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Revealing the Philosophy of Starbucks Logo: Semiotic 
Analysis 

 
Lambok Hermanto Sihombing1 

President University, Indonesia 
lambok.president@gmail.com 

 
Puji Lestari2 

Indraprasta University 
puji.indraprasta@gmail.com 

 

Abstract  

Starbucks is among the most recognizable coffee shops in Indonesia. People will 

recognize Starbucks by looking at the logo on the cup. The logo is essential in 

conveying the company's image and impression to customers. A brand's logo 

represents its identity. This study aims to analyze the idea behind the Starbucks 

logo. This research utilizes a qualitative approach. To assist researchers with 

their analysis, the Semiotics method and the Representation theory from Stuart 

Hall are implemented in this research. The result indicates that Starbucks logo 

reminds us to be good to people and the world.  

 

Keywords: brand; color; identity; logo; representation 

 

INTRODUCTION  
In today's business marketplace, branding is a crucial competitiveness 

component that distinguishes similar goods or services offered by different 
organizations in customers’ minds and make them more desirable (Cuong, 
2020). Branding is essential for establishing a strong relationship with 
customers, and it will have the ability to influence client selection and loyalty. 
Moreover, the stronger the bond between the brand and the client, the greater 
the customer's preference for the brand and brand loyalty is (Bilgin, 2018).  
Brand loyalty refers to a buyer's reluctance to purchase and utilize goods from a 
competing brand in which they lack trust. When a buyer is devoted to a brand, 
he or she believes that the brand has the proper features and quality at a 
reasonable price. Even if other brands provide a lower price or higher quality, 
brand-loyal customers will remain loyal to their preferred brand (Natarajan & 
Sudha, 2016). 



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Starbucks Corporation is a coffeehouse in the United States. Its main 
office is located in Seattle, Washington. Starbucks Coffee intends to expand its 
operations to more than 70 countries by the beginning of 2020. Starbucks Coffee 
outlets offer hot and cold beverages, pastries, and snacks. Starbucks coffee was 
established by Zev Siegl, Jerry Baldwin, and Gordon Bowker. After moving to 
Milan in the 1980s, Howard Schultz operated a coffee shop. Schultz established 
more franchisees throughout the United States. Recently, coffee has become an 
integral part of people's daily lives. We can all freely visit coffee shops for coffee 
and desserts. In coffee shops, we could also socialize and interact with others 
(Pandey, et.al., 2021). 

Starbucks has established a brand with significant brand loyalty (Tepper, 
2013a). Starbucks is renowned for its coffee. The company took something as 
fundamental as coffee and added value to it. The brand is defined as much by 
its attitude as by its products. For Starbucks enthusiasts, the experience is more 
than a daily espresso infusion; it is immersion in a politically correct, cultural 
shelter from daily stresses (Mc Dowell, 1996, p.1).  

The Starbucks reward loyalty card (My Starbucks Reward card) is a 
smart marketing strategy. Consumers can purchase a standard gift card, 
continue to use it, collect points, and ultimately receive a personalized Rewards 
card. The more frequently the card is used, the greater the rewards and 
beverages gained. The Reward member rank provided even more advantages 
(Starbucks Rewards, 2016). Another campaign developed by Starbucks was the 
treat receipt. Consumers can bring the receipt from the morning and use the 
coupon for another iced beverage later on the same day (Starbucks Melody, 
2015). 

Starbucks creates an environment where customers feel they are away 
from home and work, in a peaceful ambiance, with handy locations, and where 
everyone is welcome (Hennessey, 2012; Marshall, 2015; Niamh, 2015). In 
addition to the experience, seasonal offers and promotions help refresh the 
Starbucks brand. As a result of Starbucks' excellent customer service, people are 
price insensitive and willing to pay a premium for its products (Niamh, 2015; 
Tepper, 2013a). 

Starbucks' net revenues of $4.9 billion in the third quarter of 2015 
represented an increase of 18% year-over-year. The revenues can be ascribed to 
new digital initiatives, such as the 2009-launched My Starbucks Rewards 
program. Since its inception in 2009, the program has developed substantially. 
Customers that joined the club would receive free drinks or meals dependent 
on the number of earned stars. The number of active users hit 10.4 million. 
There were 6,2 million gold members, representing a 32% increase over the 
third quarter of 2014. (Harris, 2015). 

