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184 

 

 
ELT FORUM 12 (3) (2023) 

 

Journal of English Language Teaching 

 
http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/elt 

 

 

The effect of vocabulary learning strategy training on vocabulary strategy use 

 

Abebaw Dessalew Bayabel1, Nuru Mohammed Tahir1 
 
1Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia 

 

Article Info 
________________ 
Article History: 
Received on 18 July 
2023 

Approved on 22 
November 2023 
Published on 30 
November 2023 

________________ 
Keywords: memory; 
meta-cognitive; 
cognitive; 
determination; social 
____________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract 
___________________________________________________________________ 
Nowadays, it is recommended to train students on how to learn vocabulary, for it is not 

practicable to teach all the English language words. The purpose of this article was to find 
out the effect of vocabulary learning strategy training on vocabulary learning strategy use 

of university students. The research design used in this study was experimental. 40 
students (20 students in each group) from both experimental and control groups 

completed the adapted Schmitt’s (1997) Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire 
(VLSQ) before and after the vocabulary learning strategy training. After the students 

completed the pre-training questionnaire, only the experimental group learners received 

vocabulary learning strategy training for 16 hours. The researcher prepared the 
vocabulary strategy training material by integrating the vocabulary lessons incorporated 

from different books. Paired samples t-test was computed on SPSS version 24 to find out 
if there was a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control 

groups regarding vocabulary learning strategy use. The study found that the experimental 
group participants improved their vocabulary usage significantly better than the control 

group participants in the five among six major categories of vocabulary learning strategies 

(less than the p-value of 0.05). Future researchers can study the effect of training in 
learning strategies of other language skills and sub-skills and can improve their strategy 

usage. One of the significance contributions of this study could be curriculum designers 
might employ this article as an input to incorporate vocabulary learning strategies into 

English language training materials and improve students’ vocabulary strategy use. 

 

  
Correspondence Address: p-ISSN 2252-6706 | e-ISSN 2721-4532 

Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia  

E-mail: abgreat.2002@gmail.com  

http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1333515478&1&&
http://issn.pdii.lipi.go.id/issn.cgi?daftar&1576658845&1&&


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185 

 

INTRODUCTION 

English language experts classified all the major language skills (speaking, listening, reading and 

writing) strategies and the language items (vocabulary and grammar) strategies. Since the focus of 

this research is on vocabulary, vocabulary learning strategies are emphasized below. It is challenging 

to come up with all-inclusive vocabulary learning strategies. One of the reasons may be the 

following as put by Schmitt (1997): the process of learning L2 vocabulary is a mental process in the 

first place and because this process interlocks with the more general language learning and 

production strategies. Therefore, it is quite difficult to settle on a non-debatable taxonomy of VLSs 

(vocabulary learning strategies). 

Like language learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies are classified differently by 

many authors. Among these scholars, Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001) have widely known VLSs 

taxonomies. Schmitt (1997) has developed a taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies based on an 

extensive language learning strategies’ taxonomy organized by Oxford (1990), including Memory, 

Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Affective, and Social categories.  

The following is the strategy inventory offered by Schmitt (1997): Category 1: Strategies for 

the discovery of a new word’s meaning • Determination Strategies (DET): analyze part of speech, 

analyze affixes and roots, check for L1 cognate, analyze any available pictures or gestures, guess 

meaning from textual context and use a dictionary (bilingual or monolingual) • Social Strategies: ask 

teacher for a synonym, paraphrase, or L1 translation of new word and ask classmate for meaning. 

Category 2: Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered • Social Strategies: 

study and practice meaning in a group and interact with native speaker. • Memory Strategies: 

connect word to a previous personal experience, associate the word with its coordinates, connect the 

word in its synonyms and antonyms; use semantic maps, image word form, image word’s meaning, 

use Keyword Method, group words together to study them, study the spelling of a word, say new 

word aloud when studying and use physical action when learning a word • Cognitive Strategies: 

verbal repetition; written repetition; word lists; put English labels on physical objects and keep a 

vocabulary notebook •Metacognitive strategies: use English-language media (songs, movies, 

newscasts, etc.); test oneself with word tests; skip or pass new word and continue to study word over 

time. 

Cohen (2003) states the most efficient way to enhance learner knowledge is to offer strategy 

training. He adds that Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI) is a student-centered method to teaching 

and it may include both implicit and explicit integration of strategies into the course content. In his 

book, it is stated that in a usual SBI environment, instructors explain and mock-up strategies, take 

facts from students’ learning experiences, lead discussions about strategies, encourage students to try 

to employ a variety of strategies and integrate strategies into class materials. This suggests that we 

should incorporate strategy training in our classes, but raises the question of how effective such 

training is. 

