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Patricia Nova, Stanford ‘26 

 

 

 

Abstract: It is well elucidated in the field of sociolinguistics that language is a key determinant 

in the way individuals interact with themselves and others and that multilingualism thus has 

implications in deepening personal expression. However, there is very sparse research done in 

the domain of how this linguistic fixture interacts specifically with LGBTQ expression, an oddity 

considering that much of contemporary queer pride is conveyed through linguistic expression, 

fostering a fortified sense of belonging and assurance within one’s own identity. My research 

examines not only how language itself can change queer expression, but also how LGBTQ 

multilinguals have a unique set of tools to shape their social interactions and promote 

community. In addition to consulting linguistics and queer historical/sociological research, I 

interviewed three multilingual queer undergraduates at Stanford University with a series of semi-

structured, narrative questions. When combined, my investigation allows for this paper to focus 

extensively on the mechanistic particularities of multilingualism that beget sociolinguistic 

benefits for queer individuals. Namely, linguistic adaptation, cultural navigation, and 

socioemotional connection are key themes that presented themselves in the journeys of queer 

multilinguals. These findings underscore the possibility of linguistic diversity as a means to 

nourish greater inclusivity and understanding and have crucial ramifications for the amelioration 

and amplification of community, identity, and belonging.  

 

Keywords: queer multilingualism, linguistic determinism, sociopragmatic transfer, 

LGBTQ, identity formation, adaptation 

 

 



 

I grew up with two constants in my life: my love of languages and my queerness. Rooted 

into my personality at a young age, these fixtures shaped me in ways I could not comprehend 

until years later. Raised bilingual in English and Romanian, I readily found a proclivity for 

learning other languages—French, Mandarin, and Spanish to be exact—each of which revealed 

new and unique facets of my personality. This gave me the ability to interact with the world in an 

entirely new way, connecting deeply with people I otherwise never would have. Concurrent with 

my journey through languages, I was making strides in my gender identity. Realizing I was 

transgender was daunting, as aside from the innate physical incongruity I experienced, the 

prejudice from people in my life led to a loss of connection with them and the community I was 

born into. However, I realize retrospectively that because of the languages I learned growing up, 

I already had access to entirely new worlds of people to bond with and learn from. In a way, this 

did not only help me surmount the loss I had experienced, but it enabled me to derive pride from 

my identity in entirely new and unique ways. Languages saved my life, and I am now      

invested in understanding why and how they did it. 

 Beyond my own profound experiences, the existing scholarly research on the impact of 

multilingualism for queer individuals has revealed that my experiences are far from unique. 

Academics studying the separate fields of language and queerness have each arrived at similar 

conclusions: Speaking multiple languages enriches identity construction (Kasper, 1992), and 

identity itself is pivotal in navigating a queer journey, in the sense that having a label to assign to 

an identity makes the ability to explore oneself in their niche far easier (Pew Research Center, 

2013). For example, having a term for existing outside of the gender binary (i.e., genderfluid or 

non-binary) facilitates the exploration of one’s gender identity to comprehend where they 

comfortably fit personally and socially. Put simply, it has become evident that languages have a 

crucial role in shaping social interactions and fostering community bonds, something that can 

offer unique advantages to the queer community. I will argue that multilingualism allows 

LGBTQ individuals to navigate and bridge diverse social landscapes, thereby enabling them to 

more effectively consolidate, process, and heal from anti-LGBTQ perspectives and internalized 

biases. This is particularly true for queer English Language Learners (ELLs), as English has 

become the predominant language in many LGBTQ spaces (especially online) and is the primary 

language for most resources on queerness. This paper aims to display that language learning can 

serve as a powerful tool for resilience and self-affirmation in the face of discrimination, 

something of utmost importance for a community long fraught with considerable adversity. 

In order to demonstrate why language acquisition affects queer expression and benefits 

the LGBTQ community, I use a sequential approach. First, exploring the current scholarly 

landscape on “queer multilingualism” will assist in understanding not only the relevant academic 

fields in this discussion, but also identifying opportunities for further exploration. Moving 

forward with this framework, the paper will break down this topic into its first principles, 

exploring it through the lens of linguistics, and separately through queer history and sociology. 

Beginning with the language portion, I will explore key language ideologies, such as linguistic 

determinism, the emergent identity theory, and sociopragmatic transfer. The implications of 



 

these findings will be crucial when moving into the next section of queer history and sociology. 

This portion will unpack centuries of LGBTQ experience to help frame the socialization of this 

community in a contemporary context. Understanding the roots of anti-queerness is imperative, 

as it sheds light on the continued plight of the community, an awareness that is crucial to 

resonate with why the presented language ideologies are pertinent. This leads to the last section, 

which finally explores the specific ways in which multilingualism can shape and support queer 

identity. By interviewing three, queer multilingual undergraduates at Stanford University, I am 

able to identify and examine the key themes in their experiences, all the while calling upon 

concepts and frameworks established earlier in the paper. To conclude, I will use these findings 

to suggest potential implications in multilingualism being able to nurture stronger, more 

fulfilling communities amongst queer folks, an essential endeavor in a time when LGBTQ rights 

remain perpetually under threat. 

