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Depictions of Pregnancy by Women during the Women’s Liberation Movement 

Parker Grove, Stanford University ’23 
 
Abstract: This analysis explores the contribution of female artists, Niki de Saint Phalle, Alice 
Neel, and Judy Chicago, to the discourse of womanhood and motherhood during the Women’s 
Liberation Movement. By utilizing the pregnant body as a focal point, these artists challenged 
societal norms and traditional depictions of the female body. Through collage, portraiture, and 
mixed-media fiber work respectively, they emphasized the physical and emotional tolls of 
pregnancy, showcasing a truthful representation of motherhood that subverts the objectification 
of the female body. The analysis highlights the transformative potential of art in these feminist 
discourses and questions the historical depiction of the female nude. 
 
  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



 

Introduction 
Throughout history, representations of the female nude in Western art have been heavily 

influenced by the male gaze, resulting in depictions of women as passive objects for male 
consumption. From Prehistoric sculptures to High Classical representations of deities, women’s 
bodies were primarily made by and for male desire (Discover Nude Art in All Its Form 
Expressions During History). However, the women’s liberation movement of the 1960s-1980s 
brought about a significant shift in the way feminist artists approached the portrayal of the 
female body. These artists sought to challenge traditional norms and explore new ways of 
representing women as active and empowered subjects. One such radical departure from 
traditional depictions of the female form is the emergence of pregnancy images in art. Through 
an analysis of three works, Clarice Rivers by Niki de Saint Phalle, The Pregnant Woman by 
Alice Neel, and EU – 53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure by Judy Chicago, this paper explores 
how female artists during the women’s liberation movement have reclaimed the female nude by 
subverting traditional notions of pregnancy, femininity, and the role of women in society. 

 
Historical Context 
 The representation of pregnancy in art has a complex history, shaped by changing 
attitudes towards sexuality and marriage. Historically, the art world was dominated by male 
artists, and depictions of women were created through the male gaze, resulting in hyper-feminine 
objects of desire (Feigel, 2020). Although pregnancy was a common subject in art until the 
Middle Ages, it gradually fell out of favor and was erased, coinciding with changing attitudes 
towards sexuality and marriage (Berthiaud, 2013). Due to the influence of the immaculate 
conception of the Virgin Mary, pregnancy taboo became popularized (Kordic, 2018). While 
childbearing was an essential facet of female married life, the taboo reflected a societal aversion 
to acknowledging the sexual agency of women, and 
the ability to see a woman’s sexual history through 
pregnancy was considered a less acceptable subject 
for art. Instead, the selective characteristic of 
portraiture allowed artists to ignore the “sinful” side 
of motherhood, rendering pregnancy depictions 
obsolete (Jansen, 2020). Likewise, previous images 
of nude women were created for male consumption 
and were the object of male desire, and the canons 
of this classic art did not include in this image a 
woman’s pregnant body. For example, Sandro 
Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus (Figure 1) portrays 
the goddess of love and beauty emerging from the sea, fully nude and with her hands 
strategically placed to cover her genitalia. Despite her nudity, her posture and expression suggest 
a demure and almost submissive demeanor, emphasizing her beauty and availability as a sexual 
object. Similarly, in Francisco Goya’s La Maja Desnuda (Figure 2), the female subject is 
depicted laying naked on a couch, with her back arched and her gaze directly towards the viewer. 

Figure 1: Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of 
Venus, 1484-1486, Tempera on canvas, 172.5 
x 278.9 cm, Uffizi, Florence, Italy 



 

Again, her nudity and seductive pose are intended to elicit desire from the male viewer, rather 
than portraying her as a fully realized human being. 

