









































Emerging Perspectives 
ep.journalhosting.ucalgary.ca 
 
 

Challenges of Leading Expatriate Academics 
 

David Michael St. Germain* 
 

University of Calgary 
 

 
To attract a greater number of students both at home and abroad, many higher education 
institutions have made internationalization a priority. The trend towards internationalizing 
by opening branch campuses, arranging cross-border collaborations, twinning, franchising, 
and having joint or double degree arrangements has led to an increase in the mobility of 
academic labour. Often, higher education leaders are promoted through the ranks of 
academia and are underprepared for leading a diverse workforce that includes expatriate 
academics. Expatriate academics face many challenges as they attempt to adjust to new roles 
and lives in foreign countries. Thus, they usually require more support than local staff. 
Leadership style can have a large impact on an employee’s job satisfaction and performance. 
Given the emphasis placed on internationalization at higher education institutions, it is 
important for universities to develop leaders with the abilities to incorporate a range of 
leadership styles. This can help leaders to effectively meet the challenges of their increasingly 
complex roles. In this context, I propose the consideration of servant leadership as a potential 
leadership style that may be well suited to help higher education leaders meet the needs of 
their expatriate academic staff. 

Keywords: internationalization, leadership, higher education 

St. Germain, D. M. (2017). Challenges of leading expatriate academics. Emerging 
Perspectives, 1(2), 1-10. 

Knight (2015) defined internationalization as “the process of integrating an international, 
intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions, or delivery of postsecondary 
education” (p. 2). Knight further noted that internationalization has become a key driver for growth 
for many higher education institutions around the world. The most noticeable way in which 
internationalization has impacted higher education is in the flow of students across national 
boundaries (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2010). However, international mobility is not 
confined to the student body; it is also found increasingly among academics (Richardson & 
McKenna, 2003). Although the higher education literature demonstrates significant interest in the 
mobility of tertiary students, the internationalization of academic staff has been less well analyzed, 
even though scholars from many regions have become increasingly mobile (Richardson, 2000). 

The management and leadership of expatriate academic staff is an important consideration 
for most higher education institutions that wish to be competitive in today’s globalized higher 
education landscape, yet this aspect of leadership in higher education is still understudied (Selmer 
& Lauring, 2013). Leading expatriate academics adds an extra dimension to traditional leadership 
thinking, as expatriates must grapple with challenges not faced by local employees (Richardson & 
                                                           
* david.stgermain@ucalgary.ca 



St. Germain / Emerging Perspectives (2017)               2 
 

Zikic, 2007). These unique challenges extend the scope of what may be thought of as a leader’s 
traditional role, as leaders must provide supports for expatriate academics that frequently fall 
outside of official job duties. To foster a positive work climate, a wide mix of leadership skills and 
behaviours must be incorporated into a leader’s “toolbox” to lead expatriate staff as they grapple 
with the challenge of not only adjusting to a new role, but also a new life in a foreign country 
(Goleman, 2000).  

Failure to understand the needs of expatriate academics can lead to low job satisfaction and 
organizational commitment, poor work performance, high turnover, and impact employee 
performance and productivity (Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014). Strategic and effective 
leadership can improve an organization’s ability to sustain profitability, productivity, and a 
competitive advantage (Yahaya & Ebrahim, 2016). In light of these concerns, this article begins 
with an examination of the trend towards the internationalization of higher education and the 
impact it is having on the mobility of academic labour across international borders. Next, there is 
an overview of some of the challenges faced by expatriate academic staff. This is followed with a 
discussion of the leadership challenges involved in leading expatriate academic staff. Then there 
is a discussion of the effects of leadership styles on organizational outcomes. Finally, there is an 
examination of the potential of servant leadership as a leadership style in the context of leading 
expatriate academic staff.   

Internationalization of Higher Education  

In the era of globalization, internationalization has become an opportunity for higher 
education institutions across the world to increase their revenue and profits (Altbach & Knight, 
2007). Whether it be to increase enrolment, expand market access, or develop an institution’s 
reputation and international ranking, the concept of the internationalization of higher education 
has moved from the fringes of institutional interests to the very core (Brandenburg & De Wit, 
2015). Universities have dramatically expanded the volume, scope, and complexity of 
international activities during the past two decades (Altbach & Knight, 2007). Internationalization 
for a university consists largely of two main spheres of action, commonly characterized as 
internationalization at home and internationalization abroad (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 
2009). Internationalization at home includes internationalization strategies that occur on the home 
campus, while internationalization abroad happens across borders (Knight, 2004). Furthermore, 
the mobility of the labour market and the increase in cultural diversity of communities and the 
workplace require that both students and academics have an increased understanding of what is 
needed to work and live in a culturally diverse environment, and demonstrate such skills (Knight, 
2004). The primary focus of this article relates to internationalization abroad, as many higher 
education institutions around the world have internationalized their degrees and programs and 
established foreign branch campuses in other countries (Gopal, 2011).  