 

Current Research at the Intersection of Language and Identity 

The Field of Queer Multilingualism 

 Due to the specialized area of study this topic covers, there is limited research done 

specifically on “queer multilingualism.” Furthermore, the existing scholarly work in the field is 

oftentimes very niche, focused on a particular identity or language subgroup. However, they do      

provide a sufficient foundational framework for the general disciplines involved in the 

conversation. Primarily, it became evident that literature with a linguistics-heavy focus is ideal 

for more concrete analysis of the correlation between expression of identity and number of 

languages spoken. For instance, a 2020 thesis paper from the University of Leiden titled      

“Multilingual LGBTQ+ Youth: Queer Language and Identity” articulates how English second 

language Dutch speakers interpret and express their identities. For example, when asked the 

question, “Do you feel that the language you discuss your identity in has an impact on how you 

communicate it?” only 6.6% of participants responded in the negative (Lambert, 2020, p. 55). 

The same source discusses how there are certain linguistic features that make it cumbersome to 

convey sentiments related to queerness, and in the same vein, the paper “Queer Identities and 

Expressions in Romance Languages” from the University of Pennsylvania focuses specifically 

on the limitation of Romance languages to queer expression (Floyd, 2020). Here, the researcher 

divulges the lack of standardized gender-neutral grammar due to strict binary gendering of 

nouns, adjectives, etc., and how this makes expression outside of the gender binary quite difficult 

(Floyd, 2020). This promulgates the recurrent theme that language itself can impede adequate 

self-expression, which is directly correlated to, and thus is a dictator of, the ways in which you 

can perceive yourself. Tying this principle back into the aforementioned concept of gender 

neutrality, in binary-gendered languages (i.e., Romance tongues), it is exceedingly more difficult 

for a gender non-conforming person to come to terms with and explore their identity in a 

concrete way without borrowing linguistic features from English (i.e., they/them pronouns).      

Given these few sources, one thing is made abundantly clear: Language does impact the 

way queer people interact with their identities. However, these same sources often have a 



 

tendency to overshadow the role multilingualism itself plays in these scenarios. Due to their 

heavy focus on queer ELLs, many researchers simply explain that multilingualism has to do with 

acquiring English as a pragmatic means to increase accessibility to queer resources and 

community (Floyd, 2020). Contrarily, my research aims to explore how specifically language is 

able to shape LGBTQ identity and what specific linguistic features make multilingualism a tool 

for resilience. To do this, we need to examine language independently of queerness to understand 

its mechanisms and the relationship between queerness and language.  

Language as a Dictator of Identity  

In the conversation about supporting queer identity, we must evoke such ideologies to 

first comprehend the nuanced interplay of language and one’s sense of self. To begin, linguistic 

determinism is a widespread theory that explains how the structure and vocabulary of the 

language we speak can alter our thoughts and views (Cornell, 2024). Lena Boroditsky et al. 

(2009) pragmatically tested linguistic determinism by showing how Spanish and German 

speakers describe a “bridge” masculinely or femininely, respectively, due to its gendered 

classification in both languages. One caveat in linguistic determinism is that proponents of the 

theory often suggest that language can not only shape, but restrict what we think about, which is 

not entirely accurate. For one, many languages lack terms to describe LGBTQ identities, but 

evidently, this doesn't mean speakers of those languages cannot be queer (Gandhi, 2020). 

However, it does make it more difficult to actualize one’s identity, indicating a pervasive effect 

of language on identity, albeit indirectly.  

Thus, consulting more refined linguistic ideologies will help elucidate what specifically 

makes language such a powerful tool. Namely, in 2005, linguists Bucholtz and Hall introduced 

their “emergence principle” of identity formation. They argue that identity is not predetermined 

by the language one speaks, but rather by the way that language interacts with one’s community, 

culture, and society (p. 588). In turn, this is a key proponent in cultivation of an identity. For 

example, Bucholtz and Hall (2005) interviewed a hijra, in which she describes her experience of 

being exiled from her family (p. 589). For context, hijra is a South Asian cultural identity which 

holistically includes trans, intersex, and non-binary people, for which a Western equivalent does 

not directly exist, making them a very unique social minority to conduct linguistic research with. 

With this particular interview conducted in Hindi, which has obligatory gendering of verbs, 

Bucholtz and Hall (2005) noticed how the hijra used the masculine verbiage when describing 

how her family spoke of her and in the feminine when speaking of herself (p. 590). This is a 

powerful show of how language must exist within context to build identity, in the sense that it 

can be used as empowerment in opposition of familial or societal perception. This elucidates 

how language does not, in fact, restrict how you can speak of yourself, but rather acts as a 

facilitator or detractor, depending on a variety of external factors (i.e., culture, society, etc.). As 

it pertains to queer identity, this implies that each language has an innate ease with which 

LGBTQ individuals can express themselves, which makes it more or less facile to cultivate an 

identity with, and thus feel fulfillment with.  

