t e l y alerts the viewer to the d i s t i n c t i o n between the o l d R o m e — the Rome o f ancient structures, m o n u m e n t s , a n d church- es—and the new, m o d e r n Rome. Th i s o p e n i n g alerts the audience that the h i m w i l l consider and reflect o n the n e w Rome. Fe l l in i h i m s e l f acknowledged that , w h i l e i n t e n d i n g to make a very dif ferent type o f film after his previous film, Nights of Cahiria, he came to "realize that the Rome he h a d i n t e n d e d to depict had been replaced by another city, m o r e brash a n d cosmopol i tan . " 1 Instead, Fe l l in i made the ca- n o n i c a l film, La Dolce Vita, o f equal value to film critics and histor ians alike. As an e m i n e n t w o r k o f its t i m e , the film a n d its recept ion elucidate the c l imate w h i c h pro- duced i t ; b u t the film also reacts against that c l imate i n ways w h i c h have become histor ical ly fascinating i n the de- cades since its release. Indeed, La Dolce Vita crystall ized s o m e t h i n g o f Italy's u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f salvation i n i 9 6 0 , and remains , therefore, an invaluable artifact. La Dolce Vita documents the tale o f gossip c o l u m n i s t Mar- cello R u b i n i , and s o m e t h i n g o f that tale s h o u l d be t o l d here p r i o r to a discussion o f the film. H a v i n g left h is drea- ry, prov inc ia l existence b e h i n d , Marcel lo wanders t h r o u g h an u l t r a - m o d e r n , ultra-sophisticated, ultra-decadent Rome. H e yearns to w r i t e seriously, b u t his inconsequent ia l news- paper pieces b r i n g i n m o r e money, and he is too lazy to struggle against th is c o n d i t i o n . Instead Marcel lo attaches h i m s e l f to a bored socialite whose search for t h r i l l s b r ings the pair i n t o contact w i t h a n u m b e r o f fantastical charac- ters. The events that fo l low f o r m seven d is t inct episodes o f act ion that are loosely threaded together. T h r o u g h o u t al l h is adventures, Marcello's dreams, fantasies, a n d n i g h t - mares m i r r o r the h e d o n i s m o f his w a k i n g l i fe . I t is these m o m e n t s o f unrea l i ty that un i fy the seven episodes i n t o a coherent whole , c u l m i n a t i n g w i t h a shrug: w h i l e his l i fe- style is shal low a n d u l t i m a t e l y pointless, there is n o t h i n g he can do to change i t , so he m i g h t as w e l l enjoy i t . R E C E P T I O N AS A G A U G E OF C U L T U R A L C L I M A T E U p o n its domestic release, the film i m m e d i a t e l y caused controversy. A segment o f the I ta l ian p o p u l a t i o n was mor- ally outraged, resu l t ing i n "protests o n the streets as w e l l as i n the papers." 2 Conservative o p i n i o n leaders denounced V . the film as l icent ious and m o r a l l y depraved, label ing i t " the w o r k o f a C o m m u n i s t . " 3 Soon after the V a t i c a n — w h i c h or ig ina l ly accepted the film—retracted its approval a n d c o n d e m n e d La Dolce Vita, swift ly b r i n g i n g the clerics w h o h a d i n i t i a l l y approved o f the film i n t o accord w i t h official policy. The press assiduously d o c u m e n t e d these censures, captivat ing pub l i c consciousness and, ironical ly , t u r n i n g "La Dolce Vita i n t o a social and c u l t u r a l event." 4 Partly as a result o f the controversy, the film became an i m m e d i a t e box-office success i n Italy and internat iona l ly u p o n its release abroad. 5 Ital ians l i n e d u p to see the film u p o n its release. I t was a cu l tura l sensation, u l t i m a t e l y grossing over 2 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 l i ra . Reflecting o n the de- cade i n film, The New York Times ha i led La Dolce Vita as "one o f the m o s t wide ly seen a n d acclaimed European movies o f the 1960s." 6 The publ ic 's c lamor to see the film was accompanied by ovations f r o m a m a j o r i t y o f p r o m i - n e n t critics i n Italy and the rest o f Europe. La Dolce Vita earned the Palme d 'Or (Golden Palm) at the i 9 6 0 Cannes F i l m Festival. The New York Times reported that the festival ended " w i t h Italy's La Dolce Vita as the u n a n i m o u s choice for the Golden Pa lm first pr ize , " its presentat ion be ing so overpower ing that i t h a d "set the tone o f the whole festi- va l . " 7 W h e n the film was released i n A m e r i c a the f o l l o w i n g year, the film again received praise f r o m critics w i t h some m i - n o r exceptions, a m o n g w h i c h was a notable review i n Time magazine: "For al l its vitality, the film is decadent, an artis- tic f a i lure , " 8 and " "wors t o f a l l , La Dolce Vita fails to attract the moviegoer as m u c h as i t repulses h i m , fails to insp i re his sympathies as w e l l as his d isgust . " 9 Most crit ics , t h o u g h , l ike Bosley Crowther, a w r i t e r for The New York Times, concluded that the film "proved to deserve al l the hurrahs and the impressive honors i t has received." 