Microsoft Word - 68142-Article Text-218384-1-10-20210629.docx
Emerging Perspectives
ep.journalhosting.ucalgary.ca
Corresponding author: andria.slipp1@ucalgary.ca
Linking Reading Comprehension and Executive Function:
A Pathway to Improved Instruction
Andria Lee Slipp
University of Calgary
Students with comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and specific
learning disorder in reading (SLD-R) require reading comprehension instruction that
is mindful of executive function deficit. Grounded in the notion that remediation is
most successful when it is based on an understanding of the possible sources of failure,
this literature review presents the interplay between executive function and reading
comprehension and explores how reading comprehension instruction might integrate
executive function support for students with ADHD and SLD-R. This proposed
instructional framework integrates verbal and visual working memory, planning and
goal setting, monitoring and inference making into the reading comprehension
process. A lack of consensus with regards to how executive functions are identified,
defined, and measured indicates avenues for future research. This literature review
includes 38 peer-reviewed journal articles, five books, and one website, ranging from
1996-2019. Findings from this literature review may provide insight to teachers,
administrators, curriculum developers, and those who plan and provide professional
development within the field of education.
Keywords: Executive function, ADHD, specific learning disorder, reading
Slipp, A. L. (2021). Linking reading comprehension and executive function: A pathway to
improved instruction. Emerging Perspectives, 5(1), 16-30.
Designing reading comprehension instruction that is mindful of executive function deficit
is paramount for students with specific learning disorder in reading (SLD-R) and comorbid
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Factors associated with both these of neurological
disorders require that reading instruction for students is thoughtfully considered in light of their
specific learning needs. SLD-R impacts word reading accuracy, fluency, and/or reading
comprehension (American Psychological Association [APA], 2010). ADHD is characterized by
developmentally disproportionate levels of inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity
interfering with development (APA, 2010), and is associated with deficits in executive function
(Barkley, 2015; Willcutt et al., 2005). Left untreated, both SLD-R and ADHD are associated with
low academic achievement (Barkley, 2015; National Reading Panel [NRP], 2000), high rates of
unemployment and underemployment (APA, 2010; Biederman, et al., 2010; Russell et al., 2014)
and increased psychological distress (APA, 2010; Barkley, 1997). Rates of comorbidity indicate
that 33% of children with ADHD are also diagnosed with SLD-R (Mayes & Calhoun, 2006).
Because SLD-R and ADHD share genetic risk factors and frequently co-occur, it is important to
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
17
identify effective treatments to address the common and unique neuropsychological deficits of
both disorders (Sexton et al., 2011).
The process of comprehending written text is intertwined with complexities, even for those
individuals who manage to do it effectively. Beyond phonological processing and decoding,
successful readers coordinate vocabulary, background information, grammatical structures,
metaphorical language, and inferential reasoning in order to comprehend written text successfully
(Sesma et al., 2009). When the necessary processes do not combine as required, gaps in
understanding occur, and in an educational setting this can be particularly detrimental. Attempts
to remediate such gaps among those who struggle with reading comprehension are found to be
most effective if they are based on a solid understanding of the possible sources of failure
(Kendeou et al., 2014).
Executive function, the mechanisms which regulate the processes of human cognition
(Miyake et al., 2000), includes the abilities to shift flexibly between tasks, to suppress an automatic
response in favor of a subdominant response, and to manipulate information stored in memory for
a short time. These mechanisms are integral to the reading process (Follmer, 2018; Georgiou &
Das, 2018; Miller et al., 2013). For students with comorbid SLD-R and ADHD, deficits in these
executive functions, the multi-purpose control mechanisms that regulate the process of human
cognition (Miyake et al., 2000), may be at the root of this failure. Further compounding this
concern and despite an understanding of the critical role of executive function in reading
comprehension, models of reading comprehension have, for the most part, not explicitly
incorporated executive functions (Butterfuss & Kendeou, 2018). The literature indicates a clear
need to first understand the role of executive function in reading comprehension and then to
develop an instructional framework that integrates executive function into reading comprehension
instruction for the benefit of students with comorbid SLD-R and ADHD.
The purpose of this literature review is to use current research to explain how executive
function relates to reading comprehension instruction for students with ADHD and SLD-R. This
review aims to examine how decreased executive function ability in students with ADHD and
SLD-R impacts reading comprehension. Additionally, it seeks to contribute to the development of
a framework for reading comprehension instruction for students with executive function deficits.