 



 

Impacts of Multilingualism 

While imperative for a general understanding of language’s impact on us, the ideologies 

discussed above do not cover multilingualism, an important scope of this project. Fortunately, 

the effects of speaking more than one language have been greatly elucidated by other linguists, 

chiefly the work of Gabriele Kasper (1992). Many of his papers divulge the concept of linguistic 

pragmatism and its implications for multilingual individuals. Put simply, this is the phenomenon 

whereby the linguistic and cultural conventions from one’s native language transfer over into 

their second language (Kasper, 1992, p. 206). The significance of this for the queer community 

includes the ability to transfer concepts and ideas from a language with more accepting 

terminology for LGBTQ to a language with more restrictive views. It is important, however, to 

note that no one language is an ‘ideal’ for queer expression, as many contain limitations and 

advantages that, when combined via the above mentioned transfer, can foster a more 

comprehensive way to express oneself effectively. More specifically, this transfer is foundational 

for queer verbiage in languages that lack adequate terminology. For one, in Tagalog, the 

common term for “transgender” is a slur, so the bilingual Filipino diaspora has adopted terms 

like “transpinoy/transpinay,” which, while not grammatically standardized, are the culturally and 

pragmatically transferred from other languages (Gandhi, 2020). Equipped with a culturally and 

linguistically informed analysis of how identity and language interact, it then becomes important 

to more intimately understand the queer journey and how these linguistic features could be vital 

for the LGBTQ community.  

 

Historical Perspectives on the LGBTQ Community and their Ramifications 

For the LGBTQ community, forming connections is not just optional—it is essential. In 

times of societal ostracization, from the Buggery Act in the medieval ages which outlawed      

homosexual acts, to the 1980s AIDS epidemic in the USA, strength in numbers has been a 

guiding principle for queer people in order to ensure mutual protection. Evidently, both historical 

and contemporary accounts demonstrate that language serves as a crucial tool to achieve this 

vital connection. To fully understand the critical nature of such connection and bond formation, 

it is useful to turn to the history of the community and the sociological fixtures that arose from 

the widespread treatment of the community during various bouts of discrimination.   

Homophobia’s Effect on Queer Culture and Acceptance  

Chiefly, it is important to understand that queerness has been well documented in history 

since the dawn of man. LGBTQ history in the Western world has its roots in Ancient Greece, 

where homosexuality was an open part of quotidian society. For instance, pederasty was the 

practice whereby older men enter into mentor, and often sexual, relationships with younger men, 

viewed as a key social player in the masculinization of adolescents (Hubbard, 2020). Moreover, 

communities in North America before colonial contact also show evidence of this same 

precedent in their culture and language. For instance, the languages of Cree and Ojibwe had 

words to describe men who dress/function as women, and vice versa (BigEagle, 2023) (see 

Appendix A for a comprehensive list of these terms and others). These open attitudes, however, 



 

could not withstand the changing tides of an increasingly parochial world. The Medieval Ages 

saw a staunch rise in adherence to religious law, notably of Christianity in Europe and Islam in 

the Middle East, North Africa, and Southern Europe (Anderson, 2024). Interpretations of the 

major religious texts led to widespread attitudes that discouraged same-sex attraction and gender 

expression outside of the binary of male and female. Further, research done by queer 

anthropologists like Luiz Mott (2021) has found that the gender fluidity and more sexually 

expressive culture in Native populations was seen as “promiscuous” and “shameless” by the 

European colonizers. As a result, the cultural and social structures they implemented in the “New 

World” placed an emphasis on religious piety, enforced with strong attitudes of domineering 

masculinity, or “machismo” (Azevedo et al., 2021). Analogous attitudes were spread across 

many global cultures through European colonization, leading to a society where gender 

nonconformity and same sex attraction were made largely invisible to the public. Further on, 

codification of anti-queer sentiment began in the 16th century, with bills such as the 

aforementioned Buggery Act 1533 making homosexuality punishable by death (Martin, 2021).  

Pride and Language in the Modern Movement 

 Though documentation of queerness between the 15th and 18th century is limited, the 

community persisted nonetheless in stealth, through secret societies or coded language, further 

underscoring how crucial communication is to the maintenance and survival of LGBTQ identity. 