Starbucks is ubiquitous, dependable, and gives customers a "homey 
feeling." The Starbucks brand delivers reliability, which people appreciate 
(Niamh, 2015). Starbucks has been able to communicate with customers and 
create an online community for its followers due to social networking. 



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Starbucks is especially popular because it created MyStarbucksIdea.com, a 
website where consumers can submit their ideas to the business and feel more 
engaged (Niamh, 2015). 

From the background above, the researchers view that Starbucks brand 
delivers reliability, provides excellent customer service, and gives worth 
products. Those factors make Starbucks brand much more popular. Even 
though the price is expensive, the loyal brand customers do not mind about it. 
As a result, they prefer the brand to price. The brand itself cannot be separated 
with the logo. When people see the image of twin-tailed mermaid with green 
color, they will directly notice that it is Starbucks. From that description, the 
researchers see that logo plays an important role in attracting loyal-brand 
customers. The logo must have its meaning or philosophy. Thus, in this study, 
the researchers are interested in analyzing the philosophy of Starbucks logo.  

To reveal the philosophy of Starbucks logo, the researchers applied 
Semiotic approach and the Representation theory from Stuart Hall. 

In semiotics, a sign signifies anything representing something else, such 
as an object or a concept. As the Swiss linguist and founder of European 
semiology, Ferdinand De Saussure discovered a combination of sound and 
image as a signifier and the underlying concept (content) as a sign (signified). The 
significance of this indicator is the shape of the information conveyed by the 
word, sounds, visuals, or cues. In addition, Saussure and Peirce emphasize the 
significance of the link between the sign and the object or the signifier and the 
signified. Different individuals will define this relationship in a variety of ways. 
Peirce leverages the existence of additional triads—icon, indexical, and 
symbolic—to explain the nature of the sign's relationship. All three readily 
explain how visual signs function so that the explanation of the link between 
signs is primarily visual (Smith, et.al., 2004). 

Furthermore, the Saussurean semiotics focuses on the sign, the meaning 
of a brand's logo, whereas the Peircian semiotics examines the placement of the 
brand logo in advertisements, analyzing the relationship between brand 
identity, brand slogans, and other sign and code systems that influence 
communication with consumers. Therefore, the brand might become an 
inseparable semiotic entity, an emblem in the consumption context. Essentially, 
it is the transformation of symbols and brand signals into signs that transmit 
meaning to living persons or identities (Gaines, 2008; Manning, 2010; Mick et 
al., 2004; Lury, 2004). 

Thus, "brand semiotics" are the fundamental components of a central 
meaning system in which brand symbols operate as letters or words in the 
language of consumption. The greater the number of brand symbols and brand 
language, the more difficult it will be for customers to comprehend and share 
(Muniz and O'Guinn, 2001) Brand meaning can be an alternative social 
structure and provide economic value. Therefore, "brand semiotics" is a socio 
cognitive semiotic process that links consumers to consumption systems and 
shared meanings (Thellefsen et al., 2007). Semiotic branding enables the 



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creation of a brand that is instantly recognizable and distinguishable by a 
simple logo, sign, or even color (Eco, 1976; Mick & Buhl, 1992; Mick et al., 2004; 
Mick et al., 2004). 

Representation studies describe, symbolize, or represent an entity or 
process (Oscario, 2013). According to Hall, representation is a significant 
cultural practice. This culture is covered in the concept of "shared experience," 
which is quite broad. Share the same experience, the same programming 
language, and the same concept to describe how the depiction is. A working 
language with three representation theories is required for operation. First is the 
method that acts as a mirror to conceal the underlying significance of 
everything captured by the human senses. Second is the purposeful approach, 
which humans utilize as a communication tool from someone's point of view. 
The third approach is constructionist, which holds that individuals construct 
meaning through their use of language (Hall, 1997). 