 
 The women’s liberation movement, 
also known as the second wave of 
feminism, was a transformative social 
movement in the 1960s and 1970s that 
aimed to challenge traditional gender roles 
and bring about change in every area of 
women’s experience, including politics, 
work, the family, and sexuality (Burkett, 
2022). The approval of the oral 
contraceptive pill by the FDA in 1961 was 

a landmark moment for the movement, as it gave women the ability for the first time to control 
their reproductive health and plan their futures. This newfound freedom empowered women to 
pursue careers and educational opportunities, rather than being limited to traditional roles as 
wives and mothers (Anand, 2018). Betty Friedan’s book, The Feminine Mystique, published in 
1963, also contributed to the movement’s momentum by exposing the unhappiness and 
frustration of many women living within traditional gender roles. These cultural shifts gave rise 
to organizations like the National Organization for Women (NOW), which advocated for 
women’s rights and fought for greater access to education, employment, and reproductive 
healthcare. Although the movement created unprecedented opportunities for women in the 
workforce, there remained persistent societal biases that used motherhood and child-rearing to 
justify excluding women from equal professional and economic advancement (Allara, 1994, pp. 
9). 
 During the women’s liberation movement, feminist artists began to use pregnancy as a 
subject in art, challenging the longstanding traditional depictions of the female body and 
critiquing the canon of the female nude in Western art history (Allara, 1994, pp. 7). American art 
historian Linda Nochlin comment in the 1972 Artnews annual, Woman as Sex Object, further 
galvanized this movement by critiquing nineteenth-century erotic art imagery as being solely 
“erotic for men” (Allara, 1994, pp. 7). This statement became a rallying cry for the Body Art 
movement, which explored sexuality from a woman’s perspective. The use of pregnant nudes in 
art became a powerful tool in blocking the male gaze by challenging the cultural norms of 
stability and unity associated with the ideal nude. In this subversion of the traditional sex 
symbol, pregnant imagery violated cultural norms of male pleasure, instead highlighting the 
feminine experience with sex and nudity (Allara, 1994, pp. 11). Led by artists such as Niki de 
Saint Phalle, Alice Neel, and Judy Chicago, representations of pregnant women were 
reintroduced into popular Western art as a direct confrontation of the idealized female form 
(Berthiaud, 2013). Their images of pregnant women not only challenged traditional notions of 
beauty but also highlighted the lived experiences of women during a time when reproductive 

Figure 2: Francisco de Goya, La Maja Desnuda, 1800, Oil 
on canvas, 98 x 191 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain 



 

rights were a central concern of the feminist movement. Through art, the pregnant body became 
a symbol of social deviation, challenging traditional notions of femininity and motherhood 
(Allara, 1994, pp. 11). 
 
Niki de Saint Phalle 

Niki de Saint Phalle was a Franco-American artist known for her insightful analysis of 
the female condition and the pressures of motherhood. After spending her youth in New York 
City, Saint Phalle moved back to Paris in the 1950s with her husband and children to establish 
her studio. Drawn to the work of Jean Tinguely, Paul Klee, Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, and 
Henri Rousseau, Saint Phalle joined the Nouveau Réalisme movement, an Avant-Garde art group 
(Life & Work). However, Saint Phalle soon realized the challenges of balancing her professional 
aspirations with her caretaking responsibilities. She felt compelled to choose between her family 
and career, ultimately abandoning her family in order to prove herself as a painter and real 
professional (Dossin, 2010, pp. 31). This painful experience led her to understand that most 
existing art of women was done for and by men, not representational of the female experience. 
This realization drove her to create art that explored the struggles of women and deconstructed 
traditional images of womanhood (Dossin, 2010, pp. 35). Although never publicly identified as a 
feminist, Saint Phalle’s bodies of work center on women’s experiences and challenges. Her 
artistic legacy continues to inspire and provoke critical thought about the representation of 
women in art and society. 
 Clarice Rivers (Figure 3), sketched in pencil and 
graphite by Larry Rivers and collaged by Niki de Saint 
Phalle in 1964, presents a life size portrait of a female nude 
in profile who stares appraisingly at the viewer. Within the 
massive 157 x 112 canvas, her positioning highlights her 
swollen, pregnant belly, while her stance is relaxed 
(Keever, 2021). The woman’s head is adorned with flowers 
and fluttering birds, while the outline of her body is filled 
with a cacophony of life. Brightly colored flowers, animals, 
and butterflies fill her limbs, while childlike toys – a 
ballerina, kittens, barbie, etc. – take up all open space in her 
legs. Instead of a child in her belly, her stomach is filled 
with crustaceans. Her entire body, except for her sketched, 
bare face, is intricately covered with bright, multicolored, 
abstract designs and text (Keever, 2021). The curves of her 
body are further accentuated with the sharply sketched 
arrows, and the rainbows of color within the outline of her 
body is juxtaposed with the subdued, cream paper 
(Anderson). The image is completed with a series of 
sketched lines and arrows pointing at specific parts of her 