The results of research on Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI) on learners’ language 

development aren’t consistent: some studies report a reasonable degree of success, whereas others 

report only limited success, or even student resistance (Schmitt, 1997). But in his survey of 

classroom-based studies, McDonough (1995) concludes that improvements from training are weak, 

culturally dependent, and show up only in certain measures. Meanwhile, Stoffer (1995) states 

strategy training was the solitary excellent forecaster of the employment of vocabulary-learning 

strategies, while Hulstijn (1997) quotes various research depicting benefits in the effective utilization 

of one specific mnemonic strategy, the keyword technique, after strategy instruction. Nation (2001) 

sums up related results for the strategy of contextual guessing. All these conflicting research results 

indicate that much more research is needed regarding training on vocabulary learning strategies. So, 

it is very difficult to suggest training of strategies to improve students’ language skills before we 

apply it in a classroom and check its result. 

Vocabulary learning strategies training originated in the general area ‘learning strategies’. As 

an instructor who has taught for the past 12 years, mostly in universities, this researcher has been 

questioning about the reason behind the gap of English language educational achievement of his 

students. English language teaching scholars also began to observe the significance of individual 

variation in language learning (Brown, 2007). We see some students achieve faster and better 

academically while other students achieve sluggishly because of what is commonly called learning 

strategies. “Language aptitude and motivation constitute general factors that influence the rate and 



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level of L2 achievement. But how does their influence operate? One possibility is that they affect the 

nature and the frequency with which individual learners use learning strategies” (Ellis, 1997, p. 76).  

An attempt was made to review studies related to vocabulary learning strategies. The first 

group of studies focused on identifying the learners’ vocabulary strategy use (e.g., Aladdin et al., 

2015; Al-Fuhaid, 2004; Baldoumi, 2016; Easterbrook, 2013; Fan, 2015; Khair, 2017; 

Noormohamadi & Amirian, 2015; Siriwan, 2007). The second emphasis was given to the effect of 

learners’ use of vocabulary learning strategies on their vocabulary development (e.g., Alharthi, 2014; 

Banisaeid, 2013; King, 2011; Llamosas, 2011; Ostovar-Namaghi & Rajaee, 2013; Rahimy & Shams, 

2012; Teng, 2015). The third attention was offered to the effect of vocabulary learning strategies 

training on students’ vocabulary development (e.g., Aktekin & Guven, 2013; Ebrahimi et al., 2015). 

The fourth was about the effect of vocabulary learning strategies training on students’ vocabulary 

strategy use (e.g., Lui & Pang, 2017; Rahimi & Allahyari, 2019). The fifth focal area of the studies 

about vocabulary was on the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and reading 

comprehension (e.g., Al-Nujaidi, 2003; Burkhour, 1999; Kafipour & Naveh, 2011).  

It was believed that teachers could not teach all the words that students should know. 

Especially at tertiary level, it was recommended that teachers should teach their students how to 

learn vocabulary independently. One of the ways to do this was making students exposed to varied 

vocabulary learning strategies so that they could pick the strategies they were interested in their 

vocabulary study. However, there were conflicting research results regarding the effect of vocabulary 

learning strategy training in improving students’ strategy use. Therefore, the main aim of this study 

was to examine how far the training improved the students’ vocabulary strategy use. Meanwhile, the 

researchers believed that adequate study was not studied in this area. Particularly in Ethiopia (the 

home country of the researchers), as far as the researchers were concerned, there was not any study 

conducted on the effect of vocabulary learning strategies training on vocabulary strategy use. 

Therefore, the main purpose of this research was to fill in this gap. The specific purpose of this study 

was to find out the effect of vocabulary learning strategy training on vocabulary learning strategies 

use of university students. 

 

METHODS 

As a research design, experimental research design was employed. Both the control group and the 

experimental group completed pre-training vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire. In between 

the pre-tests and post tests, vocabulary learning strategy training was offered to only the 

experimental group. At the end, the results of the two groups were compared.  

The present study used Schmitt’s (1997) Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire 

(VLSQ). The participants rated their frequency of vocabulary learning strategy use, using a 5-point 

Likert scale. This questionnaire was adapted; some amendments were made. The words and phrases 

were changed into sentences and examples were given to some of questions, which this researcher 

thought unclear. The questionnaire was written in English language because it was believed that 

university students were capable of understanding a simplified questionnaire in the medium of 

English language. The thesis advisor and researcher’s experienced colleagues were asked to 

comment on the questionnaires concerning content validity, face validity and clarity of the items. 

The researcher of this research served as an instructor and handled both the experimental and 

control groups of the study because the researcher believed that the training would be effective when 

it was offered by the person that was studying about the issue instead of training other instructors 

and let them give the training and to avoid the influence of extraneous variables that may appear 

because of the trainers’ difference (regarding ability, gender and classroom management).  