Hall also describes representation as "the process of establishing 
meaning through the incorporation of language in the development of the 
desired meaning." Thus, discourse analysis, the study of ideology, and the 
study of representation are intricately linked. To put it another way, the 
meaning obtained from the depiction of a certain thing exists due to its 
ideology. Stuart argues that ideas are established and evolved through 
representations, with events occurring not only verbally but also visually. Not 
only do individual concepts exist in the representation system, but there are 
also methods for organizing, adding, and grouping ideas or concepts, as well as 
varied degrees of relationship complexity (Supandi, 2017). 

 

METHODS  
 This research analyzed the philosophy of Starbucks logo. The Semiotics 
approach and theory of Representation from Stuart Hall were used for this 
study. To figure out how the philosophy of Starbucks logo is, the authors did 
several steps in this research. First, the author analyzed and found out the 
meaning of the logo and color using Semiotic approach that includes signifier 
and signified. Second, the authors connected the Semiotic analysis of Starbuck 
logo with the Representation theory from Stuart Hall. The last, the authors 
concluded the whole observation.  

 
FINDINGS  

In order to fully understand the result of this research, firstly, the authors 
observed the elements of Starbucks image that includes logo and color using 
Semiotic approach. This observation would be beneficial as it could help the 
authors know the meanings of its logo and color. In this study, the Starbucks 

logo changes will be analyzed from the very beginning up to now. 
In the Starbucks logo, we will always see the image of siren. The siren 

image has existed since 1971 as seen in Figure (1).  
 



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Figure 1. A siren image 

Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ 

 
According to Steve Murray, a creative director in the Starbucks Global 

Creative Studio cited in Flandreau (2016), “Siren is not a real person, but we 
kind of think of her as one. She’s the biggest symbol of our brand, really, other 
than our partners (employees). She’s the face of it”. The siren resembles a 
superb mermaid. Frequently, a siren is represented with two tails. She may 
seem like an odd pick for a coffee company's spokesperson. The history of how 
and why the siren came to be is quite intriguing (Flandreau, 2020).  

 

DISCUSSSION  

 In a closer observation, the researchers analyzed deeply about the logo 
changes in Starbucks started in 1971 until now. In Figure 2, we can see the 
Starbucks logo used in 1971.  
 
 
 

 
 

 



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Figure 2. Strabucks logo in 1971 
Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ 

  
 According to Cicilia (2016), she stated that Terry Heckled designed and 
implemented the above logo as the company's first trademark. The logo has an 
image of a siren, specifically a mermaid. The logo still contains STARBUCKS, 
COFFEE, TEA, and SPICES because Starbucks has just begun its career. The 
logo still includes STARBUCKS, COFFEE, TEA, and SPICES because Starbucks 
has only recently begun its professional career. They are in the public domain. 
Therefore they continue to provide the company's name and indicate that they 
offer coffee and tea. This original logo's visual semiotics is dominated by the 
color brown, which signifies strength and comfort. Since brown is similar to 
gold, it is also associated with an opulent and luxurious impression. White is a 
neutral color that may be combined with any color, and the white writing 
creates a minimalist style. The logo's disadvantage is that the Siren picture is 
misspelled because it displays the original image. As it depicts a naked image of 
the Siren, this first logo generates considerable controversy from the larger 

community. Therefore, Starbucks altered its emblem for the first time to avoid 
controversy and adverse perceptions that could ultimately lead to the 
company's demise. This initial one has also incorporated a round sign for 
excellence, which means that Starbucks always expects perfection. This circular 



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visual depiction is also included in the logos for the following modifications 
(Cicilia, 2016). 
 In 1971, the founders chose the name Starbucks after being inspired by 
Moby Dick. Next up: logo creation. During a search through some old marine 
literature, something stood out. A siren-like, strange maritime figure called to 
them. Steve stated, "They adored the design and believed it reflected what 
Starbucks stood for." "Therefore, we drew inspiration from that and designed 
the logo accordingly. Moreover, she turned into the siren." There are two 
significant ties between Starbucks and the maritime community. Seattle, our 
hometown, is a port city. Due to their proximity to Puget Sound, they feel a 
profound connection to the water. 2) Coffee frequently travels large distances 
over water to reach them. Even today, large container ships transport the cargo 
to the port. They have redesigned their siren several times throughout time. 
Steve said, "We saw a lot of her in the beginning." The menu was first updated 
in 1987 when handcrafted espresso beverages were added. At that time, the 
logo went from brown to green (Flandreau, 2020) that can be seen in Figure (3).  