Altbach and Knight (2007) identified the factors driving the focus on internationalization 
as (a) commercial advantage, (b) knowledge and language acquisition, and (c) curriculum 
enhancement with international content. Altbach and Knight noted many different initiatives that 
universities pursue to internationalize including (a) branch campuses, (b) cross-border 
collaborative arrangements, (c) twinning, franchising, and (d) joint or double degree arrangements. 
Any of these initiatives may require expatriate faculty to operate effectively.  

Knight (2004) explained that from a national perspective, an increasing emphasis on the 
knowledge economy, demographic shifts, mobility of the labour force, and increased trade in 
services are all factors that drive nations to place more importance on developing and recruiting 



St. Germain / Emerging Perspectives (2017)               3 
 

human capital or brain power through international education initiatives. Thus, Knight concluded, 
there are signs of heightened pressure and interest to recruit the brightest scholars from other 
countries to increase scientific, technological, and economic competitiveness.  

Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley (2009) asserted that the burgeoning number of 
international agreements between tertiary institutions often includes long and short-term faculty 
exchange components, and these programs move countless numbers of scholars around the globe 
each year to teach and conduct research abroad. The movement of academic staff across borders 
can bring with it many benefits including (a) prestige, (b) quality control in program delivery, (c) 
language expertise, and (d) the potential for professional development in the areas of pedagogy 
and research. This movement also creates greater diversity within university staff (Altbach & 
Knight, 2007). The problem of managing expatriate academics is an important and complex issue 
that needs to be addressed strategically (Richardson & McKenna, 2002). 

 Much of the focus of internationalization seems to be on student recruitment and retention 
as these aspects are the main source of revenue for higher education institutions (Brandenburg & 
de Wit, 2011).  However, efforts to monitor international initiatives and ensure quality are integral 
to the international higher education environment (Altbach & Knight, 2007). Academic staff are 
responsible for delivering the programs that students enroll in and for differentiating the university 
from others in the market. The expanding numbers of expatriate academics has resulted in more 
international faculty representing different national cultures, and this increase in diversity presents 
growing challenges for institutions of higher education who must prepare their academic leaders 
to manage expatriate academics effectively (Selmer & Lauring, 2011). 

Challenges Faced by Expatriate Academics 

Many expatriate academics initially view their new job in a foreign country as an adventure 
potentially full of the excitement of overseas travel (Garson, 2005). However, working overseas 
presents some challenges that need to be considered by leadership, whether local or expatriates 
themselves, at higher education institutions that employ foreign academic staff. In getting ready 
for such an experience, it is important that academics are prepared for the some of the possible 
phases of culture shock: (a) the honeymoon, in which euphoria and adventure initially overshadow 
the mundane tasks of house hunting, finding schools for children, and finding acceptable food; and 
(b) irritation and hostility, which involve numerous adjustment problems (Xia, 2009). As well, it 
is commonplace to hear stories within expatriate academic circles of “nightmare” schools with 
poor leadership. The harsh reality is that some academics will find themselves in situations where 
they must overcome difficulties at the hands of an overseas employer, and this can extend beyond 
problems at work to engaging in battles with employers to secure basic living arrangements 
(Richardson & McKenna, 2002). With the ever-increasing movement of labour across 
international borders in higher education, leaders must understand the challenges faced by 
expatriate academic staff, both at the office and in the host country, and help to overcome these 
challenges, as this may be useful in attracting international faculty, as well as retaining incumbent 
faculty (Richardson & McKenna, 2007). 

Froese (2012) identified three distinct facets of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment: (a) 
general adjustment, which involves coping with living in a foreign country; (b) interactive 
adjustment, which involves establishing relationships with locals; and (c) work adjustment, which 
involves the way expatriates fit into the workplace. This places a greater responsibility for their 
care in the hands of academic leaders, as researchers found a link between perceived organizational 
support and the work adjustment of expatriates (Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001). Adjustment 



St. Germain / Emerging Perspectives (2017)               4 
 

problems experienced by expatriates may have fundamental consequences for an organization 
(Selmer & Lauring, 2009). Richardson (2000) found that expatriates’ ability to adjust had a major 
influence on their professional and personal experiences during their overseas appointment. An 
inability to adjust both professionally and personally had a detrimental effect on their performance 
at work, which had a detrimental effect on their home life (Richardson, 2000).  