Three separate inquiries will be addressed in this research. The first asks how the theoretical
foundations of reading comprehension and executive function integrate. The second examines
what the existing research says about how executive function difficulties generally impact reading
comprehension for students with comorbid SLD-R and ADHD. The third inquiry explores how
reading comprehension instruction might integrate executive function support for students with
SLD-R and ADHD. While these findings can provide insight to teachers of reading as well as to
literacy leaders within the school setting, they may also be of value to curriculum developers,
learning strategists, and those who plan and provide professional development opportunities within
the field of education.
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
18
Methodology
In order to investigate the interplay between executive function and reading
comprehension, as well as how reading comprehension instruction might integrate executive
function support for students with ADHD and SLD-R, consideration was given to how literature
was identified, analyzed, and reported within this integrated literature review inquiry. Articles
were gathered from the following databases: Academic Search Complete, ERIC, Education
Research Complete, and Teacher Reference Center. The key search terms initially used included:
reading comprehension, learning disabilities, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and
executive function(s). Subsequent searches included terms specific to SLD-R: simple view of
reading, reading comprehension strategies, and inference making. Owing to the significant amount
of research related to ADHD and SLD-R, selection criteria mainly included articles published
between 2008 and 2019. This range was determined to be large enough to include a worthwhile
scope of literature while still allowing for a thorough examination of the included literature. Five
foundational contributions to the literature made prior to 2008 (between 1996 and 2006) were
included as well. These articles served to establish the foundations of current understanding of
executive function, ADHD, and reading comprehension, and are reflective of Torraco’s (2005)
suggestion that both recent and older literature should be considered in a well-constructed literature
review. In addition, concern for initial bias within the research process was identified prior to
delving into the literature (Hendricks, 2017), in that the researcher’s background in executive
function was centered around the work of Barkley (2015). It became clear that in order to consider
the research on a broader scale, alternatives to Barkley’s (2015) work were included (Baddeley,
1996; Miyake et al., 2000; Miyake & Friedman, 2012, for example). Secondary research and non-
peer reviewed journal articles were excluded from this review. This approach yielded 40 articles
in total.
Literature was analyzed using a staged review process (Torraco, 2005) whereby there was
an initial review of abstracts to determine suitability followed by an in-depth review of the entire
article. Literature was selected based on its credibility, similarity, and relevance to this research
(Hendricks, 2017). This staged review included an inspection of the references included in the
literature, which provided an opportunity to uncover additional research related to the analysis. In
order to provide a foundation for analysis, the literature was initially divided into categories that
included reading comprehension theory and executive function theory. Subsequently, literature
was categorized based on the connections the authors of these articles established between reading
comprehension and executive functions. This approach allowed for a clear comparison of the
literature findings, unveiled opportunities to reconceptualize the existing literature, and revealed
directions for future research. In order to ensure the literature review was conducted in a
responsible and accountable manner (Hendricks, 2017), ethical issues were considered through the
identification of researcher bias, the creation of an audit trail, and debriefing with non-
collaborating peers.
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
19
Literature Review
This literature review aims to synthesize the research related to executive function and its
connection to ADHD, SLD-R, and reading comprehension. After first establishing the theoretical
context within the domains of executive function, ADHD, reading comprehension, and SLD-R,
this literature review presents a critical examination of how executive function impacts reading
comprehension in students with comorbid ADHD and SLD-R. Finally, it examines the integration
of executive function and reading comprehension.
Executive Function and ADHD
For the purposes of this literature review, executive function is defined as general-purpose
control mechanisms that regulate the processes of human cognition (Miyake et al., 2000). It is a
hierarchical construct encompassing several distinct but interrelated components including the
ability to sustain attention, shift attention, think flexibly, inhibit responses, and hold and update
goal-directed information in working memory (White et al., 2017). Early reference to executive
function can be found in the work of Vygotsky (1896-1934). While Vygotsky did not label it as
executive function, he suggested that self-directed speech permits the organization and personal
planning of children’s behaviour (Vygotsky et al., 1994). This reference to self-directed speech
was revisited by Barkley (1997) in his work on executive function, decades later. A subsequent
model of executive function was suggested by Baddeley (1996), who theorized that the central
executive drives working memory and allocates data to the visuospatial sketchpad, or the inner
eye, and to the phonological loop, the part of working memory that manages language. This model
suggests that the components of executive function operate relatively independently of each other.
In 1997, Russell Barkley began to make strong associations between executive function and
ADHD. He eloquently labeled executive function as being “essential for the contemplation of the
future juxtaposed against the here and now” (Barkley, 2015, p. 429). At its foundation, Barkley
(1997) considered self-awareness to be the hub of the central executive, while inhibition was seen
as the next most critical executive function, followed by nonverbal and verbal working memory.
While our collective understanding of executive function may indicate an association to
ADHD, the literature reflects a variety of approaches in terms of how that association is made.