1 0 I n his review, Crowther writes that the film is an "awesome picture , l icent ious i n content b u t m o r a l a n d vastly sophis- ticated i n its att i tude and what i t says." 1 1 La Dolce Vita was n o m i n a t e d for four Academy Awards, i n c l u d i n g Best D i - r e c t o r — w i n n i n g for Best Costume Design: Black-and- W h i t e — a n d received a New York F i l m Critics Circle award for Best Foreign F i l m . Fel l ini 's film was received positively i n A m e r i c a due i n part to the inte l lectual c l imate i n t o w h i c h i t was released. I n the 1950s and 1960s Fe l l in i became, as Joseph M c B r i d e puts i t , the "director as superstar" 1 2 for academics as w e l l as the p u b l i c . 1 3 Fe l l in i achieved such superstardom pr imar - i l y because his w o r k as a d i r e c t o r — e p i t o m i z e d i n La Dolce E L E M E N T S : : F A L L 2 0 1 0 Uietato ai minori di T6 ami LA DOLCE VITA B R O U G H T T H E A L L U R E O F I T A L I A N C U L T U R E T O C I N E M A S A C R O S S T H E U N I T E D STATES. Vita - "dovetailed w i t h three m a j o r movements i n the arts and i n film i n the 1950s and 1960s: h i g h m o d e r n i s m , the art film, a n d a u t e u r i s m . " 1 4 H i g h m o d e r n i s m refers to the a l i g n m e n t o f m o d e r n art w i t h h i g h (versus popular) cul- ture , m a r k i n g a clear d i s t i n c t i o n between innovative, ex- clusive " h i g h " art and art appearing i n pop cul ture , favor- i n g the former. A r t film, especially i n A m e r i c a n vernacular, refers to a film that presents i t se l f as a piece o f h i g h art, w i t h such films generally be ing directed by an auteur, or a filmmaker whose films are p r i m a r i l y guided by his o w n creative v i s ion . A l l three o f these movements were inter- related and al l three were f u n d a m e n t a l to Fell ini 's interna- t i o n a l success w i t h La Dolce Vita. La Dolce Vita encapsulates the h i g h m o d e r n m o v e m e n t i n film, b e i n g an art film i n every sense o f the w o r d , espe- cially as i t was made u n d e r the d i rec t ion o f the auteur. I n p r o d u c i n g La Dolce Vita, Fe l l in i a t tempted above al l else to craft the film i n t o a piece o f h i g h art. H e drew o n m o d e r n - ist l i terature and exper imented w i t h modes o f narrative: the film presents seven loosely connected episodes, resem- b l i n g a col lect ion o f short stories that are only m a r g i n a l l y b o u n d . Together, this m o d e r n i s t narrative technique, u n - convent ional i n film at that t i m e , " c o n f i r m e d Fell ini 's rep- u t a t i o n w i t h i n h i g h m o d e r n i s t circles o f the t i m e " 1 5 and led crit ics to consider the film one o f the greatest art films ever produced. Fe l l in i hoped that La Dolce Vita w o u l d become a c inematic p o e m , and most contemporary critics felt that he had done so. Moreover, Fell ini 's cont ro l over the direc- t i o n o f the film was unprecedented and is rare even today. H e crafted each detail o f the film so that i t t r u l y became his piece o f art. F i l m crit ic Peter Bonadello compared Fell ini 's T H E F I L M ' S PORTRAYAL O F L O O S E S E X U A L I T Y R E S O N A T - / I T H A M E R I C A N A U D I E N C E S I N T H E 1960s. construct ion o f his films to " the art produced i n the work- shop o f a Renaissance painter . . . v i r tua l ly every d e t a i l - costumes, m a k e u p , l i g h t i n g , sets—of every film was m i - nute ly sketched out by Fe l l in i w i t h his famous felt-t ip m a r k e r . " 1 6 La Dolce Vita aspired w i t h unprecedented a m b i - t i o n to make film a core media o f h i g h m o d e r n art, a n d the cu l tura l condit ions o f its p r o d u c t i o n could not have been m o r e auspicious for such an a m b i t i o n . One begins to u n - derstand the cr i t ical acc la im. 1 7 The cu l tura l c l imate i n A m e r i c a also c o n t r i b u t e d substan- t ia l ly to the film's reception by the publ ic , for i t enjoyed considerable box-office receipts o f over $ 19 ,500,000 i n Amer ica . Th i s success is t i ed to the t i m i n g o f its release, w h i c h coinc ided w i t h a rise i n the A m e r i c a n people's inter- est i n in te rnat iona l films. As film crit ic Frank Burke wri tes , there existed "widespread postwar A m e r i c a n movie inter- ests overseas" 1 8 and I ta l ian (and French) c inema experi- enced considerable success i n A m e r i c a n markets . T h i s popular reception reflected t w o movements i n A m e r i c a n cul ture . First, the recept ion o f La Dolce Vita—and I ta l ian film i n general—represented a larger cu l tura l fascination w i t h I t - aly. D u r i n g the 1950s and 1960s, what A m e r i c a wore , what its citizens drove, a n d h o w they looked, was i n f l u - enced considerably by Italy's trendsetters, w h i c h i n c l u d e d fashion designers, film directors, and automakers . I f i t came f r o m Italy, a n d the designer's n a m e ended i n a vow- el, the A m e r i c a n publ ic was b u y i n g i t . Even First Lady Jackie Kennedy, an i c o n o f America 's style, was enamored w i t h Oleg Cassini designs. Th i s fascination w i t h I ta l i an cu l ture coincided w i t h a peak i n A m e r i c a n interest i n film. I n this cu l tura l c l imate , i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g that Fe l l in i - the I ta l i an director - and his mas terwork La Dolce Vita experi- enced such popular a n d cr i