 

Figure 3. Strabucks logo in 1987 
Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ 

 
 In 1987, following the alteration of the design in response to criticism, a 
second logo was produced. This alteration significantly impacts their 
appearance, since their semiotics shift from brown to green, black, and white. 
The new dark green logo represents future Starbucks firm development, 
distinctiveness, freshness, and wealth. This inner circle's dark hue indicates 
strength and creates an appearance of exclusivity for the organization. Adding a 
gleaming star to the new Starbucks emblem symbolizes the company's 
aspiration to become an industry leader in the coffee and tea industry. 
Starbucks still provides white writing and has not been altered; however, Tea 
and Spices have been eliminated, leaving simply "Starbucks Coffee." However, 
Siren's body is still clearly visible in the emblem, this modification 



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controversial. This issue caused Starbucks to alter its logo once more. Two stars 
denote brightness in visual semiotics; hence, Starbucks should be bright and 
dazzling (Varlina, et.al., 2021).  
 The following logo changes can be seen below (Figure 4). 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 

Figure 4. Strabucks logo in 1992 
Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ 

 
 According to Flandreau (2020), he stated that they became a publicly 
traded firm in 1992. We further modified the logo by magnifying the siren. 
Starbucks redesigned their logo in 1992, decreasing the location of the Siren 

image so that it is more prominent from a distance. Since Siren's navel is no 
longer depicted, the contentious element has been eliminated. The old logo 
retains the same arrangement of visual semiotics in colors and stars (Utami, 
2018). 
 There are still two stars in the logo, and the color scheme of green, white, 
and black remains unchanged. This company's third image update is sufficient 
to defuse criticism. This time, due to its logo, Starbucks gained acceptance and 
can join the foreign market without issues around its logo (Varlina, et.al., 2021). 
 The last logo changes can be seen in 2011 until now (Figure 5). 



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Figure 5. Strabucks logo in 2011 until now 
Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ 

 
 In a closer observation, in 2011, Starbucks Corporation began removing 
the words "Starbucks" and "coffee" from the company's and its corporate 
entities' names. A logo that reinforces the company's mark while preserving its 
identity. The name of the female mermaid is Siren. In the concept of visual 
semiotics, Siren is portrayed as a seductive man whose attractiveness might 
entice sailors. Then, in the explanation of its visual representation, the Siren 
Image on the logo is compared to a company's aim, establishing a brand worth 
billions of dollars and more that can be accessed globally through its cafe 
network. This use of the siren image in the emblem is already a departure from 
the previous, obscene siren picture. Last, on the usage of visual cognition, they 
still retain the color green, but green is employed at a higher resolution, so it 
seems brighter than previously; yet, this does not alter the message (Cicilia, 
2016; Utami, 2018). 
 The name "Starbucks" should be removed from the logo, as the 
corporation has successfully built brand recognition in the neighborhood.  Only 
a market-recognized brand is capable of engaging in this type of activity. The 
removal of the term "Coffee" in the Starbucks logo can be explained by the fact 
that the company is well-known for its coffee business. As a result, the public 
already knows what they will receive when they visit the store without needing 



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further writing. In addition, this modification could lead to confusion about 
Apple Inc.'s logo, leading to market expansion. With the brand's position on the 
market, there is even the chance of a lifestyle shift. Even though the images and 
colors have not changed, Starbucks has also modernized its company internally 
(Cicilia, 2016; Utami, 2018). 
 Steve Murray, a creative director in the Starbucks Global Creative Studio 
cited in Flandreau (2016) stated,  

“We really refreshed the logo and took the words Starbucks Coffee off of it. We 
went back in and did…we call a little bit of work on her. Gave her a little bit of 
more modern hair, did a little face work on her and just cleaned her up a little 
bit”.  
“I hope when people see the siren on their cup, of course it’s going to stand for 
what they’re going to get from Starbucks,” Steve said. “If the siren is on that 
cup of coffee, it’s going to be awesome.” “It’s definitely about coffee but it’s 
about a lot more than coffee. It’s about…being good to people, being good to the 
world,” Steve said. “That’s definitely something that we do in the way that we 
source our coffee and that we help farmers, the way we treat our customers and 
the way we treat our partners. I think it’s about being good citizens of the planet 
and taking care of each other in that way and standing up for what we believe 

in” (Flandreau, 2016). 
 