 The vocabulary learning strategy training was offered for 16 hours in 16 weeks (1 hour per 

week). This time allocation is made considering the 48 hours (3 credit hours x 16 weeks) offered for 

Communicative English Skills Course in the semester. 

The vocabulary strategy training material was produced by integrating the vocabulary lessons 

incorporated in Communicative English Language Skills I module and the vocabulary learning 

strategies identified by Schmitt (1997) and renowned vocabulary books of various authors such as 

Oxford (1990), Nation (2001), Carter (1998) and Tacać (2008).  

The training material begins with the cover page entitled as “Vocabulary Learning Strategies 

Training Material for First Year Students. The cover page also includes date, the writer’s name, and 

address. The second page comprises the table of contents incorporating general objectives of the 

training material, the two units’ topics and subtopics, answer key for the instructor, references and 



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appendices.The man topic of  unit one reads as: strategies for the discovery of a new word's 

meaning. The main topic of unit two is ‘consolidation strategies’. At the end of the training material 

the following contents are incorporated: answer key for the instructor, references, appendix a- 

the general service list and appendix b- academic word list. 

The sampling technique that was employed to choose the university was convenience 

sampling. Using this sampling technique, Addis Ababa University was taken. Two sections of 

Natural Science Stream were randomly selected and offered to the English Language part-time 

instructor (also this researcher). Besides, simple random sampling or lottery method was employed 

to select specific sections. First an attempt was made to let all the students in each class participate in 

the study. However after letting students take the tests and fill in the questionnaire it was found that 

the average number of students, 20, was employed for analysis.  

The following steps were followed to assign students into experimental and control groups in 

the study. First, the following pre-tests were administered: Schmitt et al. (2001) Vocabulary Level 

Tests (VLT) to test the learners’ vocabulary breadth and Read’s (1998) The Word Associates Test 

(WAT) to test the students’ vocabulary depth. Second, the test paper of each student was marked 

objectively, based on the answer keys of the tests for Word Associates Test (WAT). Third, 

Independent-Samples T Test was computed on the SPSS version 24 to see if the two groups had 

similar performances on each of the vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension tests. There 

were no significant difference between the control group and experimental group regarding the 

scores in the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) and Word Associates Test (WAT). Therefore, this 

situation made the process of the experiment easy to be carried out. Finally, the groups were named 

experimental and control by drawing lots. According to the lot, from Natural Science Stream Arat 

Kilo Campus, Section 4B class was named as control group where as Section 5B was named as 

experimental group. Thus, this allowed the groups to have equal chance of being selected as 

experimental or control. In another expression, this randomization helped the researcher to 

minimize the influence of extraneous variables.  

The post-training questionnaire was completed by the participants of the experimental and 

control groups The contents of the pre-training questionnaire and the post-training questionnaire are 

similar, in order to examine the vocabulary learning strategy usage difference. 

Previous to the training, to compare homogeneity of the experimental and control group of 

learners regarding their score on vocabulary learning strategy use (in the pretest) is a crucial step in 

any experimental study. Thus, in order to check the equivalence of the two groups, the Leven‘s Test 

of Homogeneity of variance was computed, and the following result was found. There is no 

significance difference between the control group and experimental group in the usage of all 

vocabulary learning strategies. The p-values are above .05 (determination: .5.20, social for discovery: 

.51, social for consolidation: .18, memory: .30, cognitive: .48 and meta-cognitive .22). In addition, 

after the end of the experiment, normality test of data distribution was conducted in order to decide 

whether parametric or non-parametric test to be employed. Therefore, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test 

was computed and the result of the pre-questionnaire and post-questionnaire of the control group 

shows that the data was normally distributed because in each learning strategy of vocabulary the p-

value is greater than the cut-off point, 0.05 (determination: .20, social for discovery: .13, social for 

consolidation: .10, memory: .20, cognitive: .16 and meta-cognitive .06). Hence, parametric test was 

computed. Moreover, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was calculated for the pre-training and post-

training scores of the experiment group in the vocabulary learning strategies. The result illustrates 

that the data was normally distributed because in 5 among the six categories of vocabulary 

strategies, the p-value is greater than 0.05 (determination: .09, social for discovery: .20,    social for 

consolidation: .003, memory: .20, cognitive: .20 and meta-cognitive .08). Therefore, parametric test 

was calculated. 

Paired Sample T-test was computed on the SPSS to see if there was a statistically significance 

difference between the pre and post mean scores of the students in the experimental and control 

group regarding their vocabulary strategy use. To compute the vocabulary learning strategies use of 

the students, values 1 to 5 were given for never, rarely, sometimes, usually, and always respectively. 