Figure 3: Niki de Saint Phalle 
and Larry Rivers, Clarice Rivers, 
1964, Collage, color pencils, 
pastel, graphite, and ink on paper, 
157 x 112 cm, Museum of 
Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 
Los Angeles, California 

 



 

body: chin, breast, the middle of her back, her belly button, uterus, and vagina. Although 
unlabeled, the markings create an impression of an anatomical scientific examination, as if she 
were, herself, a butterfly on display. The piece is located at the Museum of Contemporary Art, 
Los Angeles, and is part of a larger collection of artworks. 
 The portrait of Clarice Rivers by Niki de Saint Phalle and Larry Rivers is more than just 
a stunning work of art; it carries significant meaning and social commentary. As Virginia 
Billeaud Anderson notes, the portrayal of Clarice’s pregnancy in the work “was obvious but 
timely: women were perceived as brainless sex objects, child-bearing machines” (Clarice 
Rivers). In response to these sexist attitudes, de Saint Phalle sought to create a representation of 
the female experience that highlighted the beauty and complexity of natural birth. The vibrant 
collage of Clarice’s body teeming with life serves as a metaphor for pregnancy, with every part 
of her being providing for the living things inside her. At the same time, the sheer number of 
objects and creatures on her body overwhelm her, underscoring the dichotomy of pregnancy as 
both life-giving and identity-erasing. As she stands, clearly aware of her own perception, the 
arrows protruding from her being indicate the need to label and judge her body, much like a 
specimen in a science lab. Despite being a shell of herself, Clarice stands as a near goddess, her 
face the only part of her left untouched, a vision of beauty that is expected of pregnant women 
(Bishop, 2008). This work was the first in de Saint Phalle’s series of archetypal female figures, 
which inspired her later work to create updated versions of “every(wo)man” (Life & Work). 
 
Alice Neel 
 Across the ocean in New York City, American Realist painter Alice Neel was celebrated 
for her honest and expressive portraits, produced at a time when Abstract Expressionism was the 
prevailing style in American painting. After experiencing a nervous breakdown following her 
husband’s departure with their second child in 1930, Neel used portraiture to depict destitute 
mothers and women (Ferry & Blumberg, 2023). Once recovered, she returned to her home in 
Harlem and painted the people around her to convey the systemic inequities in her community. 
During the active years of the women’s liberation movement, Neel’s series of seven pregnant 
nudes were a visual expression of her support for the Body Art movement of the late 1960s 
through the 1970s (Allara, 1994, pp. 7). She was particularly interested in the transformation of 
the woman’s body to accommodate a growing fetus and the subsequent physical changes. Unlike 
her male counterparts, Neel painted the pregnant body with realistic and unforgiving 
brushstrokes, erasing the glamour and mystique of pregnancy (Ferry & Blumberg, 2023). Her 
works addressed a generation of politically active women agitating for social change about the 
perceptions of motherhood and childbirth. Although she was never declared feminist, her art 
certainly contributed to the movement and drew attention to the realistic side of pregnancy 
(Kordic, 2018). Her paintings portray the honest image of pregnancy at the same time that 
women had the agency to make informed decisions about motherhood. Neel’s pregnancy 
paintings addressed a generation of politically active women agitating for social change about 
the perceptions of motherhood and childbirth (Allara, 1994, pp. 8). 



 