t ica l success i n Amer ica . Second, the reception o f the film occurred i n the m i d s t o f an evolving cu l tura l and sexual revo lut ion i n Amer ica . Not released i n A m e r i c a u n t i l 1961, the reception o f the film was preceded by three s ignif icant events i n A m e r i c a n cul- t u r a l history: the i s su ing o f the Kinsey reports (1948 and 1953), the election o f President John Fitzgerald Kennedy (January i 9 6 0 ) a n d the development o f the p i l l (May i 9 6 0 ) . The Kinsey reports, t w o studies by A l f r e d Kinsey explor ing male a n d female sexuality, challenged wide ly h e l d beliefs about h u m a n sexuality, i n c l u d i n g prevalent medica l l i terature that posited that w o m e n were not sexual beings. M o r e t h a n any previous book, Kinsey's studies placed sex o n the nat ional stage and i n s p i r e d publ i c dis- E L E M E N T S F A L L 2010 course o n A m e r i c a n sexuality. These reports h a d b e g u n to t r a n s f o r m American 's perceptions o f sexual behavior, b u t by i 9 6 0 w i t h the election o f the g lamorous and sexy Ken- nedy family, Amer icans h a d an entire ly n e w understand- i n g o f sex. U n l i k e ever before, Amer icans were remarkably open about and interested i n sex. Th i s new perspective o n sex affected cr it ics ' percept ion o f the p r o m i s c u i t y i n La Dolce Vita and drove the pub l i c to the theaters, w a n t i n g to see its cur ios i ty played out o n the b i g screen. A large reason for th is f i lm's popular appeal was its sex appeal. I n t e r n a t i o n a l films h a d m o r e n u d i t y and were gen- erally m o r e r isque t h a n A m e r i c a n films. La Dolce Vita d i d n o t disappoint . The so-called "orgy scene," the final scene o f the film exc luding the epilogue o n the beach, i n w h i c h Marcel lo conducts the revelers, was w h o l l y unprecedented i n f i l m . Even The New York Times reviewer, w h o lavishly praised the film, noted that the film was " l i c e n t i o u s . " 1 9 Roger Ebert postulated that the popular reception o f the film was due largely to this e lement o f the film: "We are afraid that , despite the a lmost extreme good taste w i t h w h i c h the mov ie was f i l m e d , we are afraid that m a n y o f the thousands w h o queued u p before the theatre h a d rather elementary m o t i v e s . " 2 0 Moreover, the recept ion o f the film also coincided w i t h se- r ious economic development i n Amer ica . Given the corre- s p o n d i n g social effects o f that development o n 1950s Amer ica , the mater ia l ist ic Rome that Fe l l in i presented i n La Dolce Vita was not ent ire ly fore ign to A m e r i c a n movie- goers; A m e r i c a n audiences cou ld relate to the film and its social commentary . By 1949 i n Amer ica , despite the con- t i n u i n g problems o f postwar re-conversion, an economic expansion h a d b e g u n that w o u l d cont inue w i t h only b r i e f i n t e r r u p t i o n s for a lmost twenty years. A m o n g the m o s t s t r i k i n g social developments o f the i m m e d i a t e postwar era was the r a p i d extension o f a middle-class lifestyle a n d out- look to an expanding p o r t i o n o f the p o p u l a t i o n . As histo- r i a n A l a n Br ink ley remarks , "At the center o f middle-class cu l ture i n the 1950s was a g r o w i n g absorpt ion w i t h con- s u m e r goods." 2 1 By i 9 6 0 A m e r i c a and Italy h a d experi- enced an economic revo lut ion , and port ions o f b o t h popu- lat ions were concerned about the social effects o f the t r a n s i t i o n . These Amer icans viewed Fell ini 's social com- mentary as relevant a n d poignant ; Bosley Crowther, a w r i t - er for The New York Times, captured this feel ing i n his re- view o f the film: " O f al l the inte l l igent filmmakers w h o have been t r y i n g i n recent years to give us a comprehen- sive p icture o f the frantic c iv i l i zat ion o f the present day, i t looks as i f Federico Fe l l in i has come closest to d o i n g i t i n his great I ta l ian f i l m , 'La Dolce Vita.'"22 Crowther even sug- gests that the i l ls that Fe l l in i portrays are applicable to "al- m o s t any h i g h l y c iv i l ized r e a l m . " Crowther 's c o m m e n t s , l ike those f r o m the previously m e n t i o n e d contemporary crit ics , reveal the pol i t i ca l , social, and c u l t u r a l c l imate i n w h i c h the film was produced. LA DOLCE VITA AS A C U L T U R A L C R I T I Q U E The t e l l i n g nature o f La Dolce Vita's reception suggests its importance to his tory as a cu l tura l artifact, b u t beyond d o c u m e n t i n g the c l imate o f the per iod , the film offers a commentary . A n d i n the years preceding the p r o d u c t i o n o f La Dolce Vita, Italy experienced radical changes. D u r i n g those years, Italy entered a n e w phase o f g r o w t h a n d change. As film cr i t ic Stephen Gundle wr i tes , " N o longer the p r e d o m i n a n t l y agr icu l tura l and only p r i m i t i v e l y indus- t r i a l country that had emerged f r o m the Second W o r l d War, [Italy] was rapidly developing i n t o an i n d u s t r i a l soci- ety w i t h a prof i le o f its o w n . " 2 3 I n the i m m e d i a t e post-war per iod , Italy had experienced a