Barkley’s (1997) model, for example, began to establish ADHD as a disorder of executive
function. In contrast to Barkley’s model, Brown (2006) established that some, but not all, of those
who meet the criteria for ADHD diagnosis are impacted by an executive function deficit. Willcutt
et al., (2005) and Pennington and Ozonoff (1996) agreed that there is a strong association between
executive function and ADHD however they concluded that the lack of universality of executive
function deficits among individuals with ADHD suggests that difficulty with executive function
is likely one component of ADHD neuropsychology but not sufficient enough to be the basis of
the diagnosis. While the literature has not conclusively determined that executive function deficit
is invariably interconnected with ADHD, there is a clear indication that a strong association
between the two is often present.
Approaches to Reading Comprehension
An examination of reading comprehension presents opportunities to combine aspects of
the reading process with executive function and reveals how executive function deficit impacts
one’s ability to understand written text. In general, reading comprehension refers to the
construction of a mental representation of written text (Butterfuss & Kendeou, 2018). In much the
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
20
same way that the understanding of executive function has matured, perspectives related to reading
comprehension have also progressed over time. However, since most reading comprehension
models were proposed in the 1980s, before the link between executive function and reading had
been established, and despite advances in comprehension literature, reading comprehension
models have not been further developed (Butterfuss & Kendeou, 2018). This presents an
opportunity for the refinement of our understanding of reading comprehension, especially given
the critical importance of executive function.
A suitable entry point into understanding the process of reading comprehension is through
the simple view of reading (Gough & Tumner, 1986). The simple view consists of two
components: decoding and linguistic comprehension. It establishes that skill in reading can simply
be characterized as the product of skill in these two domains. Several relevant implications surface
with this model. One implication is that reading difficulties encountered by individuals who
adequately comprehend language must stem from a deficiency in decoding skill. Similarly, for an
individual with adequate decoding skills, the limit on reading is a deficiency with linguistic
comprehension (Gough & Tumner, 1986). The simple view of reading establishes that the overall
education of individuals must be considered while working to enhance reading ability among
students because as understanding develops, linguistic comprehension also likely expands,
regardless of whether one is involved in reading or listening.
While the simple view of reading has had significant impact on the pedagogy of reading
comprehension, it is not without its controversy. Concannon-Gibney and Murphy (2010) identified
the need for a less simple view of reading in order to recognize the importance of cognitive
flexibility, metacognition, and explicit comprehension strategy instruction. Catts (2018) noted that
although it was not the intent of its original authors, the simple view can easily be seen as a one-
dimensional construct, while in reality it is a complex, multidimensional cognitive activity. Despite
the simplicity of its name, the simple view of reading presents an opportunity to synthesize the
reading process with the complexities of executive function.
Taking further steps toward the integration of reading comprehension and executive
function, Duke and Carlisle (2010) considered reading comprehension to be a process requiring
the reader to analyze information in a number of different ways. They identified that as the reader
constructs meaning from the text, it is not the memory of the specific clauses or sentences within
the text that holds value, but rather the overall meaning made of the text. Duke and Carlisle’s
(2010) model of reading comprehension, focused on making meaning, logically involves the
flexibility of thought, strategic response, and manipulation of information involved in executive
function. While it is not explicitly identified, their model presents opportunities to superimpose
executive function onto the reading comprehension process.
Kendeou et al. (2014) proposed the cognitive view of reading which makes direct
connections to executive function. They found that the process of comprehending written text
requires the reader to execute a new and correct combination of cognitive processes with each new
piece of information that is encountered. Understanding where the cognitive processes may fail is
integral to the work of supporting those who struggle with these comprehension processes
(Kendeou et al., 2014). This understanding is critical to the problem of practice identified in this
literature review because it gives educators the opportunity to be reflective about what their
students are missing from the cognitive process. Higher-level processes, such as inference making
and executive function, are integral in reading comprehension. Individuals who struggle with these
processes have difficulty identifying semantic connections within the text, identifying the
important or main ideas in text, and monitoring their comprehension (Kendeou et al., 2014).
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
21
The strong association between reading comprehension and executive function among
students with SLD-R was established in research by Cutting et al. (2009). They found that students
who struggle with reading comprehension deficits showed prominent weaknesses in executive
function.
While the literature supports the association between a variety of reading comprehension
models and executive function, the picture becomes more complex when we ask how executive
function impacts reading comprehension.
The Impact of Executive Function on Reading Comprehension
Complex processes involved in successful reading comprehension demand effective use of
executive function skills. This section includes a summary of how the interconnected relationship
between executive function and reading comprehension is presented in extant literature.