 In 1971, Alice Neel created a compelling oil painting titled The Pregnant Woman (Figure 
4), featuring a nude woman in a late-stage pregnancy in ¾ view reclining on a sofa. The woman 
takes up most of the 101.2 x 152.4 cm 
canvas, with her body splayed on its side, 
and one arm draped suggestively over her 
head and the arm of her chair while the 
other supports her face. The woman’s 
face is rendered in a detailed and 
expressive style, capturing her 
introspective and somewhat exhausted 
countenance that expresses the physical 
and emotional toll of pregnancy 
(Pregnant Woman, 1971). The woman’s 
swollen belly and breasts are prominently 
portrayed in varying tones of pale greens 
and pinks, lending her an unhealthy appearance (Pregnant Woman, 1971). The background is 
sparsely depicted, with a man’s portrait in a similar green hue hanging behind her head, and the 
couch outlined with crude strokes. The painting’s swirling brushstrokes and rounded curves 
reflect the woman’s figure and the shape of the sofa, with only straight lines present in the frame 
of the portrait and couch legs. The left side of canvas holds most of the volume, while the right 
remains bare. The Pregnant Woman is one of several pregnant nudes int eh Alice Neel Estate’s 
private collection, showcasing Neel’s talent for capturing the female experience of pregnancy.  
 Alice Neel subverted the traditional female nude through The Pregnant Woman, 
illustrating the loss of identity she found inherent to motherhood. Nancy, Neel’s daughter in law 
and muse for this work, was carrying twins and suffering from toxemia at the time of her 
painting. She is illustrated with a belly that threatens to rip her apart, and the colors of the 
painting are reminiscent of her pregnancy-induced illness (Allara, 1994, pp. 21). With her arms 
raised above her and her dark hair curling around her neck, her head appears to be severed from 
her body. Nancy is pictured as dismembered from her body, her pregnant stomach becoming 

central to her being. Likewise, the painting does 
not even offer her name, “pregnant woman” 
reflecting her loss of individual identity (Allara, 
1994, pp. 22). The portrait of her husband in the 
background serves as a reminder that this 
pregnancy is legitimate, yet his corporeal 
absence illustrates the alienation and isolation 
caused by pregnancy (Allara, 1994, pp. 21). 
Nancy’s absent gaze and the bareness of the 
room around her further emphasizes this 
analysis, indicating that she has nothing but this 

Figure 4: Alice Neel, The Pregnant Woman, 1971, Oil 
on Canvas, 101.2 x 152.4 cm, Estate of Alice Neel, 
New York 

Figure 5: Alexandre Cabanel, Naissance de Vénus, 
1863, Oil on canvas, 130 x 225 cm, Musée d'Orsay, 
Paris, France 



 

pregnancy shackling her to her home and domesticity. Alice Neel chose to paint Nancy in the 
classical female pose, lounging on her side with an arm over her head. Much like Alexandre 
Cabanel’s Naissance de Vénus (Figure 5), Nancy lays in a traditionally erotic position, the 
entirety of her naked body on display. In portraying Nancy in this way, Neel presented the 
female body to be surveyed without the sexual undertones of the male gaze (Allara, 1994, pp. 
17). Instead, viewers are presented with a female body immune to the desires of men and 
confronted with the gaze and desire of Nancy, herself. Although she didn’t consider herself a 
feminist, Neel attempted to correct the absence of pregnant women in art history through honest 
human experience, effectually subverting the traditional female nude (Gokce, 2022). 
 
Judy Chicago 
 Judy Chicago is an American artist and feminist who rose to prominence in the 1970s 
with her pioneering feminist art and her active involvement in the women’s liberation movement. 
Born in Chicago in 1939, Chicago attended the Art Institute of Chicago 
and turned to feminist content in the late 1960s, eventually creating the 
first Feminist Art Program in California (Judy Chicago). Part of the 
Feminist Art movements, Chicago was inspired by Minimalist artist 
Donald Judd. As she observed, “the problem with the women’s 
movement in art…was the involvement of the figureheads of the 
movement in stereotypes of women,” highlighting the need for more 
diverse representations of women (Khan, 1977). Chicago believed that 
female artists, because of their gender, were expected to conform to 
feminine stereotypes, and her work subsequently challenged these 
assumptions and pushed back against the male-dominated art world 
(Khan, 1977). Her artwork became an instant touchstone for the 
growing feminist movement in the United States and served as a 
powerful tool for social and political change (Yood, 2022). 
 EU-53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure (Figure 6) by Judy 
Chicago is a striking piece of artwork that demands attention. In the 
center of the 156.2 x 55.9 cm panel stands a female figure in ¾ view. 
Made of smocking and embroidery over a drawing and laminated 
panel, the medium is what differentiates Chicago’s work from other 
contemporary artists. The unnamed woman holds her head in her 
hands as if crying, and the curvature of her stomach indicates 
pregnancy. Her form is nothing but a simple rainbow outline, but the 
emptiness of the space inside and around her echoes her melancholy 
sentiments. The border of this 1984 work is a series of repeating 
geometric patterns created in rainbow material, juxtaposing the taupe 
fabric within. While the woman’s body is created with continuing 