Challenges Faced by Leaders of Expatriate Academics 

Leadership is identified as one of the key features of effective internationalization (Francis, 
1993). Higher education institutions must be prepared for the changes and challenges of a highly 
competitive and increasingly global environment and addressing these changes means finding 
ways to align organizational capacity with environmental demands and opportunities (Taylor & 
Machado, 2006). Leadership in higher education is fundamental for institutional development and 
sustainability in today’s rapidly changing world, yet there is a lack of formalized leadership 
preparation for this important role (Gonaim, 2016).   

Academic leaders require a diverse set of leadership capabilities, such as well-honed 
communication skills, problem-solving skills, conflict resolution skills, cultural leadership skills, 
coaching skills, and transition skills (Wolverton, Ackerman, & Holt, 2005). In addition to these 
capabilities, Bryman (2007) identified some of the behaviours of effective educational leaders 
which include (a) being considerate, (b) treating academic staff fairly and with integrity, (c) being 
trustworthy and having personal integrity, and (d) creating a positive and collegial atmosphere. 
Effective leadership can affect the satisfaction and performance of employees within an 
organization (Drury, 2004). In addition, leadership style has been found to directly affect 
organizational commitment (Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014). Leaders who want to 
become successful need to learn and adapt to and lead people from diverse cultures (Eken, 
Özturgut, & Craven, 2014). In addition to the already long list of leadership capabilities and 
behaviours expected when managing academic staff, increased diversity of staff demands that 
leaders employ these capabilities and skills with a global mindset (Chuang, 2003).  

Leadership Styles and Organizational Impact 

Given the challenges faced by leaders of expatriate academics, it is important to understand 
different leadership styles and their organizational impact. Specifically, leadership is a blend of 
special traits and behaviors that influence followers to achieve a common goal. It is the process of 
influencing others to understand and agree on what needs to be done and how to do it, as well as 
the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives (Eken, 
Özturgut, & Craven, 2014). Leaders carry out this process by employing a blend of traits and 
behaviours known as a leadership style. The leadership style at a higher education institution can 
impact the quality of life and job satisfaction of expatriate academic staff and this, in turn, can 
have a direct impact on the achievement of organizational objectives (Nanjundeswaraswamy& 
Swamy, 2014). Kraimer, Wayne, and Jaworski (2001) found that expatriates who had high-quality 
relationships with their supervisors were more effective in completing their job responsibilities 
and that effort extended by the supervisors translated into better expatriate performance at work. 
Therefore, careful consideration should be given to leadership styles when managing expatriate 
academic staff.  

Leadership style is an important variable influencing how members of an organization 
function.  Leadership style has a direct impact on employee job satisfaction, organizational 
commitment, as well as employee performance and productivity (Yahaya & Ebrahim, 2016). 



St. Germain / Emerging Perspectives (2017)               5 
 

Leaders who can effectively integrate various leadership styles can help higher education 
institutions achieve their internationalization goals (Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014) by 
creating a supportive work environment that positively impacts expatriate work performance 
(Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001).  

Yahaya and Ebrahim (2016) found that leadership style is an important predictor of 
organizational performance and it is an antecedent of organizational commitment, which is the 
factor that links employees to the organization and helps the organization succeed. Yahaya and 
Ebrahim also noted that commitment has been found to be related to positive organizational 
outcomes such as job performance, employee satisfaction, and turnover. The authors concluded 
that there is a positive relationship between effective leadership style and organizational 
commitment that leads to highly committed, more satisfied employees, the result of  working under 
the right type of leader. 

Vroom and Jago (2007) noted that all leadership styles present some form of benefit and 
are effective in certain contexts. There is no single leadership style that can be effective in all 
situations. Furthermore, Vroom and Jago contended that the appropriate leadership style depends 
on the situation faced by the leader. Situational variables play into the leadership process in three 
distinct ways: (a) organizational effectiveness is affected by situational factors not under a leader’s 
control, (b) situations shape how leaders behave, and (c) situations influence the consequences of 
leader behavior (Vroom & Jago, 2007). Given the complexity of managing culturally diverse 
academic staff, leaders should be aware of and able to employ various leadership styles when 
necessary.  Goleman (2000) noted that instead of adherence to one style, the most effective 
executives use a collection of distinct leadership styles when necessary. Such flexibility is tough 
to put into action, but it pays off in performance. Academic leaders may find that they are naturally 
more suited to certain leadership styles over others, and this may lead them to favour these 
leadership styles; however, Goleman suggested that the most effective leaders switch among the 
leadership styles as needed. This approach seems most appropriate given the rapidly changing 
landscape of higher education leadership in the 21st century.  