A poignant showcase of said secrecy is Polari, a language invented specifically by gay men in 

the 19th century to be able to foster community in an era that prohibited it (Baker, 2019). Polari 

was of particular importance in the United Kingdom, where it was primarily used, as prior to 

1967, laws made it nearly impossible to congregate with other queer individuals without facing 

persecution. Although perhaps not a distinct language in its own right, it drew from various 

languages to form a covert slang lexicon that could be considered a dialect of English (Baker, 

2019). When considering this context, Polari exemplifies how identity is able to shape language 

by adapting rapidly at a colloquial level to meet the needs of marginalized communities. For 

these mid-century queer individuals, language was able to serve both as a shield and a tool, 

enabling for discreet communication in an otherwise hostile society and environment while 

simultaneously fostering a sense of solidarity and belonging. This illustrates that identity 

formation and language are inextricably linked, with linguistic adaptation emerging as both a 

response to and a necessity within the challenging sociocultural conditions faced by marginalized 

groups. Even after Polari fell out of use as societal attitudes improved through the 1960s, certain 

terms remain in queer spaces today—like “butch,” “femme,” and “drag”—emphasizing how a 

sense of community is passed along generations to maintain solidarity and identity (Baker, 

2019).  

On the other side of the Atlantic, the 1960s were a time of great social change for the 

LGBTQ population in the United States as well. Up until this point, analogous attitudes that 

pushed the formation of Polari made it so that queer gatherings took place away from cisgender, 

heterosexual society. In North America, this manifested in ballroom and house culture, a social 

scene earmarked by free expression, artistic liberation, and unabashed pride (Brathwait, 2018). 



 

This spirit born from the underground gatherings of Black and Latino queer folks in nightclubs 

and bars, and it must be noted that people of color not only contributed to the formation of 

modern queer culture, but they also spearheaded major efforts for LGBTQ liberation. Most 

notably, New York City’s Stonewall Riots on June 28th, 1969 marked the beginning of a slow 

but favorable shift in the legal, societal, and linguistic perception of the queer community 

(Metcalf, 2019). To elaborate on the latter point, it was during this era that terms like “slay,” 

“werq,” “spill the tea,” “yas,” and “shady” emerged, most of which remain prevalent in modern 

LGBTQ lexicon, similar to holdovers from Polari (Davis, 2023). In fact, as acceptance of the 

community has grown, some of these terms have made their way into layman verbiage, reflecting 

a turning point in tolerance for queerness in the mainstream. At any rate, these words, both at 

their inception and currently, serve as linguistic markers of queerness, reflecting pride in identity 

and fostering a sense of community that continues to thrive in LGBTQ spaces. 

In 1970, the year after the Stonewall Riots, the first Pride parade was held in New York 

City, and in the eight years following, eight other countries had their inaugural parade (Arnett, 

2016). Of these, five were countries where English is the official language, and the three others 

—the Netherlands, Norway, and Finland—have English speaking proficiency in the ranges of 

75% to 90% (Babu, 2024). This trend is important to pinpoint because it intrinsically shows that 

resources and verbiage about queerness are more likely to be in English due to Anglo-centric 

roots of the most modern movements. This seems to be a primary reason behind why many ELLs 

find that English is dominant in their queer expression (95.1% to be precise) and thus turn to it in 

droves to be able to better understand and interact with their identity (Lambert, 2020).  

However, while English is often touted as the “official queer language” because of its      

aforementioned accessibility of resources and verbiage, it was never inherently poised to take on 

this role—nor was any other language. Rather, this phenomenon underscores how historical 

precedent and decades of linguistic adaptation—enabled in part by relatively increased cultural 

tolerance, as seen with Polari and ballroom slang—have enabled anglophone communities to 

mold existing linguistic structures to meet the needs of LGBTQ expression. This reflects how 

such adaptation is possible for many other languages and how this process is not a subversion of 

linguistic rules, but rather a necessary evolution to suit the ever-changing needs of their speakers. 

For instance, francophone cultures globally have been slower to adapt to queer customs, and this 

is exemplified by a 2017 statement from l’Académie Française, the governing body of the 

French language. Herein, they suggest that inclusion of the gender neutral neopronoun “iel” and 

other progressive linguistic changes would “result in disunited language” and “create confusion 

that borders on illegibility” (L’Académie Française, 2017). The contrast between anglophone 

and francophone adaptability displays that changing a language is not merely a reflection of 

linguistic necessity, but also of sociocultural willingness to embrace change. This shows that the 

evolution of queer expression in any language is ultimately tied back to the political and cultural 

landscapes in which they operate.  

 

 



 

Methods 

In order to encompass the nuance of the queer multilingual community, it is necessary to 

consult them directly. Ultimately, the goal of this primary data collection is to be able to find 

throughlines in individuals’ relationship between their linguistic practices and their identities. 

This is a unique feature that will shed light on the true impact of multilingualism on queer 

identities. For this paper, I interviewed three queer multilingual individuals, all undergraduate 

students at Stanford University. One, Alex, identifies as nonbinary with a Mandarin Chinese 

speaking background, while the two others identify as gay men with Spanish speaking roots: 

Kyle and Jeremy (these names are all aliases to protect the identities of those interviewed). These 

interviewees were chosen based on their LGBTQ identities, their ability to speak more than one 

language, and their willingness to participate in a ten-to-fifteen-minute sit down interview. In 

conducting an eight-question semi-structured interview, participants were able to respond 

narratively in as much depth as they desired (see Appendix B for full interview transcripts). 