 
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION  

To conclude, Starbucks' logo has undergone three iterations until they 
discovered one that conveyed the brand's essence while retaining its integrity. 
Due to the controversy that arose in society, the logo change was delayed, but 
other features can be captured, including its aesthetic impacts. While Starbucks 
is now deleting letters from its design, the logo may alter in the future to reflect 
the notion that it will be continually updated. Consequently, the visual effects 
like colors, designs, and letters will have a significant impact on the future 
development of a brand. 

In the process of analysis, the study observed the changes to the 

Starbucks logo in order to determine what their logo represents. However, it 

will be lot more exploratory and intriguing when subsequent researchers add 

more specifics about how the logo influences customer preferences. Extensive 

studies might include the percentage of devoted customers and the location of 

the Starbucks coffee shop. 

 

REFERENCES 

Bilgin, Y. (2018). The Effect of Social Media Marketing Activities on Brand 

Awareness, Brand Image and Brand Loyalty. Business & Management 



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Studies: An International Journal, 6(1), 128–148. 

https://doi.org/10.15295/v6i1.229 [2]  

Cicilia. (2016). Sejarah dan Perkembangan Logo Starbucks.  

Cuong, Dam Tri. (2020). The Impact of Customer Satisfaction, Brand Image on 
Brand Love and Brand Loyalty. Journal of Adv. Research in Dynamical & 
Control Systems.  

Flandreau, M. (2020). Starbucks. Starbucks.com. 
https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ 

Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. 
London: SAGE Publication. 

Harris, R. (2015, July 28). Why Is Starbucks Winning At Loyalty? Retrieved March 

17, 2016, from http://www.marketingmag.ca/brands/why-starbucks-is-
winning-atloyalty-152974. 

Hennesey, R. (2012, August 6). 3 Reasons Why Starbucks Still Shines, Despite 
Market Shortcomings. Retrieved April 8, 2016, from 
http://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelhennessey/2012/08/06/3-reasons-
whystarbucks-still-shines-despite-market-shortcomings/#10916874d4fb. 

Marshall, C. (2015 May 14). The Guardian. Retrieved January 29, 2016. Article on 
Starbucks and how it all started. 

Mcdowell, B., & Cuneo, A. Z. (1996). Starbucks is Ground Zero in Today's 
Coffee Culture. (Cover story). Advertising Age, 67(50), 1. 

Natarajan, R., & Sudha, V. (2016). A Relationship Between Brand Image and 
Brand Loyalty. International Journal of Economic and Business Review, 4(5), 
139–145. 

Niamh. (2015, June 22). In Starbucks Name? A Brand Loyalty Program At Its Finest! 

Retrieved March 17, 2016, from Starbucks and brand loyalty programs. 
Oscario, A. (2013). Pentingnya Peran Logo Dalam Membangun Brand. Binus 

University: Jakarta Barat.  
Pandey, R., Ganatra, V., Jamnik, S., Goel, P., Goyal, P., Xuan, C. L., Kee, D. M. 

H., Mein, H. H., En, L. X., & Zen, L. J. (2021). An Empirical Study on 
Customer Satisfaction, Perception, and Brand Image in Starbucks Coffee 
in India, Asia. International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality in Asia 

Pasific, 4(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.32535/ijthap.v4i1.1021. 
Smith, K. L. Moriarty, S. Kenney, K., dan Barbatsis, G. (Eds). (2004). Handbook of 

Visual Communication: Theory, methods, and media. Routledge.  
Supandi, M. (2017). Perempuan Dalam Novel Dakwah : Lakon, 6 (1), 1–12. 
Tepper, R. (2013a, March 7). In Starbucks Brand Loyalty Keeps It Ahead of The 

Artisanal Coffee Movement. Retrieved March 17, 2016, from Starbucks 
brand loyalty.  