devastating depression, b u t by the end o f the 1950s Italy's economic for tune h a d t u r n e d a r o u n d , i n part due to its n e w f o u n d allies a n d new- f o u n d resources. I n the 1950s, Italy became a m e m b e r o f the N A T O al l iance—benef i t ing i m m e n s e l y f r o m the funds allocated by the Marsha l l P l a n — a n d a m e m b e r o f the Eu- ropean Economic C o m m u n i t y ( w h i c h later became the European U n i o n ) . A i d e d by these n e w allies and the dis- covery o f methane , w h i c h re invigorated the I ta l i an steel "The film is undoubtedly a reaction to the turbulence facing an Italy in transition, but the film also constitutes a response to calamities facing Fellini, in transition himself/' industry , Italy experienced an impress ive economic revival and g r o w t h . Suddenly, i n the wake o f a serious depression, Ital ians experienced unprecedented prosperity. Th i s eco- n o m i c development, later ent i t led the "Economic Mirac le , " J LA DOLCE VITA FEDERICO FELLINI A N D O N E OF HIS M A N Y WIVES, G i - l l LI ETTA MAS I N A, IN "1957. began i n 1957 a n d was i n f u l l s w i n g i n 1959, the year i n w h i c h Fe l l in i filmed La Dolce Vita. The Economic Mirac le h a d a considerable i m p a c t u p o n the social a n d cu l tura l c l imate i n Italy, and the film catches the swift changes o f r a p i d development. I n the m i d s t o f the Economic Mirac le , Italy became the locat ion o f m a n y out- sourced A m e r i c a n films. I n the late 1950s, a n u m b e r o f A m e r i c a n studios financed films shot o n locat ion i n Italy, p r i m a r i l y Rome. Amer icans studios d i d so for t w o reasons: i n a d d i t i o n to capita l iz ing o n the A m e r i c a n people's fasci- n a t i o n w i t h Italy, the studios were able to increase the i r prof i t m a r g i n s given the relatively cheap cost o f labor i n Rome. A m e r i c a n films such as Three Coins in the Fountain and Summertime in Venice he lped feed the frenzy for any- t h i n g I ta l i an , were received w e l l by the A m e r i c a n publ ic , a n d l ed to considerable profits for the A m e r i c a n studios. Gundle wr i tes , "As Rome became the leading European centre for A m e r i c a n locat ion films, so a sizeable mov ie colony sprang u p . " 2 4 I n the 1960s i n Italy, " the d i s t i n c t i o n between the [Ital ian] nat iona l film i n d u s t r y and H o l l y w o o d film became b l u r r e d . " 2 5 Rome became referred to as " H o l - l ywood o n the Tiber." La Dolce Vita seizes o n a n u m b e r o f aspects o f this new movie colony. At th is t i m e , A m e r i c a n actresses a n d actors V came to l ive i n Rome, n i g h t l y convening together a long the Via Veneto. These A m e r i c a n celebrities, "unprotected by the studios.. . f o u n d themselves at the mercy o f the oppor- t u n i s t p h o t o g r a p h e r s " 2 6 that suppl ied the tab lo id press. The presence o f these Amer icans actors a n d actresses is "clearly evoked i n La Dolce Vita via Sylvia a n d her fiance, Robert . " 2 7 Likewise, the constant presence o f the tab lo id photographers , specifically Paparazzo, i n the film reflects the seeming omnipresence o f the same photographers i n contemporary Rome. F r o m the first f u l l scene o f the film, Fe l l in i recreates th is atmosphere i n al l its splendor, sensa- t i o n , a n d d o l d r u m . After the prologue featur ing the he l i - copter, the film begins i n a n i g h t c l u b o n the Via Veneto. Th i s scene captures the banal ity o f the celebrity w o r l d as Marcel lo haggles the waiter to find out w h a t one o f the ce- lebrit ies had ordered for d inner ; l ikewise, Marcello's inter- act ion w i t h Maddalena captures the p a i n f u l b o r e d o m o f the in -crowd. As the film proceeds, this b o r e d o m — a n d absence o f meaning—becomes m o r e explicit a n d the Via Veneto is never far, nor are the paparazzi that i n h a b i t i t . The Economic Mirac le led to a n u m b e r o f drastic social changes, n o t al l o f w h i c h were positive. Large-scale urban- iza t ion catalyzed a dramat ic p o p u l a t i o n shift f r o m the i m - poverished south to the indust r i a l i zed n o r t h . I n increas ing n u m b e r s , peasants "abandoned r u r a l areas to seek a better l i fe i n the c i t i e s " 2 8 and the i r m i g r a t i o n led m a n y Ital ians to reassess the i r c u l t u r a l values: "As the m o v e m e n t occurred, the values o f c o n s u m e r i s m came to be wide ly accepted" 2 9 a n d as a result o f " this new social mobi l i ty . . . an a lmost i n - stantaneous drop o f interest i n re l ig ious sent iment i n Italy [occurred] . " 3 0 These currents are i m m e d i a t e l y visible i n La Dolce Vita. Fe l l in i made these effects visible not on ly to m a r k t h e m , b u t to single t h e m out for considerat ion and c r i t i c i s m . Most crit ics agree that the film represents an observation, i f n o t a commentary , u p o n these changes: "There seems l i t t l e doubt that [Fel l ini] wanted to say s o m e t h i n g cr i t ica l about the change o f cu l ture that was occurr ing . I f Fe l l in i was n o t a mora l i s t t h e n he was at least sat i r ica l . " 3 1 Fe l l in i "Fellini, thus, haves open the possibility that the audi- ence can succeed where his characters failed." E L E M E N T S F A L L 2 0 1 0 h i m s e l f noted that w i t h his film he "wanted to p u t the ther- m o m e t e r to a sick w o r l d . " 3 2 I n La Dolce Vita, Fe l l in i pres- ents an image o f th is n e w Rome i n w h i c h r e l i g i o n is ab- sent and mater ia l a n d sexual impulses ru le . H i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the n e w Rome is clear f r o m the prologue o f the film: as the hel icopter carries Chr i s t over Rome and "the shadow o f Chr is t falls over the great city, only a few boys pursue the image, and those w h o bother to glance u p do so i n a cur ious , idle way o n the l i v i n g God w h o is gone n o w — o n l y idols , o f one k i n d or another r e m a i n . " 3 3 T h e m e a n d e r i n g tale o f Marcel lo that follows demonstrates that l i fe i n th is new Rome consists o f b o r e d o m and false idols . The film, thus , lays bare the emptiness o f the so- called "sweet l i fe . " As i f to c o n f i r m th is , Fe l l in i i n c l u d e d a n u m b e r o f actual h is tor ic events, s i tuat ing the surreal story w i t h i n a fami l iar context. For example, the orgy scene a l luded to a " s t r ip per- f o r m e d by the T u r k i s h dancer A iche Nana at Rome's Ru- gant ine n i g h t c l u b i n November 1958." 3 4 The str ip h a d caused a large controversy i n the press and w o u l d be i m - mediately recognized by I ta l i an audiences. Likewise, the image o f A n i t a Ekberg i n the Trevi f o u n t a i n w o u l d be fa- m i l i a r to Fell ini 's domestic audience. U p o n Ekberg's ar- r iva l i n Rome, she "had i m m e d i a t e l y become a favorite o f the i l lustrated weeklies ,"and her image filled page u p o n page o f the tabloids . 3 5 One o f the most in famous pictures was w h e n "Ekberg h a d been photographed i n the Trevi f o u n t a i n . " 3 6 Like the "orgy scene," and a n u m b e r o f the other scenes, the Trevi f o u n t a i n scene w o u l d have been instant ly recognized. The Time review even suggested, per- haps w i t h a b i t o f hyperbole, that "every episode i n the film was suggested by a R o m a n scandal o f the last t en years." 3 7 The New York Times review echoes the same sent iment : "To m o s t o f us A m e r i c a n moviegoers, the authent ic i ty o f the episodes and, indeed, o f the total d e m o n s t r a t i o n may n o t be as incontestable and r i c h l y appreciated as i t has been to audiences i n Italy, where events ident ica l to these have ac- tual ly occurred - and what is m o r e i m p o r t a n t , have been elaborately reported i n the press." 3 8 T h o u g h i t may n o t have been as i m m e d i a t e l y evident to A m e r i c a n filmgoers, Fe l l in i i n c l u d e d these fami l ia r events to r e m i n d the viewer that the Rome i n La Dolce Vita is n o t u n l i k e the actual Rome i n w h i c h the film was produced. The i n c l u s i o n o f these events indicates that the film is undoubted ly a reac- t i o n to the turbulence facing an Italy i n t r a n s i t i o n , b u t the film also constitutes a response to calamities facing Felli- n i , i n t r a n s i t i o n h i m s e l f . 3 9 This autobiographical e lement i n La Dolce Vita is u n m i s - takable . 4 0 As film cr i t ic Edward M u r r a y wr i tes , " m a n y i n c i - dents f r o m Fell ini 's past have been woven i n t o his pic- t u r e s , " 4 1 and La Dolce Vita, i n particular, "seems to conta in s ignif icant autobiographical e lements . " 4 2 I n m a n y ways the story o f Marcel lo is the story o f Fe l l in i h imsel f . Mar- cello holds " the same k i n d o f journa l i s t job that Fe l l in i h i m s e l f once h e l d i n Rome. " 4 3 Like Marcel lo , Fe l l in i left h is h o m e o n the coast o f Italy b e h i n d , m i g r a t i n g to the capital city and t a k i n g a job as a j o u r n a l i s t : 4 4 " d u r i n g his early periods i n the I ta l i an capital, Fe l l in i br ief ly reported police news for II popolo di Roma."45 A n d l ike Marcel lo he was n o t content w i t h th is vocation; i n interv iews, Fe l l in i has "often r e m a r k e d that this was not a happy per iod i n his l i fe disparaging his mindless w o r k and craving a m o r e ar- tist ic m e d i u m . Marcello's vocation and his f rus t ra t ion w i t h that vocat ion seem to be an a l lus ion to Fell ini 's early years i n Rome. I n add i t ion , Fel l ini 's father, Urbano , f requently traveled to the n o r t h o n business a n d was largely absent f r o m Fell ini 's ch i ldhood . I n La Dolce Vita, Marcel lo spends an evening w i t h h is father, a t rave l ing salesman, w i t h w h o m he has A N I T A EKBERG'S I N F A M O U S B A P T I S M I N T H E TREVI F O U N T A I N . LA DOLCE VITA never h a d an i n t i m a t e re lat ionship . I t seems di f f icult n o t to conclude that " U r b a n o Fe l l in i seems to have been the m o d e l for the father . " 4 6 The l i k e l i h o o d o f autobiographical ref lect ion is s trengthened by the i n n e r t u r m o i l that Fe l l in i faced at the t i m e o f p r o d u c t i o n . M i d w a y t h r o u g h produc- t i o n o f the film, Fel l ini 's father passed away and Fe l l in i