These questions were carefully constructed in order to encapsulate the overarching themes 

explored by the secondary research portion of this paper. More specifically, they concerned 

themselves with the dynamic relationship between language and identity, in addition to the 

cultural landscapes wherein these dynamics take place in order to provide a more nuanced 

understanding of their interactions. Naturally, there was a large emphasis placed on queer and 

multilingual intersectionality to try and bridge the two topics that have largely been explored 

separately until this point in my research. With these methods, I was able to synthesize their 

responses and find three key themes in their stories as queer multilinguals: linguistic adaptation, 

cultural navigation, and socioemotional connection. These throughlines illustrate and exemplify 

both the linguistics and sociological research conducted prior, which further supports the notion 

that there may be an inextricable link between language and identity for LGBTQ people.  

 

 The Intersection of Multilingualism and Queerness 

Linguistic Adaptation 

Sociopragmatic transfer is defined as the ability to apply frameworks from one language 

(often a speaker’s native tongue) into foreign ones, affording a richer ability to express certain 

concepts that are more difficult to convey in either one in isolation (Kasper, 1992). A common 

example is the tendency for many Japanese speakers to apply their complex honorifics system 

into English, begetting a more respectful dialogue in the latter language that is not as easily 

achievable to monolingual anglophones (Kasper, 1992). In the context of queerness, this 

becomes useful when trying to express ideas and concepts that do not exist in a certain language, 

which is often the case in a world where English is a sort of queer lingua franca. For example, 

Alex explained that, in written Mandarin there are distinct pronouns for men (他), women (她), 

and non-human objects (它), which causes problems for gender non-conforming (GNC) 

individuals. However, what many multilingual Chinese people have turned to is likening the 

terms for objects, “它,” to the more widespread “they/them” used in English. Yet, as it pertains 

to oral usage, all three of these pronouns are pronounced the exact same, “tā”, which in Alex’s 



 

words is “affirming because it doesn’t sound like you’re being gendered, which is great and the 

way I prefer it.” This is a highly unique linguistic fixture in Mandarin and in combination with 

aforementioned adaptations in the written language highlights the significance of bicultural 

exchange in sociopragmatic transfer. This case of recognizing strengths in one’s native language 

advantages and incorporating those with ideas from another exemplifies of how intermixing of 

various languages and cultures is essential for bridging communication gaps and bolstering a 

sense of belonging for queer people through shared terminology. Especially considering that the 

LGBTQ journey is innately tumultuous, going through it without the verbiage to describe how 

you think and feel can take an enormous toll. It is analogous to the widespread usage of Polari—     

cultivating a new style of communication in order to address limitations created by your society, 

culture, and language. In a time when strides in LGBTQ visibility are happening faster than ever, 

colloquial adaptations and formation of slang such as these ones can serve as a way to maintain 

personal expression while formal language has yet to catch up, which can take years, if not 

generations.  

Cultural Navigation  

 Another benefit of multilingualism that came up in the interviews is the fact that language 

can serve as a method of compartmentalization. In both my personal experience and through 

these interviews, it is clear that speaking different languages is able to foster unique 

personalities, shaped by the various contexts in which each language is used. When it comes to 

queerness, this has significance not only in identity formation, but also as a means to safety. 

When Kyle spoke about his upbringing, he noted that because of the emphasis on masculinity in 

Cuban culture, Spanish is a way for him to assume that role in order to protect himself from 

discrimination. This is a form of linguistic code-switching, which is a well elucidated 

phenomenon whereby individuals are able to imbue the usage of their “multiple personalities” to 

better assimilate and benefit from a particular social group (Bullock et al., 2009). Regretfully, 

many live in communities that openly harbor anti-queer ideology, and in such cases, safety 

becomes a priority over identity. For Kyle, this manifests as using language to compartmentalize 

expectations from his different cultures. In English, he is able to connect with the gay 

community in a way that is effective and well established. As mentioned earlier in the paper, 

since many resources and slang for the queer community exist mainly in English, he is able to 

nourish this part of his identity with these terms in this tongue. In contrast, his familial use of 

Spanish, shaped by the intense expectations of “machismo” in Cuban culture, prompts him to 

code-switch, allowing him to align with and maintain a connection to the cultural values he was 

raised with. This, in return, shields him from backlash he may receive if he expresses his 

queerness as openly in Spanish as he does in English. 

This also highlights how language, and its connections to various identities, is an 

intensely personal aspect of one’s life. Kyle, as a Cuban-American, is not connected to the queer 

culture present in his family’s home country, yet that does not inherently imply that there is not 

an LGBTQ movement in Cuba. Rather, it suggests that the languages people speak are tied more 

strongly to the context in which they learned them, insofar as they reflect the values, norms, and 



 

social dynamics embedded within those contexts. For Kyle, this means that his connection to 

English and Spanish goes beyond mere communication, serving instead as a means of navigating 

and expressing different aspects of his identity within the cultural frameworks tied to each 

tongue. 