Figure 6: Judy Chicago, 
EU-53 Birth Figure 6: 
Smocked Figure, 1984, 
Smocking and 
Embroidery over 
Drawing (needleworker: 
Mary Ewanoski), 
Laminated Title Panel, 
One Laminated Text 
Panel, 156.2 x 55.9 cm, 
Salon 94, New York, 
New York 



 

curves, the form of the piece creates strong horizontals and verticals around her. 
 Judy Chicago’s EU-53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure is part of a larger series of 
mixed-media fiber work entitled The Birth Project that celebrates the birth-giving capacity of 
women and their sacrifice. The artist collaborated with over 150 needleworkers to create images 
about various aspects of pregnancy (Birth Project (1980-85)). Chicago created the initial idea but 
then handed off the work to female artists and mothers around the country to add their own 
stories and inspiration to the work. Although she chose not to have children of her own, Chicago 
engaged with groups of women who had chosen to have children and became awed by their 
momentous power (Dintino, 2022). In The Birth Project, Chicago wanted to reveal birth as 
spiritual and symbolic while expressing the physical pain of labor. As a challenge to existing 
norms of religious purity and sin, she hoped to re-envision the Creation myth with a feminist 
twist. In EU-53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure, the needleworker related the story of her 
mother realizing she was pregnant with her fifth child. In contrast with the other pieces in the 
collection, this piece reminds viewers of the sobering truths about pregnancy. Historically, 
smocking material was worn by laborers due to its freedom of movement; however, it came to be 
associated with children’s clothes, a reminder of the transition from individual to caregiver. 
When smocking is fixed with pleated cable stitching, it becomes taut, symbolically “binding the 
figure” to her children (Chicago, 1982). The needlework itself has a has feminine associations, 
although it also holds a history of sexist work. Through EU-53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure, 
Chicago hopes to reunite feminist and traditional female roles, subverting material and 
pregnancy to illustrate the power and sacrifice of childbirth. 
 
Conclusion 
 Throughout the women’s liberation movement of the 1960s-1980s, female artists began 
to subvert the traditional female nude through the use of pregnant bodies, simultaneously 
challenging the male gaze and exploring the sacrifice of motherhood. Niki de Saint Phalle, 
through her use of collage and natural imagery, relays the loss of identity through maternal 
burden in her work Clarice Rivers. Likewise, in The Pregnant Woman, Alice Neel shares the 
isolation and pain of pregnancy, showcasing its physical and emotional toll. For Judy Chicago’s 
piece EU-53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure, the enforcement of birth is communicated, the 
figure bound to motherhood. While all three women evolved in their work to encapsulate holistic 
maternal experiences, these seminal feminist artists contributed to the women’s liberation 
movement by portraying pregnant women as realistic, multidimensional agents rather than 
passive caretakers and sexual beings. 



 

Appendix 

Figure 7: Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus, 1484-1486, Tempera on canvas, 172.5 x 278.9 
cm, Uffizi, Florence, Italy

 

 

Figure 8: Francisco de Goya, La Maja Desnuda, 1800, Oil on canvas, 98 x 191 cm, Museo del 
Prado, Madrid, Spain

 



 

 

 

Figure 9: Niki de Saint Phalle and Larry Rivers, Clarice Rivers, 1964, Collage, color pencils, 
pastel, graphite, and ink on paper, 157 x 112 cm, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 
Los Angeles, California 



 

 

 

Figure 10: Alice Neel, The Pregnant Woman, 1971, Oil on Canvas, 101.2 x 152.4 cm, Estate of 
Alice Neel, New York 

 



 

 

 

 

  

Figure 11: Alexandre Cabanel, Naissance de Vénus, 1863, Oil on canvas, 130 x 225 cm, 
Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France 



 

 

 
  

Figure 12: Judy Chicago, EU-53 Birth Figure 6: Smocked Figure, 1984, Smocking and 
Embroidery over Drawing (needleworker: Mary Ewanoski), Laminated Title Panel, One 
Laminated Text Panel, 156.2 x 55.9 cm, Salon 94, New York, New York  



 

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https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/830344. Accessed 26 February 2023. 
 
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