T-test was employed by considering all major assumptions. First, the variables of the research are 

continuous. Effect size was also calculated for the Paired Sample T-tests in the main study. Before 

conducting the main study, the pilot study was carried out.  

 

 



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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 

Results of Paired-Samples t-test in vocabulary learning strategies 

This section presents answer for the main research question of this research: is there any significant 

difference in vocabulary learning strategies use between students who receive vocabulary learning 

strategies training and those who do not receive the training?  
To provide response to the above research question, both control group students, who did not 

receive vocabulary learning strategies training, and experimental group students who took the 

training completed vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire adapted from Schmitt’s (1997) 

Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (VLSQ) before and after the training of the 

experimental group. Then the 55 vocabulary learning strategies incorporated in the questionnaire 

were classified into 6 types (determination, social for discovery, social for consolidation, memory, 

cognitive and meta-cognitive). Finally, paired samples t-test was computed on SPSS version 24 and 

the following students’ strategy use in each type before and after the training was found. 

Before the discussion of the vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire, the results of the 

pre-tests in vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are presented below. 

 

Independent Samples t-test result of reading comprehension pre-test 

At the beginning of the experiment, it was appropriate to check whether experimental group and 

control group students had equivalent reading comprehension skills. Therefore, the two randomly 

selected groups sat for TOEFL reading comprehension test. The test scores of the learners are 

presented in the table below.  

 

Table 1. Independent Samples t-test result of reading comprehension pre-test of the experimental 

and control groups 
Group No. of  

Students 

Mean Standard 

Deviation 

DF T-value P-value 

Experimental 

Group 

20 17.82 6.30 35.54  

 
-1.16 

 

 
.076 

Control Group 20 15.75 4.81 38 

 

As presented in Table 1 above, the mean score of the experimental group was 17.82 and the 

mean score of the control group was 15.75 regarding reading comprehension pre-test scores of first 

year students. The calculated standard deviation of the experimental group was 6.30, and that of the 

control group was 4.81. The t and p-values were described as -1.16 and .076 respectively. This shows 

that the students assigned to the experimental and the control groups had similar performance in 

reading comprehension of the pre-test (t = -1.16, df = 38 for the control group and 35.54 for the 

experimental group, p > 0.05). 

Based on the data indicated above, it could be stated that there was no statistically significant 

difference between the experimental group and control group in the pre-test of reading 

comprehension because the p-value (sig. value) was greater than the cut-off points .05. Of course, 

there was minor mean difference between the two groups which is 2.07. However, since there was 

no statistically significant difference between the two groups, it was possible to express the two 

groups had equivalent performance in reading comprehension pre-test and it was logical to carry out 

the experiment. 

 

Independent Samples t-test result of vocabulary levels (vocabulary breath knowledge) pre-test 

To compare the vocabulary breadth knowledge difference between learners in the experimental 

group and control group, the two group students took a standardized vocabulary levels test before 

the experimental group students receive training of vocabulary learning strategies. The pretest 

enabled us to know the probable vocabulary breadth knowledge change brought by the training. The 

result of the control group and experimental group students in vocabulary breadth knowledge pretest 

is provided below. 

 

 



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Table 2. Independent Samples T-test Result of Vocabulary Levels (Vocabulary Breadth knowledge) 

Pre-Test of the Experimental and Control Groups 

Group No. of  
Students 

Mean Standard 
Deviation 

DF T-value P-value 

Experimental 
Group 

20 158.6 33.40 38 .010 .986 

Control Group 20 158.5 31.96 37.92 

 

The table above illustrates the mean score of vocabulary levels pre-test of the experimental 

group was 158.6 while the mean score of the control group in the pre-test was 158.5. The standard 

deviation of the experimental group was 33.40 and the standard deviation of the control group was 

31.96. Moreover, the table shows that the t-value of the two groups was .010 and the p-value of the 

two groups was .986. 

From the data of the above table it can be seen that no significant difference was found 

between the experimental group and the control group in vocabulary levels (vocabulary breadth 

knowledge) pre-test (t = .010, df = 38 for the control group and 37.92 for the experimental group, p 

> 0.05). 

The result clearly showed that it was scientifically correct to begin the experiment because 

there were experimental and control groups of students who were equivalent in vocabulary breadth 

knowledge. 

 

Independent Samples t-test result of word associates (vocabulary depth knowledge) pre-test 

Before answering one of the research questions, that is, whether there is significant difference in 

vocabulary depth knowledge between students who receive vocabulary learning strategies training 

and those who do not receive the training; it was significant to identify there were equivalent 

performance in vocabulary breadth knowledge between learners assigned to experimental and 

control groups. Therefore, independent samples t-test was computed, and the following result was 

found. 