Socioemotional Connection 

Given the discussion about how varying cultural tolerances towards queerness impact 

individuals’ ability to present and express themselves, it is important to clarify that there are no 

judgements being passed about these languages and their associated cultures. In fact, it aims to 

do the opposite. For one, even though Kyle’s Cuban background is generally less accepting of 

his queer identity, it does not detract from the value it adds to his life for reasons independent 

from his sexual orientation. In his interview, he made it clear that “growing up bilingual has 

taught me the value of words, meaning, and communication as it truly alters [my] perspective,” 

underscoring the importance of intersectionality for multilingual individuals, queer or otherwise.  

Here, it must be stated that queerness and multilingualism do not exist in a vacuum, and 

LGBTQ individuals should be afforded the right to exist proudly at the intersection of their 

multiple identities, even if they may seem incongruous. Multilingualism is simply a means by 

which a mental compartmentalization of incongruous identities (i.e., ethnicity and queerness) can 

occur in order to navigate and harmonize these aspects of one’s selfhood. Throughout this paper, 

examples of linguistic transfer and the invention of new ways to speak in order to protect one’s 

integrity has highlighted how above all, the necessity to connect pervades all else. Human beings 

are innately social creatures, which is what makes the ability to bond with and divulge multiple 

communities through multiple identities is such an important player in self-fulfillment. For 

instance, in contrast to Kyle’s experience, Jeremy spoke mainly about how his ability to speak 

Spanish allowed him to better connect with his Mexican culture, independent from its relation to 

his queerness. Having grown up in California, there was always a level of tolerance to his gay 

identity that precluded him from necessarily needing the same compartmentalization that Kyle 

cited as being important to him. Rather, bilingualism afforded Jeremy the opportunity to put 

another aspect of his identity at the forefront, underscoring how LGBTQ people do not have to 

monolithically identify only with their queerness, but rather appreciate and feel enriched in all 

aspects of their person. Either way, equipped with this unique ability, queer multilinguals can 

provide a pathway for non-LGBTQ people to learn about these experiences as well. As Kyle 

aptly put it, “I am also able to change the minds of those around me one conversation at a time,” 

something that is only possible by maintaining and nourishing all parts of oneself, not just a few.      

 

Significance and Conclusion  

While current research focuses mainly on being multilingual as a means to accessing 

English language resources and community, this paper has explored the mechanisms behind 

multilingualism, informed by three primary interviews. These accounts in tandem with research 

of existing linguistic theory dictate how several facets of multilingualism contribute positively to 

the formation and maintenance of queer identity, community, and resilience. With linguistic 



 

determinism and emergent identity theory, it is determined that language cannot ordain how you 

identify, but it can control how you express yourself, meaning queer people can access new 

forms of expression through new languages. Using sociopragmatic transfer as a lens, LGBTQ 

people can also use multilingualism to transfer frameworks and verbiage between languages, 

giving autonomy in self-articulation without waiting for standardized language to evolve. The 

ability to navigate identity through language is not just a tool, but a lifeline. Offering a pathway 

to inclusivity, community, and mental support, this area of academic research is urgently in need 

of expansion. Even outside the academic framework, given a recent and pervasive rise in anti-

LGBTQ sentiment, this solution can be enacted once again to help the community weather 

another period of adverse sociocultural conditions.  

Being queer is still an innately taxing experience, this much is undeniable. Whether 

internal turmoil or societal ostracization, some pains are universal and deeply difficult to bear the 

burden of. Now picture feeling all this pain without having the words to explain why. Without a 

community to rely on; to learn from. This is the reality of millions across the world, seen in case 

studies of languages without genderless terms, verbiage for certain identities, or cultures that 

enforce rigid social standards. Yet, time and time again, history has shown that our community 

surmounts the darkest hours with fortitude and strength in numbers. This kind of community, as 

explored with a variety of periods in queer culture, is truly only able to be fostered effectively 

with a strong enough linguistic basis. A basis that serves to uplift and allow LGBTQ folks to 

discuss, explore, and divulge their identities in the unabashed way characteristic of this 

community. After all, the movement that began the mainstream liberation of queer people is 

called Pride, so-named because of the community’s ability to embody and celebrate this very 

concept for themselves and others. This paper has demonstrated that language and identity are 

inextricably linked, and in light of this, the ability to speak more than one language has shown 

benefits that can serve as tools for this community. Tools that not only nourish strength in 

identity, but also in connection, subsequently ameliorating bonds that have always been 

necessary for the proliferation of the LGBTQ movement.      

 

 

 

 

  



 

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Anderson, E. (2024, May 18). Homophobia. Encyclopædia Britannica. 

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Appendix A 

Queer Terminology in North American Indigenous Communities 

Cree 

● napêw iskwêwisêhot: A man who dresses as a woman. 