experienced a complete m e n t a l breakdown. I n this t i m e o f personal t r a n s i t i o n , cr i t ical ref lect ion o n one's personal h i s tory w o u l d be a natura l response. The presence o f these autobiographical elements indicates that the film n o t only reflects the social t u r m o i l i n Italy, b u t also the personal t u r m o i l w i t h i n Fe l l in i . Marcel lo is no hero. By the e n d o f the film he is corrupt , l i teral ly w a v i n g goodbye to innocence w i t h an air o f complete indifference. H e has been corrupted by the film industry . A n d i f Mar- cello's story is also that o f Fe l l in i , t h e n Marcello's corrup- t i o n int imates Fell ini 's o w n c o r r u p t i o n . The story t h e n funct ions as a m e m o i r o f Fel l ini 's loss o f innocence i n pur- suit o f h is art. T h u s , the film is b o t h an i n d i v i d u a l and an autobiographi- cal story, c o m p o s i n g a c o m m e n t a r y o n I ta l i an society as a whole . F r o m this narrative, Fel l ini 's concept o f salvation emerges. U n t i l the final reel o f the film, i t seems Fell ini 's concept ion is d i m . Both for h i m and for the larger I ta l ian p o p u l a t i o n , l i fe i n this new w o r l d seems empty: the "sweet l i fe" is not sweet at a l l . The o l d w o r l d is gone, and al l that remains are false idols and b o r e d o m . The first episode— por t ray ing the Via Veneto t h r o u g h Marcello's and Mad- dalena's excursions—shows this hangout o f the wealthy a n d bored, d e m o n s t r a t i n g h o w the bored retreat i n t o sen- sual i ty—a false i d o l — f o r comfort , delaying the i r perpetual dissatisfaction. The second episode employs Marcello's encounters w i t h Sylvia (Anita Ekberg) to d o c u m e n t the shallowness o f the "sweet l i fe" i n the v i v i d bacchanalian festival, e n d i n g w i t h the in famous false b a p t i s m i n the Trevi f o u n t a i n , represent ing yet another false i d o l for the anti-hero. The t h i r d episode, the m e d i a spectacle o f the "mirac le , " reveals a w o r l d w i t h o u t real r e l i g i o n , where "re- l i g i o n has been replaced by publ ic i ty , " r e n d e r i n g the m e d i a i t se l f a false i d o l . 4 7 I n the f o u r t h episode the "natura l , or- dered, inte l lectual , t rad i t iona l , artistic, f ami ly group" ap- pears to be the "answer to life's m e a n i n g , " 4 8 b u t subse- quent suicide shows that even Steiner is n o t free o f the m o d e r n c o n d i t i o n and has become a false i d o l . I n the fifth episode, Marcel lo meets w i t h his father only to realize that b o r e d o m is at the center o f b o t h the i r lives and that they can teach each other n o t h i n g ; as the episode concludes, b o t h Marcel lo a n d his father " r e t u r n to his o w n place o f V i so lat ion and b o r e d o m , " and to e m p t y ideas o f f ami ly and h o m e . 4 9 The s ixth episode, the castle scene, fur ther dem- onstrates the death o f the o l d w o r l d and the emptiness o f sensuality. I n the final episode, i n the wake o f Steiner's death, Marcel lo leads the revelers at the party as "every- t h i n g is a n n u l l e d , " and the party celebrates the vo id , w i t h meaningless (and unexci t ing) sexual encounters ; the revel- ers do n o t look for an i d o l because they k n o w i t is n o t t h e r e . 5 0 As Marcel lo progresses t h r o u g h these episodes, he experi- ences a progressive sp i r i tua l a n d m o r a l deter iorat ion: " H a v i n g lost contact w i t h the sp i r i tua l and natura l wor lds , h a v i n g at tempted to computer ize a n d rat ional ize al l expe- rience [Marcel lo, l ike all] m e n has been left we ighted w i t h b o r e d o m . " 5 1 Yet Fe l l in i does n o t suggest that salvation is imposs ible . The e n d i n g is t e l l i n g , for i n the epilogue Mar- cello sees Paola—the image o f innocence i n the film—but chooses to leave her b e h i n d , w a v i n g his h a n d i n indiffer- ence. Marcel lo freely chooses to do so. Marcel lo , l ike the other characters, is persistently presented w i t h the oppor- t u n i t y to grow, b u t he fails to pursue that oppor tuni ty : "The film is a story o f fai led evo lut ion i n w h i c h characters are unable to g row f r o m physical to imaginat ive l i f e . " 5 2 Fe l l in i , thus , leaves open the poss ibi l i ty that the audience can suc- ceed where his characters failed. I n the final shot o f the p icture—Paolo star ing at the aud ience—Fel l in i challenges the spectator i n t o e x a m i n i n g his or her o w n life and val- ues: "At the e n d i t is n o t only Marcel lo left w i t h a choice, w i t h the poss ibi l i ty o f t u r n i n g his l i fe a r o u n d and becom- i n g a new, and t ruer m a n ; the viewer is presented w i t h the same o p t i o n . " 5 3 W i t h this gorgeous last image, Fe l l in i seems to suggest that t h o u g h salvation i n this new Rome is n o t plausible, i t remains possible. Fe l l in i , l ike m a n y o f the I ta l i an people, had given u p his be l i e f i n Christ ianity . T h o u g h he saw the terr ib le effects o f the nation's and his o w n t r a n s i t i o n , Fe l l in i reta ined hope that salvation was possible. Like the I ta l i an people, he