 

Table 3. Independent Samples t-test result of word associates (vocabulary depth knowledge) pre-test 

of the experimental and control groups 
Group No. of  

Students 
Mean Standard 

Deviation 
DF 

T-value P-value 

Experimental 
Group 

20 121.65 17.42 35.39 
-.40 .19 

Control Group 20 119.65 13.19 38 

 

The table above shows the mean score of the pre-test of the experimental group was 121.65 

while the mean score of word associates pre-test of the control group was 119.65. The standard 

deviation of the experimental group was 17.42 and the standard deviation of the control group was 

13.19. In addition, the table presents that the t-value of the two groups was -.40 and the p-value of 

the two groups was .19. 

From the data of the above table it is shown that no significant difference was found between 

the control group and experimental group in vocabulary levels (vocabulary breadth knowledge) pre-

test (t = -.40, df = 38 for the control group and 35.39 for the experimental group, p > 0.05). 

The result clearly indicates that it was sound to conduct the experiment because there were 

control and experimental group of students who were equivalent in vocabulary depth knowledge. 

 

Results of Paired-Samples t-test in determination vocabulary learning strategies 

Determination Vocabulary Learning Strategies includes the following strategies: analyze part of 

speech, analyze affixes and roots, check for L1 cognate (equivalence), analyze any available pictures 

or gestures, guess meaning from textual context and use a dictionary. Students were asked how 

frequently they use each strategy and using the rating scale below, they circled the number that best 

describes their actual strategy use: 1 Never or almost never, 2 Seldom 3 About half the time, 4 



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Usually and 5 Always or almost always. Eventually, students’ response was calculated on SPSS and 

an attempt was made to know whether students who took vocabulary learning strategies training 

improve their strategy usage or not. For comparison purpose, control group students’ vocabulary 

usage was also computed. The table below shows the frequency difference in usage of determination 

Vocabulary Learning Strategies between the pre-training and the post-training.  

 

Table 4. Results of Paired-Samples t-test of the experimental and control groups in determination 

vocabulary learning strategies during the pre-training and the post-training 

Group Pre-Training Post-Training DF T P-

value 

No. Mean Standard  

Deviation 

No.  Mean Standar

d  

Deviatio

n 

 

The above table illustrates that experimental group students’ mean score was 28.55 in the pre-

training questionnaire but 29.25 in the post training questionnaire. The experimental group, in the 

pre-training questionnaire, had a standard deviation of 4.89 and in the post-training questionnaire 

their standard deviation was 4.68. The table also presents the t-value and p-value of the experimental 

group as -2.15 and .04. The data provided in the table shows that the experimental group students 

significantly improve their frequency in the usage of determination vocabulary learning strategies (t-

value: -2.15, p value: .04). The result is consistent with the alternative hypothesis of this study: 

training in the learning strategies of vocabulary significantly improves students’ use of vocabulary 

learning strategies. The effect size was weak (Cohen’s d: 0.15).  

Table 4 also shows that the control group students scored a mean result of 27.50 in the pre-

training questionnaire whereas they scored a mean result of 29.00 in the post-training questionnaire. 

The control group had a standard deviation of 5.74 in the pre-training questionnaire but had 3.79 in 

the post-training questionnaire. Their t and p values were .31 and .31 respectively. The data 

indicates that the control group, who did not receive training of vocabulary learning strategies, did 

not significantly improve their frequency in usage determination vocabulary learning strategies (t-

value: -1.03, p value: .31).  

 

Results of Paired-Samples t-test in social for discovery strategy 

For the discovery of a new word’s meaning, a learner may use social strategies, such as ask teacher 

for a synonym, paraphrase, or L1 translation of new word and ask classmate for meaning. Students 

both in the control and experimental groups offered response, to the pre-training and post-training 

questionnaire, on how frequently they ask a teacher, a classmate, or a mother tongue speaker to 

learn a new word. Their responses were calculated on SPSS and the following results were found. 

 

Table 5. Results of Paired-Samples T-Test in Social for Discovery of Control and Experimental  

Groups in Pre-Training and Post-Training 
Group Pre-Training Post-Training DF T P-value 

No. Mean Stand
ard  

Devia
tion 

No.  Mean Stan
dard  

Devi
ation 

Experimental 20 28.55 4.89 20 29.25 4.68 19 -2.15 0.04 

Control 20 27.50 5.74 20 29.00 3.79 19 -1.03 .31 

Experimental 20 12.05 4.55 20 14.15 4.74 19 -2.31 .03 

Control 20 14.85 2.32 20 15.20 1.93 19 -1.37 .18 



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As shown in table 5, experimental group students scored an average result of 12.05 before 

they took vocabulary learning strategy training while they scored an average result of 14.15 after 

they took training in social strategies for the discovery of a new word. Their standard deviation 

before the training was 4.55; however, their standard deviation after the training was 4.74 in the 

strategy. Their t and p values in the strategy were -2.31 and .03 respectively. This implies that there 

was significant difference between the pre-training and post-training frequency in the usage of social 

strategies to know a new word by experimental group students (t value: -2.31 and p value: .03. This 

result agrees with the alternative hypothesis: training in the learning strategies of vocabulary 

significantly improves students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies. The effect size was modest 

(Cohen’s d: 0.45).   