The degree to which executive function ability is predictive of reading comprehension
ability is not clearly identified in the research. While an assessment of executive function may
have limited value in predicting which individual students will respond to intensive reading
interventions (Miciak et al., 2019), there are clear associations to be made between both constructs.
For example, relative to those with ADHD and without SLD-R, teachers report that those with
ADHD and SLD-R exhibit more executive function difficulties (Martinussen & Mackenzie, 2015).
Despite the lack of clarity regarding predictability of reading comprehension difficulty
based on executive function deficit, the literature indicates that there are several executive
functions that impact reading comprehension. For example, shifting, which is defined as the ability
to switch flexibly between tasks (Follmer, 2018), was found to directly predict reading
comprehension among university students (Georgiou & Das, 2018). Further, among fourth grade
students, both inhibitory control, the ability to suppress an automatic response in favor of a
subdominant response (Follmer, 2018), and shifting were directly associated with reading
comprehension (Kieffer et al., 2013). Alternatively, working memory, the ability to manipulate
information stored in memory for a short time (Follmer, 2018), is seen to play an important role in
building a coherent representation of what students with ADHD have read (Miller et al., 2013).
In addition to shifting, inhibitory control, and working memory, the literature also indicates
the importance of planning, the ability to sequence multistep tasks, prioritize information, and
execute an organized response (Follmer, 2018), within the reading comprehension process. Among
children aged 10-14, reading comprehension difficulties were linked to poor strategic planning and
organization (Locascio et al., 2010), and university students with specific deficits in reading
comprehension performed significantly poorer than controls only with regards to planning
(Georgiou & Das, 2016). While the literature supports the notion that reading comprehension
models must consider the role of executive function, there appears to be a lack of consensus as to
which functions are most impactful in the reading comprehension process.
This lack of consensus is due, in part, to the fact that research studies tend to examine
different combinations of executive functions, often leading to a comparison of dissimilar
concepts. For example, one meta-analytic review of executive function and reading comprehension
included inhibition, shifting, working memory, planning, and sustained attention (Follmer, 2018).
In contrast, Georgiou and Das (2018) assessed only inhibition, shifting, and working memory in
their study, which examined if components of executive function predict reading comprehension
in young adults. They determined that only shifting exerted a significant effect on reading
comprehension. Research by Cartwright et al. (2017) aligned closely with that of Georgiou and
Das (2018) as they also assessed inhibition, shifting, and working memory in their study, which
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
22
identified that teacher-delivered shifting intervention produced significant improvements in
reading comprehension for students with difficulty in this area.
Even among studies by the same researchers, there is discrepancy about which executive
functions are being investigated. In a study by Georgiou and Das (2018), planning and working
memory were included in an examination of what components of executive function predict
reading comprehension in young adults, while in their study two years earlier, only planning was
seen to be a significant predictor of reading comprehension in students (Georgiou & Das, 2016).
Other research relating executive function to reading comprehension goes as far as to simply
measure executive function generally, without specifying which component of executive function
is relevant. For example, Corso et al. (2016) discussed the value of general executive function as
it relates to reading comprehension skills among students with low socioeconomic status.
Miyake and Friedman (2012) entered into the discussion on the interplay among executive
functions, concluding that executive function involves both the correlation of a unified underlying
ability, as well as the separability or individualization of executive functions. Miyake and
Friedman (2012) found that inhibition correlated nearly perfectly with the common executive
function. This is important because until the literature shows alignment in terms of how executive
functions are identified, it will be difficult, if not impossible, for researchers to form robust
conclusions on the importance of individual executive functions.
However, the findings of a study by Altemeier et al. (2008) may help to identify such
conclusions about individual executive functions. These authors have suggested that just as there
are lower and higher level literacy skills, there are lower and higher level executive functions. This
is supported by their conclusion that inhibition, shifting, and updating ability do not predict the
higher-level skill of reading comprehension. Rather they were more predictive of decoding ability,
a lower-level literacy skill. Verbal and visual working memory, planning and goal setting,
monitoring, and inference making were considered to be higher-level executive function processes
involved in reading comprehension (Cutting et al., 2009; Martinussen & Mackenzie, 2015).
Further research into the higher order executive function skills and their relationship to higher
order reading comprehension processes would help to focus the literature and provide more clarity
on how best to support students.