● iskwêw ka napêwayat: A woman dressed as a man. 

● iskwêhkan: One who acts/lives as a woman. 

● napêhkan: One who acts/lives as a man. 

● tasta-ee-iniw: A person in-between. 

● înahpîkasoht: A woman dressed/living/accepted as a man. 

Diné/Navajo 

● nádleeh: The one that changes, who is at war. 

Blackfoot 

● ááwowáakii: Gay man. 

● a'yai-kik-ahsi: Acts like a woman. 

● ninauh-oskitsi-pahpyaki: Manly-hearted woman. 

Mi'kmaw 

● nekm: Gender-neutral pronoun. 

Lakota 

● wíŋkte: To be as a woman. 

Ojibwe 

● ininiikaazo: Women who choose to function as men; one who endeavors to be like a man. 

● ikwekaazo: Men who choose to function as women; one who endeavors to be like a 

woman. 

Adapted from 

BigEagle, L. (2023, September 21). Beyond Two-spirit: Indigenous people look to revive 

traditional LGBTQ terms . CBC News. 

https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/indigenous-lgbtq-words-1.6953445 

 

https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/indigenous-lgbtq-words-1.6953445


 

     Appendix B 

Questions & Responses from Interviews with Queer Multilingual Individuals at Stanford 

University 

 

Interviewees’ Aliases*: 

- Jeremy (he/him), Mexican-American 

- Kyle (he/him), Cuban-American 

- Alex (they/them), Chinese-American 

* not all participants answered each question, as is the nature of these types of interviews 

Language and Identity 

Can you tell me about your journey with languages and how they've shaped your identity? 

1. Alex: 

● I kind of have a really standard, I guess, Asian American or at least immigrant 

relationship with language because I grew up in Irvine, a heavily Asian 

community. My parents spoke Chinese to me at home, but I always spoke English 

with them. By the time I got into kindergarten, English was my primary language. 

I never really questioned that until I went to Stanford and took Mandarin Chinese 

my first year. It was like, "Holy s***, I've been missing so much." The way I 

began to explain it starting spring quarter last year was that before I spoke 

Mandarin or learned it, my knowledge of my Chinese heritage was like a blank 

sheet of paper. As I started learning Mandarin, it's as if words started appearing 

on that sheet of paper. 

2. Kyle: 

● I grew up in a primarily Spanish-speaking household as my parents and 

grandparents were immigrants from Cuba. While I quickly learned English in 

elementary school, I have held onto that part of my identity for connections with 

my family and my larger community of friends, city (Miami), and Latino people 

around the world. Growing up bilingual has taught me the value of words, 

meaning, and communication as it truly alters your perspective. Take that as you 

will, I don't know, man.  

3. Jeremy 

● I learned Spanish from a fairly young age. My home was fully English-speaking, 

though my parents are Mexican and Italian. I first started learning Spanish in the 

first grade when my parents sent me to a dual-language Spanish-English K-8 

school. There, almost all of the students were English-language learners and 

spoke only Spanish at home. However, the only person outside of school who I 

could communicate with in Spanish was my grandmother, who even then, spoke 

fluent English. Learning the language was difficult, but after a certain point 



 

(probably around 4th grade), Spanish started coming naturally to me. The Spanish 

language allowed me to truly tap into my Mexican heritage. I was introduced to 

one of my strongest passions (Mariachi music) and began to fully immerse myself 

in my culture in and outside of the classroom. Though I had always wished I had 

attended a “normal school”--one with super competitive sports or kids who 

learned math in English–I have become so grateful for all that my primary 

education gave to me. 

Cultural and Social Connections 

How do your different languages influence the way you express yourself and connect with 

others? 

- Alex: 

● I don't know because I mostly express myself in English. Sometimes I write 

poetry about China or my relationship with it, but I don't write in Chinese. 

English is the main language through which I express myself, but there's 

solidarity in being able to speak Chinese with another person and talk privately in 

a room without others understanding. It's great. 

- Kyle: 

● To some extent, I have to act more masculine in Spanish: I deepen my voice and 

alter my mannerisms to ensure my safety when engaging with a community that is 

typically less accepting of homosexuality despite all the other benefits it brings to 

my life. However, I am also able to change the minds of those around me one 

conversation at a time. Lastly, I have been able to hold relationships with other 

people (usually fellow queers) even in different countries, which has broadened 

my awareness and understanding of the world. 

- Jeremy 

● The Spanish language allowed me to express myself in ways I could have never 

expected. When I was 7, I enrolled in a Mariachi academy and began taking 

music lessons outside of school fully in Spanish. I was able to connect with 

people on more than one level–both through our love for music, our heritage, and 

our ability to form a linguistic enclave. Mariachi music soon became–to be 

somewhat dramatic–my entire life. I spent hours every day speaking in Spanish, 

listening to music in Spanish, singing in Spanish–it consumed my everyday life. 