had given u p fa i th i n Christ ianity , b u t he h a d n o t ent ire ly em- braced n i h i l i s m . H e had n o t given u p hope. A n d his film is a relic o f that struggle, w h i c h Fe l l in i shared w i t h fe l low Ital ians and w i t h m a n y across the western w o r l d . W h i l e the I ta l ian people came to lose the i r fa i th i n Christ ianity , they searched elsewhere for m e a n i n g . La Dolce Vita docu- ments that search, s h o w i n g the I ta l i an people's struggle and w o r s h i p o f false idols , such as sex and m a t e r i a l i s m , as replacements for Chr i s t ian i ty i n 1960s Italy. The film, thus , provides the h i s t o r i a n a g l impse n o t on ly i n t o the pol i t ica l , social, and cu l tura l c l imate , b u t also allows for E L E M E N T S F A L L 2010 ins ight i n t o Italy's concept ion o f—or rather struggle to contempor ize—salvat ion . The f i l m , therefore, is an invaluable artifact. A n assess- m e n t o f the film's recept ion provides the h i s t o r i a n an u n - derstanding o f the social, pol i t ica l , cu l tura l , and intellec- tua l c l imate i n b o t h A m e r i c a and Italy i n i 9 6 0 . A n a l y z i n g the film i t se l f allows the h i s t o r i a n to move beyond s imple characterization a n d to apprehend s o m e t h i n g o f the feel and popular consciousness o f the t i m e . Hence, the histo- r i a n can ga in an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the I ta l ian people's search for m e a n i n g and salvation as the i r fa i th i n Chr i s t i - anity eroded. Just so was Fell ini 's a m b i t i o n c o n s u m m a t e d : n o t only is La Dolce Vita a master fu l film, i t is a master- piece o f art i n the t w e n t i e t h century. E N D N O T E S 1. Gundle (133) 2. Gundle (136) 3. Gundle (136) 4. Gundle.(137) 5. Another factor contributing to the success of La Dolce Vita i n Italy was the influence of Anita Ekberg; to Italian men, the beauty of a blonde woman is incomparable. 6. "Review Summary" New York Times, http://movies.nytimes. com/movie /27906/La- Dolce-Vita/overview 7. Crowther (30) 8. "Cinema: The Day of the Beast," Time Magazine, Apri l 21, i96i,http://www.time.com/time/magazine/ article/0,9171,8953ii,oo.html?artId=8953ii?contType=article?ch n=us#ixzzoWZcRNkiD 9. Like most of the negative responses, the Time review misinterprets the f i lm, failing to see the underlying currents of satire and sharp criticism, (e.g. "good deal of the picture is out- and-out sensationalism, smeared on with a heavy hand to attract the insects...the f i l m is vulgar and naive.") 10. Crowther (30) 11. Ibid. 12. Burke (1) 13. In the cultural and theoretical climate of subsequent.decades, which that came to deny the autonomy of the individual (i.e. structuralism) "the concept of the modern artist-as-romantic hero was debunked and Fellini became viewed as an egoistic anachronism" (Burke 1). Though, Fellini had been a "a favorite among many academics in the 1960s, he became an outcast among f i l m academics of the 1970s and 1980s" (Burke 2). The development of scholarship on Fellini is beyond the scope of this essay, but it is important to understand that development occurred - further demonstrating that La Dolce Vita was filmed i n shifting ideological climate. 14. Burke (7) 15. Burke (98) 16. Bondanella (3) 17. The intellectual climate not only influenced the reception of the f i lm, but also the production of the film - for, the intellectual climate not only influenced the critics but also Fellini himself and the patrons that financed his film. The narrative structure of the film is entirely modernist, evoking "comparisons to T.S. Eliot, James Joyce and other major modernist writers" (Burke 103). Fellini had, indeed, read such literature and hoped to mirror it i n film. These modernist sympathies ensured that Fellini received the financial backing necessary to create the project. At the time of La Dolce Vita's production, American investment had become critical to Fellini's capability to make movies. And at the time, the Cold War was i n ful l swing and Americans felt that the spread of liberalism "required not only money but the infusion of American ideology" (Burke 9). Accordingly, "American ideology enlisted high art and the cult of the artist as symbols of American individualism and freedom of thought" (Burke 9). Fellini, as an auteur and producer of high art, fit the bil l , receiving significant financial support from American investors. 18. Burke (8) 19. Crowther (30) 20. Ebert (1961) 21. Brinkley (887) 22. Crowther, "La Dolce Vita: Fellini's Urbane Film Looks Askance at Life"(ii9) 23. Gundle (135) 24. Gundle (135) 25. Burke (8) 26. Gundle (135) 27. Gundle (137) 28. Gundle (135) 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Costello (35) 33. Murray (116) 34. Gundle (139) 35. Gundle (139) 36. Gundle (139) 37. "Cinema: The Day of the Beast," Time Magazine, April 21, i96i,http://www.time.com/time/magazine/ article/o,9171,895311,oo.html?artId=8953ii?contType=article?ch n=us#ixzzo WZcRNki D 38. Crowther,"La Dolce Vita: Fellini's Urbane Film Looks Askance at Life." (119) 39. As Fellini's style as a director changed with h i m . This film is a transitional piece between neo-realism and the aesthetic of his later work, the style