Integration of Executive Function and Reading Comprehension
Current models of reading comprehension suggest that executive function plays an
important role in the reading comprehension process. While processes related to decoding and
understanding syntax are necessary in order for a reader to comprehend written text, these both
involve lower level cognitive processes and are not as dependent on executive function (Butterfuss
& Kendeou, 2018; Potocki et al., 2017; Spencer et al., 2014). With that in mind, it becomes clear
that linguistic comprehension, a component within the simple view of reading which includes
background knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, language structures, verbal reasoning, and literacy
knowledge (Gough & Tumner, 1986), is driven by higher order executive function skills. The
literature has confirmed that higher order executive function skills including verbal and visual
working memory (Kofler et al., 2018; Miller et al., 2013; Sesma et al., 2009), planning and goal
setting (Georgiou & Das, 2016; Locascio et al., 2010), and monitoring (Dabarera et al., 2014) most
significantly impact the higher order demands of the reading comprehension process (Altemeier
et al., 2008). For example, use of strategies, such as chunking a large, cognitively demanding text
into smaller, more manageable sections and underlining the key details, may allow readers to
reduce the load on their working memory and facilitate self-monitoring of comprehension while
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
23
working through the text. Through instruction of strategies to facilitate reading comprehension
based on differential executive function demands, students with SLD-R and ADHD may benefit.
Findings
Within the context of this literature review, these findings aim to suggest a new approach
for reading comprehension instruction in light of the integration of reading comprehension and
executive function.
A New Approach to Reading Comprehension Instruction
Understanding where cognitive processes may fail is integral to the work of supporting
those who struggle with reading comprehension (Kendeou et al., 2014). This presents an excellent
opportunity to revisit how reading comprehension is taught and how students are supported in
developing their ability to comprehend written text. An extensive investigation into the most
impactful executive functions provides the opportunity to elaborate on strategies and instructional
approaches that could benefit students with SLD-R and ADHD and for whom executive function
deficit is a concern. The following framework for reading comprehension instruction is suggested
for use by teachers and those who are closely connected to literacy instruction. The framework is
broken down by subheading as it relates to individual executive functions.
The literature has indicated that students with ADHD are generally inefficient strategy
users and that they have difficulty identifying the correct strategies to use in specific situations
(Kofman et al., 2008). Therefore, it is important to teach strategies systematically and explicitly,
and support their use through scaffolding and collaborative practice (Johnson & Reid, 2011).
Another point of consideration is the purpose for reading. For example, in situations that
require the reader to search for specific information in an expository text or in a web-based
environment, executive functions are more heavily called upon (in particular, working memory,
planning, and inhibition skills). In circumstances where students are required to read a narrative
and answer questions about it, the demand on executive functions is less (Potocki et al., 2017).
This should be taken into consideration by teachers as they support their students in engaging in
the appropriate strategies to build reading comprehension. Further, being aware of the purpose of
reading will provide students with guidance in terms of the types of strategies they might employ.
Potocki et al. (2017) found that working memory, planning, and inhibition are significantly
predictive of performance on inferential questions of comprehension, but that these executive
functions did not predict scores on the literal tasks of comprehension.
Verbal and visual working memory
Supporting working memory may be one of the most significant strategies in developing
reading comprehension skills for students with ADHD and SLD-R. Rather than taxing a weak
working memory, students may annotate as they read. This annotation becomes a record of a
student’s thoughts, what they are reminded of, what they agree and disagree with, what they find
surprising, what they are curious about, and what they do not understand. This strategy is best used
when the formatting of the text is adjusted so that it includes adequate space in the margins for
students to record their thinking. Recording keywords or drawing small sketches in the margins
can be equally powerful. Providing students with instruction around how to properly annotate as
they read may be helpful in allowing them to visualize the information they are storing in mind
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
24
and then updating with new information. The strength in this approach is that it allows students to
make their thinking visible. It helps them to clearly see the progression of the text and reveals a
road map of sorts, indicating where they were and where they are going within the text. Such visual
and textual annotations serve as a reminder and reference for students as they reflect on what they
have read and allows students to participate in planning and goal setting.
Planning and goal setting
Both Butterfuss and Kendeou (2018) and Georgiou and Das (2018) identified planning as
being necessary for coordinating higher-level processes during reading. This would suggest that
explicit instruction related to planning should be included in reading comprehension instruction,
especially for students who are involved in understanding expository text. Engaging in strategies
to support students with planning and goal setting involves reflecting on, discussing, and recording
how a text fits into the bigger context. This could be framed by asking what the text adds to the
conversation, the class or the larger society, how the text might impact the reader, and how we
might benefit from the text. Guiding students to understand and consider the author’s purpose
helps students to see the progression and development of the text and leads to better
comprehension.