Utami, A. P. (2018). Infografik: Evolusi Logo Starbucks dari Masa ke Masa. Diakses 

pada 17 November 2021. 
https://kumparan.com/kumparanfood/infografik-evolusi-logo-
starbucksdari- masa-ke-masa-1533787551941496412/full. 

http://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelhennessey/2012/08/06/3-reasons-whystarbucks-still-shines-despite-market-shortcomings/#10916874d4fb
http://www.forbes.com/sites/rachelhennessey/2012/08/06/3-reasons-whystarbucks-still-shines-despite-market-shortcomings/#10916874d4fb
https://doi.org/10.32535/ijthap.v4i1.1021


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Varlina, et.al. (2021). ANALISIS PERUBAHAN LOGO DALAM TINJAUAN 
DESAIN KOMUNIKASI VISUAL DAN REPRESENTASI BRAND 
PERUSAHAAN. JURNAL SOCIAPERTI.  

 
 
 
 
 


	Lambok Hermanto Sihombing1
	President University, Indonesia
	Puji Lestari2
	Indraprasta University
	Abstract
	INTRODUCTION
	METHODS
	This research analyzed the philosophy of Starbucks logo. The Semiotics approach and theory of Representation from Stuart Hall were used for this study. To figure out how the philosophy of Starbucks logo is, the authors did several steps in this resea...
	FINDINGS
	DISCUSSSION
	In a closer observation, the researchers analyzed deeply about the logo changes in Starbucks started in 1971 until now. In Figure 2, we can see the Starbucks logo used in 1971.
	Figure 2. Strabucks logo in 1971
	Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/
	According to Cicilia (2016), she stated that Terry Heckled designed and implemented the above logo as the company's first trademark. The logo has an image of a siren, specifically a mermaid. The logo still contains STARBUCKS, COFFEE, TEA, and SPICES ...
	In 1971, the founders chose the name Starbucks after being inspired by Moby Dick. Next up: logo creation. During a search through some old marine literature, something stood out. A siren-like, strange maritime figure called to them. Steve stated, "Th...
	Figure 3. Strabucks logo in 1987
	Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ (1)
	In 1987, following the alteration of the design in response to criticism, a second logo was produced. This alteration significantly impacts their appearance, since their semiotics shift from brown to green, black, and white. The new dark green logo r...
	The following logo changes can be seen below (Figure 4).
	Figure 4. Strabucks logo in 1992
	Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ (2)
	According to Flandreau (2020), he stated that they became a publicly traded firm in 1992. We further modified the logo by magnifying the siren. Starbucks redesigned their logo in 1992, decreasing the location of the Siren image so that it is more pro...
	There are still two stars in the logo, and the color scheme of green, white, and black remains unchanged. This company's third image update is sufficient to defuse criticism. This time, due to its logo, Starbucks gained acceptance and can join the fo...
	The last logo changes can be seen in 2011 until now (Figure 5).
	Figure 5. Strabucks logo in 2011 until now
	Source : https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2016/who-is-starbucks-siren/ (3)
	In a closer observation, in 2011, Starbucks Corporation began removing the words "Starbucks" and "coffee" from the company's and its corporate entities' names. A logo that reinforces the company's mark while preserving its identity. The name of the f...
	The name "Starbucks" should be removed from the logo, as the corporation has successfully built brand recognition in the neighborhood.  Only a market-recognized brand is capable of engaging in this type of activity. The removal of the term "Coffee" i...
	Steve Murray, a creative director in the Starbucks Global Creative Studio cited in Flandreau (2016) stated,
	“We really refreshed the logo and took the words Starbucks Coffee off of it. We went back in and did…we call a little bit of work on her. Gave her a little bit of more modern hair, did a little face work on her and just cleaned her up a little bit”.
	“I hope when people see the siren on their cup, of course it’s going to stand for what they’re going to get from Starbucks,” Steve said. “If the siren is on that cup of coffee, it’s going to be awesome.” “It’s definitely about coffee but it’s about a ...
	CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