The above table also presents that control group students’ mean score in the frequency usage 

of social strategy for discovery of a new word was 14.85 in the pre-training and 15.20 in the post-

training. The group’s standard deviation in the strategy in the pre-training was 2.32 and 1.93 in the 

post-training. The t-value was -1.37 and p-value was .18. This result suggests that control group 

students did not significantly improve their frequency of the usage for social strategy for the 

discovery of a new word (t value: -1.37 and p-value: .18). 

 

Results of Paired-Samples t-test in social for consolidation strategy 

Social strategy for consolidating a word once it has been encountered comprises of study and 

practice meaning in a group and interact with native speaker. First year Addis Ababa University 

learners were asked how frequently they employ social strategies for consolidating a word once it 

has been encountered before and after vocabulary learning strategies training. The results of the 

responses given by both control and experimental groups to this strategy in vocabulary learning 

strategies questionnaire were computed by employing paired samples t-test on SPSS. The result of 

the test is presented below. 

 

Table 6. Results of Paired-Samples T-Test in Social for Consolidation Strategy of the Experimental 

and Control Groups in Pre-Training and Post-Training 

Group Pre-training Post-training D

F 

T P-value 

No. Mean Standard  

Deviation 

No.  Mean Standard  

Deviation 

 

Table 6 shows that the mean score of experimental group learners in social for consolidation 

strategy was 5.15 in the pre-training and 5.40. The standard deviation of the experimental group in 

the strategy was 2.34 in the pre-training and 2.32 in the post-training. The t-value and p-value of the 

group are -.77 and .44 respectively. From the data, it can be seen that experimental group students 

did not significantly improve the vocabulary learning strategy called social for consolidation though 

they took training of vocabulary learning strategies (t-value: -.77 and p-value: .44). The result 

supports the null hypothesis: training in the learning strategies of vocabulary does not significantly 

improve students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies. Moreover, it is against the findings of Wu 

(2019) which states that after students were trained for a month in social strategies, they knew the 

strategies very well and showed great motivation to employ them.  

As it is illustrated in the above table, the mean score of the control group students in social for 

consolidation strategy was 5.90 in the pre-training and 5.10 in the post-training. The standard 

deviation of the group indicates that it was 1.41 in the pre-training and 1.80 in the post-training. The 

t and p values show at 1.93 and .06 correspondingly. None of these differences were statistically 

significant (t-value: 1.93 and p-value: .06).  

 

 

 

Experimental 20 5.15 2.34 20 5.40 2.32 19 -.77 .44 

Control 20 5.90 1.41 20 5.10 1.80 19 1.93 .06 



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Results of Paired-Samples t-test in memory strategy 

Memory Strategies refer to connect word to a previous personal experience, associate the word with 

its coordinates, connect the word in its synonyms and antonyms; use semantic maps, image word 

form, image word’s meaning, use Keyword Method, group words together to study them, study the 

spelling of a word, say new word aloud when studying and use physical action when learning a 

word. Respondents were asked about their frequency usage of these strategies and their responses 

were analyzed on SPSS, using paired samples t-test. The result of the t-test is provided underneath. 

 

Table 7. Results of Paired-Samples t-test in memory strategy of the experimental and control groups 

in pre-training and post-training 

Group Pre-training Post-training DF T P-value 

No. Mean Standard  

Deviation 

No.  Mean Stand

ard  

Devia

tion 

 

As shown in the table, the mean score of the experimental group students in memory strategy 

was 72.40 in the pre-training but it was 82.40 in the post-training. The standard deviation of the 

group in the pre-training was 13.60; however, it was 19.62 in the post-training session.  The t-value 

was registered as -2.48 and the p-value was .01. The data indicates that experimental group students 

significantly improve their frequency of memory strategy usage after receiving the training (t-value: -

2.48 and p-value: .01, <0.05). It seems that the experimental group students improved their usage of 

memory strategy because the training of vocabulary learning strategies helped them to get 

acquainted with and employ various memory strategies. The effect size was moderate (Cohen’s d: 

0.60). The result is in line with the null hypothesis: training in the learning strategies of vocabulary 

does not significantly improve students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies. It also corroborates 

the finding by Sozler (2012, p.1352) which reads as, “Memory strategies training enable students to 

study on the vocabularies in such a way that they can not only deal with the unknown words and 

discover their meaning but also use them meaningfully in a context and have little chance to forget 

them”. 