Introducing strategies that help support planning might also involve the mapping of main
ideas within an expository text. Understanding the big picture within a complicated set of details
requires that the reader has a good sense of how the text is planned and organized (Georgiou &
Das, 2018; Locascio et al., 2010). Graphic organizers or colour coded annotative notes could be
considered as such strategies. Explicit instruction related to story mapping of narrative text may
also reinforce higher-order planning functions for students.
Monitoring
Providing students with opportunities to reflect on how well they have engaged their
executive function skills during the reading process allows them to identify their areas of growth
and strength. This strategy assumes that students are aware of the executive functions they should
be using during reading, which reflects the importance of providing explicit instruction in this
regard. Engaging students in understanding what executive functions are and how they serve
reading comprehension gives students agency in their learning. Providing opportunities for them
to reflect on their abilities to use or support their executive function skills is critical to the
development of their independence.
Opportunities for future research related to this framework include a quantitative study
assessing the effectiveness of the strategies highlighted here. Additionally, it would be beneficial
to differentiate this framework to better support executive function skills for students in the
primary years. The strength in this framework is that it highlights the executive functions that are
considered most fundamental to the reading comprehension process. It invites educators to engage
in discussions with their students about what executive functions are and their role in the reading
process, provides students with an opportunity to engage in reflective thinking on their personal
use of executive functions during reading, and supports the use of valuable strategies to support
reading comprehension across a variety of texts.
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
25
Discussion
Several conclusions can be formed based on the synthesis of literature relating to executive
function and reading comprehension ability among students with ADHD and comorbid SLD-R. It
was evident from this review of studies that there is a strong association between executive
function ability and reading comprehension and that this association is particularly relevant for
students with ADHD and comorbid SLD-R for whom executive function is impacted. This section
will identify gaps in the current literature related to executive function and reading comprehension
by first investigating the misalignment in terms of which executive functions are assessed within
the literature. It will then consider the accuracy and lack of consistency in executive function
measurement.
Reading comprehension models such as the simple view of reading (Gough & Tumner,
1986) and the cognitive view of reading (Kendeou et al., 2014) both recognize the role of executive
function in skilled reading. In addition to complexities with task-impurity and the measurement of
executive function, which executive functions are assessed in reading comprehension and how
functions of the executive are defined can also be inconsistent. Research showing a strong
correlation between ADHD and difficulties with executive function, coupled with the high rates
of ADHD and SLD-R, makes it clear that reading comprehension instruction that is not rooted in
executive function support fails to address the learning needs of these students. Given that students
with ADHD and SLD-R are more likely to be faced with low academic achievement, low self-
esteem, and are less likely to complete high-school than typical learners (APA, 2010), it is
important that teachers have a strong understanding of where the disconnect lies for their students,
especially in terms of helping them to understand written text. Targeting executive function
development and support within reading comprehension instruction is critical to addressing that
disconnect.
There exists a lack of agreement among researchers regarding the skills that are referred to
when considering executive function. This may explain the variation in executive functions chosen
by researchers for assessment. For example, generally speaking, there is agreement that working
memory is a critical executive function, but deeper examination into whether verbal or non-verbal
working memory is being evaluated may change the dynamics of the research. This could be a
critical distinction to make because the cognitive demands involved in each are profoundly
different (Barkley, 2015). While our understanding of executive functions and their role in the
learning process is relatively well developed, consensus in this regard does not exist.
Altemeier et al.’s (2008) findings that inhibition, shifting, and updating ability do not
predict reading comprehension ability, but rather were more predictive of decoding ability, was
pivotal in this review. Higher level executive functions such as verbal and visual working memory,
planning and goal setting, monitoring, and inference making were considered to be most influential
to reading comprehension, itself a higher order process (Cutting et al., 2009; Martinussen &
Mackenzie, 2015). Therefore, these executive functions formed the foundation of a proposed
pedagogical framework for reading comprehension.
Additionally, it is important to consider the controversy surrounding how executive
functions are best measured. Miyake et al. (2000) described the task-impurity problem associated
with the measurement of executive functions. They found that in order to assess a target executive
function, that function must be embedded within a specific task. This means that other non-
executive function processes associated with that specific task would also be assessed and the
results would not be purely reflective of the targeted executive function (Miyake et al., 2000).
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
26
Barkley (2015) shared similar concerns, stating that rating scales in executive function are superior
to this type of neuropsychological testing because it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
truly isolate executive functions. Despite this, ratings scales are seldom used in evaluating
executive functions (Barkley, 2015).
Cirino et al. (2017) agreed, in part, with this lack of consensus. Their research sought to
evaluate the extent to which instruction that emphasized executive function would result in
increased reading comprehension ability among students. Results of this research found that the
correlations between executive function centered instruction and reading comprehension ability
were weak, but their conclusion echoed the thought that more sensitive measurement of executive
function would allow for more in-depth examination of the topic. Thus, the literature shows that
clearly understanding the importance of executive function within the context of reading
comprehension will be controversial as long as executive function measurement lacks consistency.