that would later be termed Fellini-esque. The film, in many ways, is markedly not a neo-realist film: segments of the movie are filmed i n a studio, the focus of the film is not upon the commonplace but upon the extraordinary and the wealthy, the films experimental narrative structure is a stark contrast f rom the mise-en-scene of neo-realist films. The film, though, retains the goals, i f not the methods of neo-realist cinema. Like the neo-realists, Fellini intends for his films to bring about the "transformation of consciousness" (Murray LA DOLCE VITA http://movies.nytimes http://www.time.com/time/magazine/ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/ 4).The neo-realists sought to bring it about by showing the negative consequences of the war. Fellini, instead, "sought to offer narrative models of transformation, rooted i n the experience and imaginative growth of individual characters" (Murray 4). Likewise, i n La Dolce Vita, Fellini does not yet embrace the dream sequences of his later films, not altering music, and simply presenting life as he sees it (although the life i n focus is that of the wealthy not the impoverished). Like the neo-realist, he is simply directing the facts - even i f his focus is different than that of the neo-realists. 40. Whether Fellini would agree with this assessment is questionable. Concerning the autobiographical element i n his works, Fellini himself has been (characteristically) inconsistent i n his remarks on the subject. As Murray notes, "On the one hand, he has said: 'an artist can only be understood through his work what I have to say, I say i n my work. My work can't be anything other than a testimony of what I am looking for. It is a mirror my searching.' On the other hand he has also said: ' I cannot remove myself f rom the content of my films. I f I were to make a film about the life of a sole, i t would end up being about me...there is autobiographical vain that is i n all my work'" (Murray 4). 41. Murray (8) 42. Murray (9) 43. Costello (36) 44. Admittedly, this allusion is not perfect. Fellini, unlike Marcello, migrated to Rome only after l iving i n Florence, where he was employed as a cartoonist for a number of years. 45. Murray (9) 46. Murray (6) 47. Costello (51) 48. Costello (53) 49. Costello (54) 50. Costello (69) 51. Costello (126) 52. Burke (86) 53. Costello (131) R E F E R E N C E S Bondanella, Peter. The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 2002. Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation: A Concise History of the American People. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Burke, Frank. Fellini's Films, From Postwar to Postmodern. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996. Burke, Frank. Federico Fellini: Variety Lights to La Dolce Vita. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1984. Crowther, Bosley. "Fellini Film Lives Up to Foreign Hurrahs." The New York Times, 20 April 1961: p. 30. Crowther, Bosley. "La Dolce Vita: Fellini's Urbane Film Looks Askance at Life." The New York Times, 23 April 1961: p. 119. V Chandler, Charlotte. I , Fellini. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001. "Cinema: The Day of the Beast." Time Magazine. 21 April 1961. . Costello, Donald P. Fellini's Road. Notre Dame, I N : University of Notre Dame Press, 1983. Ebert, Roger. "La Dolce Vita." The Daily I l l in i . 4 October 1961. < h t t p : / / r o g e r e b e r t . s u n t i m e s . c o m / a p p s / p b c s . d l l / article?AID=/i96noo4/REVIEWS/5o8o90oi/io23>. Gundle, Stephen. The Movies As History. Gloucestershire: Red- wood Books, 2000. Ketcham, Charles B. Federico Fellini: The Search for a New Mythol- ogy^ New York: Paulet Press, 1976. Murray, Edward. Fellini the Artist. New York: Frederick Ungar Pub- lishing Co., Inc., 1976. "Movies Abroad: Everymantis." Time Magazine. 5 October 1962. < h t t p : / / w w w . t i m e . c o m / t i m e / m a g a z i n e / a r t i - cle/0,9171,829205,oo.html?artId=829205?contType=article?chn =us>. "Movies Abroad: The Winners at Cannes." Time Magazine. 30 May i 9 6 0 . . Rohdie, Sam. Fellini Lexicon. London: British Film Institute, 2002. "Review Summary." The New York Times, . E L E M E N T S : : F A L L 2010 http://www.time http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/i96noo4/REVIEWS/5o8o90oi/io23 http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/i96noo4/REVIEWS/5o8o90oi/io23 http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,829205,oo.html?artId=829205?contType=article?chn=us http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,829205,oo.html?artId=829205?contType=article?chn=us http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,829205,oo.html?artId=829205?contType=article?chn=us http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,939686,%20oo.html?artId=939686?contType=article?chn=us%23ixzzoWZdQie90 http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,939686,%20oo.html?artId=939686?contType=article?chn=us%23ixzzoWZdQie90 http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,939686,%20oo.html?artId=939686?contType=article?chn=us%23ixzzoWZdQie90 http://movies.ny-times.com/movie/27906/La-Dolce-Vita/overview http://movies.ny-times.com/movie/27906/La-Dolce-Vita/overview http://times.com/movie/27906/La-Dolce-Vita/overview%3e.