Table 7 also presents the paired samples t-test result of control group students in memory 

strategy. The group’s mean score was 79.75 in the pre-training and 80.25 in the post-training. The 

group’s standard deviation was 18.20 in the pre-training and 10.47 in the post-training. The t-value 

was -.13 while the p-value was .89. No significant difference between the results of the two tests was 

evident (t-value: -.13 and p-value: .89).  

 

Results of Paired-Samples t-test in cognitive strategy 

Cognitive Strategies include verbal repetition, written repetition, word lists, put English labels on 

physical objects and keep a vocabulary notebook. First year AAU university students who were both 

in the control and experimental groups also responded to the questions, in the vocabulary learning 

strategies questionnaire, about their cognitive strategy use frequency before and after the training. 

Their answers of pre-training and post-training questionnaires were calculated using paired samples 

t-test on SPSS and the following results were found. 

  

Experimental 20 72.40 13.60 20 82.40 19.62 19 -2.48 .01 

Control 20 79.75 18.20 20 80.25 10.47 19 -.13 .89 



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Table 8. Results of Paired-Samples t-test in cognitive strategy of the experimental and control groups 

in pre-training and post-training 

Group Pre-Training Post-Training D

F 
T P-

value 

No. Mean Standard  

Deviation 

No.  Mean Standard  

Deviation 

 

The above table depicts that the average result of the experimental group participants was 

23.30 in the pre-training and 24.25 in the post-training. The standard deviation result of the group in 

the pre-training was 6.40 and it was 6.64 in the post-training. The t-value of the group was registered 

as -2.33 and the p-value of the group was registered as .03. From the data, we can understand that 

no significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-test result in cognitive strategy of 

the experimental group (t-value: -2.33 and p-value: .03). The result supports the alternative 

hypothesis: training in the learning strategies of vocabulary significantly improves students’ use of 

vocabulary learning strategies. The effect size was weak (Cohen’s d: 0.14).   

          It can also be seen from the data in the table that the control group participants registered an 

average result of 23.30 in the pre-training and scored an average result of 23.45 in the post-training. 

The standard deviation in the pre-training scored by the group was 6.40 and the standard deviation 

registered by the group in the post training was 6.39. The group’s t-value and p-value are -.21 and .83 

respectively. From the data of the table, it can be seen that no significant difference was found 

between the pre-test and post-test results in cognitive strategy use of the control group (t-value: -.21 

p-value: .83).  

 

Results of Paired-Samples t-test in meta-cognitive strategy  

Metacognitive strategies consist of using English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc.), 

testing oneself with word tests, skipping or passing new word and continuing to study word over 

time. Respondents of this study were asked to give response on how frequently they use met-

cognitive strategies to study vocabulary. The answers offered by the participants were analyzed using 

paired samples t-test of SPSS and the results obtained from the test are presented as follows. 

 

Table 9. Results of Paired-Samples t-test in meta-cognitive strategy of the experimental and control 

groups in pre-training and post-training 

Group Pre-training Post-training DF T P-

value 

No. Mean Standard  

Deviation 

No.  Mean Standard  

Deviation 

 

Table 9 provides data about the average score of the experimental group students in the pre-

training questions about meta-cognitive strategy as 14.05 and the mean score of the group in the 

post-training questions of the strategy was 15.70. The standard deviation of the group in pre-training 

questions of the strategy was scored as 3.36 and it was scored as 3.35 in the post-training questions 

of the strategy. The t-value and p-value were -2.13 and .04 respectively. This data is quite revealing 

Experimental 20 23.30 6.40 20 24.25 6.64 19 -2.33 .03 

Control 20 23.30 6.40 20 23.45 6.39 19 -.21 .83 

Experimental 20 14.05 3.36 20 15.70 3.35 19 -2.13 .04 

Control 20 14.60 2.43 20 15 2.42 19 -.68 .54 



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that there is significant difference between the results of experimental group participants in the pre-

training and post-training questions about meta-cognitive strategy (t-value: -2.13 and p-value: .04). 

The positive significant change probably was brought because the group received training on 

vocabulary learning strategies for 16 weeks. The effect size was modest (Cohen’s d: 0.49). The result 

supports the alternative hypothesis: training in the learning strategies of vocabulary significantly 

improves students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies.  