The findings of this literature review are intended to serve teachers as they design reading
comprehension instruction for students with ADHD and SLD-R. Acknowledging the critical role
of executive functions in the reading comprehension process and designing instruction to highlight
those functions and their purpose allows teachers to engage with their students in the most
meaningful of ways. The framework provided within this literature review is proposed to achieve
this outcome. Further, recognizing why this work is important is the critical first step to supporting
students with comorbid ADHD and SLD-R. However, beyond that, consistently identifying and
defining executive functions within the literature and resolving concern surrounding how
executive functions are assessed will be important as we move forward.
When considering limitations to the literature review process, one might recognize that
from a pedagogical standpoint, reading comprehension has long been a topic that garners
significant attention and therefore there exists a wealth of research on the topic. While a large
volume of academic resources could be viewed as an asset within a literature review, it does
present a limitation to the research. The wealth of literature related to reading comprehension
demanded that the methodology for this literature review include specific and fixed data bases and
search terms. However, there is an acknowledgement that the literature included within this review
represents a cross section of what exists in the broader context.
Conclusion
The literature indicates a clear need for executive function support to be integrated into
reading comprehension instruction for students with comorbid ADHD and SLD-R. Providing
educators with a framework for reading comprehension instruction which includes mindful and
targeted support for higher level executive function processes like verbal and visual working
memory, planning and goal setting, and monitoring addresses remediation needs for students with
ADHD. This approach is reflective of Kendeou et al.’s (2014) observation that reading
comprehension remediation is most effective when it is designed with a solid understanding of the
possible sources of failure.
While the literature clearly indicates a strong association between executive function skill
and reading comprehension (Follmer, 2018; Kieffer et al., 2013; Locascio et al., 2010), a lack of
common definitions, effective measurement tools, and alignment in terms of which executive
functions are most critical to the reading comprehension process, indicate clear avenues for future
research. Currently, it seems that this area of study is lacking common parameters. Once those
parameters are in place, it may be possible to add to the research from a neurobiological
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
27
perspective. This may be powerful as we look to build stronger foundations in the exploration of
executive functions especially as they pertain to reading comprehension.
References
Altemeier, L. E., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (2008). Executive functions for reading and
writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia. Journal of Clinical and
Experimental Neuropsychology, 30(5), 588-606.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390701562818
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (6th ed.). American Psychological Association.
Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology Section A, 49(1), 5-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/713755608
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions:
Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65-94.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65
Barkley, R. A. (2015). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and
treatment. The Guilford Press.
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Evans, M., Small, J., & Faraone, S. V. (2010). How persistent is
ADHD? A controlled 10-year follow-up study of boys with ADHD. Psychiatry
Research, 177(3), 299-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.12.010
Brown, T. E. (2006). Executive functions and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder:
Implications of two conflicting views. International Journal of Disability,
Development and Education, 53(1), 35-46.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10349120500510024
Butterfuss, R., & Kendeou, P. (2018). The role of executive functions in reading
comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 801-826.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9422-6
Cartwright, K. B., Coppage, E. A., Lane, A. B., Singleton, T., Marshall, T. R., & Bentivegna, C.
(2017). Cognitive flexibility deficits in children with specific reading
comprehension difficulties. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 50, 33-44.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.01.003
Catts, H. W. (2018). The simple view of reading: Advancements and false
impressions. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 317-323.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518767563
Cirino, P. T., Miciak, J., Gerst, E., Barnes, M. A., Vaughn, S., Child, A., & Huston-Warren, E.
(2017). Executive function, self-regulated learning, and reading comprehension:
A training study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(4), 450-467.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219415618497
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
28
Concannon-Gibney, T., & Murphy, B. (2010). Reading practice in Irish primary classrooms: Too
simple a view of reading? Literacy, 44(3), 122-130.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4369.2010.00564.x
Corso, H. V., Cromley, J. G., Sperb, T., & Salles, J. F. (2016). Modeling the relationship among
reading comprehension, intelligence, socioeconomic status, and
neuropsychological functions: The mediating role of executive functions.
Psychology & Neuroscience, 9(1), 32-45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000036
Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C. A., Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of
fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension
performance. Annals of Dyslexia, 59(1), 34-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881
009-0022-0
Dabarera, C., Renandya, W. A., & Zhang, L. J. (2014). The impact of metacognitive scaffolding
and monitoring on reading comprehension. System, 42, 462-473.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.12.020
Duke, N. K., & Carlisle J. (2010). The development of comprehension. In P. D. Pearson, R. Barr,
& M. L. Kamil (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 199-228). Routledge.