The number of people that I was able to connect with through this medium I 

would consider to be immeasurable. Without it, I would be a completely different 

person than I am today. 

 

Do you express yourself differently in each language? How does this affect your identity as a 

queer person? 

- Alex: 



 

● I don't really have a personality in Chinese because I don't know enough of the 

language to have one. However, I find the relationship with pronouns in Chinese 

interesting because, although the characters for "he," "she," and non-gendered 

objects are different, they all sound the same. It feels affirming because it doesn't 

sound like you're being gendered, which is great and the way I prefer it. It would 

be cool if English had something like that, but whatever. 

- Kyle: 

● In Spanish, I feel like I have to present myself in a more traditionally masculine 

way to navigate cultural expectations, which can affect how I express my queer 

identity. However, this also allows me to challenge and change perceptions within 

my community. 

Personal Experiences and Challenges 

Can you share a specific story where speaking a certain language had a significant impact on 

your life or relationships? 

- Kyle: 

● There have been many conversations where speaking Spanish has helped me. 

From working with clients at work to communicating with my own family to 

flirting with foreign boys over the internet. 

 

Have you faced any challenges or felt self-conscious speaking about your identity in a 

particular language? Can you share more about that? 

- Kyle: 

● There are some Spanish phrases that I simply have not learned or used much 

because they are not taught or common enough. For example, conversations about 

mental health or self-expression are not really existent in Spanish households, but 

I am still able to bond with others who also face these challenges. 

- Jeremy 

● I always feel somewhat self-conscious when speaking Spanish with native 

speakers, especially here at Stanford. Not because of any particular experience, or 

because I feel like they notice, but because I feel like I’m not able to express 

myself fully in the way that I’d like to. When I speak in Spanish to people from 

Latin America or Spain, I always feel like there is a disconnect in the way that we 

are communicating–like they know that I am putting in more effort to speak to 

them than they are to me. However, I think those barriers are ones I create for 

myself. It’s simply something that you face when Spanish isn’t your first 

language, or when Spanish is not the native language of the place you grew up. 

Emotional and Social Impact 

How does speaking multiple languages impact your emotions and sense of belonging? 



 

- Alex: 

● Speaking Chinese generally just makes me feel kind of sad because I don't know 

much about it, and it's hard for me to express myself. However, it's interesting to 

connect my queer identity with my linguistic identity because it opens up new 

possibilities. It's like being both American and Chinese allows me to reframe 

things in unique ways. 

- Kyle: 

● Being able to speak another language (and knowing basic phrases in even more 

languages) has allowed me to gain an entirely new community with people who 

deeply understand my upbringing. Specifically, I can connect with fellow queer 

Latino people who grew up in households that may not have held space for those 

types of conversations. Additionally, I’ve gained access to different knowledge 

and cultural wisdom, even through my own family as some of them only speak 

Spanish (e.g., my grandma). 

- Jeremy 

● I think speaking multiple languages can create an extremely interesting dynamic 

in any space. For example, if I’m in a room with several international students 

from Latin America, I shy away from speaking Spanish and often react with 

laughs or head-nods so they know I understand. However, if I’m in a room with a 

bunch of native English speakers and a small group who learned Spanish as a 

second language, we feel excited to communicate with each other in Spanish. 

There’s a certain amount of pride and bonding associated with being able to 

recognize that we both went through the time and effort to learn the language. I 

think speaking multiple languages in a group setting can either bring people into 

the space, or push people away from the space. I just wish that strange barrier 

between native speakers and bilingual learners didn’t have to exist, and we could 

all share the beauty that is the language that we speak.  

Reflections on Learning and Using Languages 

What has been your experience learning and using languages in relation to your queer 

identity? Do you have any memorable experiences where language learning intersected with 

your understanding of yourself? 

- Kyle: 

● There are some Spanish phrases that I simply have not learned or used much 

because they are not taught or common enough. For example, the entire Spanish 

language is gendered, so the concept of non-binary is non-existent. While modern 

phrases like "Latinx" have made their way around (which I disagree with because 

I find it very colonial given that the letter x is essentially obsolete in the Spanish 

language), I do appreciate that progress is trying to be made. 

 



 

Do you find that some of your languages have limitations when discussing queer topics, and if 

so, do your other languages help to bridge those gaps? 

- Kyle: 

● There are some Spanish phrases that I simply have not learned or used much 

because they are not taught or common enough. For example, conversations about 

mental health or self-expression are not really existent in Spanish households, but 

I am still able to bond with others who also face these challenges 

 


	Cree
	Diné/Navajo
	Blackfoot
	Mi'kmaw
	Lakota
	Ojibwe
	Appendix B
	Questions & Responses from Interviews with Queer Multilingual Individuals at Stanford University
	Language and Identity
	Cultural and Social Connections
	Personal Experiences and Challenges
	Emotional and Social Impact
	Reflections on Learning and Using Languages