On the other hand, the table also shows that control group participants mean score about 

meta-cognitive strategy in the pre-training was 14.60 and it was 15.00 in the post-training. The 

group’s standard deviation in the questions of the strategy in the pre-training was 2.43 whereas it 

was 2.42 in the post-training. The t-value of the group about the strategy was -.68 while the t-test was 

.54. The data indicates that there is no statistical mean difference between the pre-questionnaire and 

post-questionnaire score of the control group (t-value: -.68 and p-value: .54).  

 

Major findings of the study 

Paired samples t-test was computed in order to examine whether the vocabulary learning strategies 

training brought significant change or not in the students’ usage of vocabulary learning strategies 

and the experimental group participants showed positive result in the five among six major 

categories of vocabulary learning strategies. The data indicates that experimental group students 

significantly improve their frequency of memory strategy usage after receiving the training (t-value: -

2.48 and p-value: .01, <0.05). The data is also quite revealing that there is significant difference 

between the results of experimental group participants in the pre-training and post-training questions 

about meta-cognitive strategy (t-value: -2.13 and p-value: .04). From the data, we can understand 

that significant difference was found between the pre-test and post-test result in cognitive strategy of 

the experimental group (t-value: -2.33 and p-value: .03). The data also shows that the experimental 

group students significantly improve their frequency in the usage of determination vocabulary 

learning strategies (t-value: -2.15, p value: .04). In addition, there was a significant difference 

between the pre-training and post-training frequency in the usage of social strategies to know a new 

word (t value: -2.31 and p value: .03). However, it can be seen that experimental group students did 

not significantly improve their usage of the vocabulary learning strategy called social for 

consolidation (t-value: -.77 and p-value: .44). 

 

Discussion 

The result of this study regarding determination vocabulary learning strategies is in line with those of 

the previous studies such as Ebrahimi et al. (2015) which show that contextual guessing affected the 

students' vocabulary learning and helped them keep the second language vocabulary in their minds 

longer”. As it is stated in the literature review section, contextual guessing is grouped under 

determination strategies. 

The result of this research concerning social for discovery Strategy is also in accord with the 

study by Rousoulioti and Mout (2016) who discussed as, “Language teachers and learners are in 

agreement regarding the strategy of asking the instructor or fellow students for help in understanding 

vocabulary”. 

Experimental group students did not significantly improve the vocabulary learning strategy 

called social for consolidation though they took training of vocabulary learning strategies. However, 

it is against the finding of Wu (2019) which states that after students were trained for a month in 

social strategies, they knew the strategies very well and showed great motivation to employ them. 

The finding of this study in relation to memory strategies also corroborates the finding by 

Sozler (2012, p.1352) which reads as, “Memory strategies training enable students to study on the 

vocabularies in such a way that they can not only deal with the unknown words and discover their 

meaning but also use them meaningfully in a context and have little chance to forget them”. 

The result of this research pertaining to cognitive strategies was in agreement with the study 

by Banisaeid (2013) which found training in cognitive strategies has completely positive effect on 

cognitive strategies. 

Regarding meta-cognitive strategies, the result of this study also matches the research by Wu 

(2019, P.1061)) which states “Within four-week training, students in the experimental class are 

mainly introduced to several meta-cognitive strategies and become more aware of the trained 

strategies, and have a strong tendency to use them”. 

 



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CONCLUSION 

The study reveals that there is significant difference in vocabulary learning strategies use between 

students who receive vocabulary learning strategies training and those who do not receive the 

training. It is found that students improve their frequently usage of variety of vocabulary learning 

strategies after taking the training. It is evident that the training makes learners know varied ways of 

studying vocabulary and it is clearly seen this has good effects on vocabulary knowledge increment 

of students. In accordance with the findings of this study, learners who do not take training of 

different vocabulary learning strategies and if they study a textbook with limited number of 

vocabularies learning strategies, there are negative effects on their usage of vocabulary learning 

strategies and vocabulary knowledge. 

Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that first coursebooks should include 

objectives, explanations, examples, and exercises of varied vocabulary learning strategies. Second, 

instructors of Communicative English skills are also recommended to discuss objectives, 

explanations, examples, and exercises of varied vocabulary learning strategies. Third, university 

students should try their best to use the vocabulary learning strategies they studied in their 

vocabulary study in and outside the classroom.  

Implications of the study are discussed as follows. The current study focused on the effect of 

vocabulary learning strategies training. Future researchers can study the effect of training in learning 

strategies of other language skills and sub-skills. This study did not also have an objective of studying 

the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies use and students’ gender, discipline, age and 

proficiency level. Future studies may emphasize these specific issues. The participants of the current 

study were first year university students. Future researchers may select second year and above 

university students or secondary school students. 

 

FUNDING STATEMENT 

The researchers did not receive any financial support for this study. 

 

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