Follmer, D. J. (2018). Executive function and reading comprehension: A meta-analytic review.
Educational Psychologist, 53(1), 42-60.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2017.1309295
Georgiou, G. K., & Das, J. P. (2016). What component of executive functions contributes to
normal and impaired reading comprehension in young adults? Research in
Developmental Disabilities, 49(50), 118-128.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.12.001
Georgiou, G. K., & Das, J. P. (2018). Direct and indirect effects of executive function on reading
comprehension in young adults. Journal of Research in Reading, 41(2), 243-258.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12091
Gough, P., & Tumner, W. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and
Special Education, 7, 6-10.
Hendricks, C. (2017). Improving schools through action research: A reflective practice
approach (4th ed.). Pearson Education.
Johnson, J., & Reid, R. (2011). Overcoming executive function deficits with students with
ADHD. Theory into Practice, 50(1), 61-67.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2010.534942
Kendeou, P., van den Broek, P., Helder, A., & Karlsson, J. (2014). A cognitive view of reading
comprehension: Implications for reading difficulties. Learning Disabilities
Research & Practice, 29(1), 10-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12025
Kieffer, M. J., Vukovic, R. K., & Berry, D. (2013). Roles of attention shifting and inhibitory
control in fourth-grade reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly,
48(4), 333-348. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.54
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
29
Kofler, M. J., Spiegel, J. A., Soto, E. F., Irwin, L. N., Wells, E. L., & Austin, K. E. (2018). Do
working memory deficits underlie reading problems in attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,
47(3), 433-446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0447-1
Kofman, O., Larson, J. G., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2008). A novel task for examining strategic
planning: Evidence for impairment in children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical
and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30(3), 261-271.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390701380583
Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction
among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 43(5), 441-454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409355476
Martinussen, R., & Mackenzie, G. (2015). Reading comprehension in adolescents with ADHD:
Exploring the poor comprehender profile and individual differences in vocabulary
and executive functions. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 38, 329-337.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.12.007
Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2006). Frequency of reading, math, and writing disabilities in
children with clinical disorders. Learning and Individual Differences, 16(2), 145
157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2005.07.004
Miciak, J., Cirino, P. T., Ahmed, Y., Reid, E., & Vaughn, S. (2019). Executive functions and
response to intervention: Identification of students struggling with reading
comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 42(1), 17-31.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948717749935
Miller, A. C., Keenan, J. M., Betjemann, R. S., Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., & Olson, R. K.
(2013). Reading comprehension in children with ADHD: Cognitive
underpinnings of the centrality deficit. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,
41(3), 473-483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9686-8
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D.
(2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to
complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology,
41(1), 49-100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in
executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8-14.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458
National Reading Panel. (2000). National reading panel – Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its
implications for reading instruction.
https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/r
port.pdf
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental
psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(1), 51-87.
Slipp - Emerging Perspectives (2021)
30
Potocki, A., Sanchez, M., Ecalle, J., & Magnan, A. (2017). Linguistic and cognitive profiles of
8- to 15-year-old children with specific reading comprehension difficulties.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(2), 128-142.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219415613080
Russell, G., Ford, T., Rosenberg, R., & Kelly, S. (2014). The association of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder with socioeconomic disadvantage: Alternative explanations
and evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(5), 436-445.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12170
Sesma, H. W., Mahone, E. M., Levine, T., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2009). The
contribution of executive skills to reading comprehension. Child
Neuropsychology, 15(3), 232-246. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040802220029
Sexton, C. C., Gelhorn, H. L., Bell, J. A., & Classi, P. M. (2011). The co-occurrence of reading
disorder and ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(6), 538-564.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411407772
Spencer, M., Quinn, J. M., & Wagner, R. K. (2014). Specific reading comprehension
disability: Major problem, myth, or misnomer? Learning Disabilities Research &
Practice, 29(1), 3-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12024
Torraco, R. J. (2005). Writing integrative literature reviews: Guidelines and examples. Human
Resource Development Review, 4(3), 356-367.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484305278283
Vygotsky, L. S., van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (1994). The Vygotsky reader. Blackwell.
White, L. K., Moore, T. M., Calkins, M. E., Wolf, D. H., Satterthwaite, T. D., Leibenluft, E.,
Pine, D. S., Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (2017). An evaluation of the specificity of
executive function impairment in developmental psychopathology. Journal of the
American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(11).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.08.016
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of
the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-
analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336-1346.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006