Leadership styles can affect the quality of work life and overall happiness of expatriate 
academics (Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014). Given the impact leadership style has on 
achieving an organization’s goals, higher education institutions should invest in formal leadership 
development for academic leaders. Specifically, this development should seek to improve leaders’ 
awareness of leadership styles, to give them the skills to recognize when different styles are 
appropriate and, to help them be able to effectively integrate styles depending on the situation they 
face. 

Moving Forward: The Potential of Servant Leadership for Expatriate Academic Staff 

At present, leadership that is rooted in ethical and caring behavior is becoming important 
as a key factor for engaging employees and flourishing organizations (Van Dierendonck, 2011). 
The increased mobility of labour in higher education brings with it greater freedom of movement 
than ever before for academic staff. Universities benefit from being able to recruit from a global 
talent pool and recruiting the best talent is important.  However, retaining it is equally, if not more, 
important. Today, with the benefit of internet forums, expatriate academic staff can easily spread 
the word about good and bad schools, which has an impact on a school’s ability to attract teachers 
from abroad. By supporting staff and creating the conditions for them to successfully do their job, 
an organization will be better able to meet its goals through better job performance and long-term 
retention of talent (Yahaya & Ebrahim, 2016).  



St. Germain / Emerging Perspectives (2017)               6 
 

Kraimer, Wayne, and Jaworski (2001) found that perceived organizational support had a 
direct effect on expatriate adjustment, which in turn had a direct impact on work performance. 
Perceiving little or no support from senior leadership, individuals may feel isolated and frustrated 
(Francis, 1993). To address these problems, one possible approach which appears to be a good fit 
with the general needs of expatriate academic staff is servant leadership. Anderson and Sun (2017) 
stated that servant leadership is a style that focuses on the growth of those who are being 
simultaneously led and served. Servant leadership takes place when leaders assume the position of 
servant in their relationships with fellow workers and the main motivation is to focus on the needs 
of others (Greenleaf, 1997). Servant leadership aligns well with expatriate academics’ need for 
support when they transition to a new life in a host country. Servant leadership is a broad concept 
encompassing many key characteristics, including: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, 
foresight, commitment to the growth of people, and building community (Russell & Stone, 2002). 
Based on these characteristics and the overall goal of serving others, servant leadership aligns well 
with the values of higher education institutions, as many of these characteristics must be applied 
when nurturing the development of students at the post-secondary level (Barnes, 2015). 

Gonaim (2016) suggested that since many academics who transition into leadership roles 
within departments or colleges have no experience leading large-scale organizations, the need for 
a servant leadership perspective is significant. The act of teaching and helping students to achieve 
their goals is itself a form of servant leadership. Servant leadership is demonstrated when leaders 
empower and develop people; express humility, authenticity, interpersonal acceptance, and 
stewardship; and provide direction (Van Dierendonck, 2011). Servant leadership is anchored in 
the human drive to bond with others and contribute to the betterment of society. An emphasis on 
service motivation, as demonstrated by empowering and developing people with empathy and 
humility, differentiates servant leadership from other leadership frameworks (Mittal & Dorfman, 
2012).  Academics who transition into leadership roles should already have a solid servant 
leadership foundation and should be comfortable in applying it (Barnes, 2015). The key is 
recognizing the transferable characteristics and behaviours between teaching and servant 
leadership, and knowing when they are most suitably applied.  

Although it is not a one-size-fits-all solution to leadership challenges, servant leadership 
could be considered by academic leaders managing expatriate academic staff due to its focus on 
developing and supporting people, and wide acceptance across cultures (Mittal & Dorfman, 2012). 
In addition to this, servant leadership shares many of the characteristics and behaviours of good 
teachers, so adopting it is not a stretch for academics who are promoted to leadership positions. 
Expatriate academic staff will face many challenges both inside and outside the office, and servant 
leadership can be directly applied to helping them with the challenges.  

One of the drawbacks of this leadership style however, is that it is not a firmly established 
leadership theory. Russell and Gregory Stone (2002) indicated that although many theorists and 
researchers espouse servant leadership as a valid model for modern organizational leadership, it is 
still a somewhat undefined and unsupported theory that lacks empirical evidence of real-world 
application and success. Designing a training program to promote the development of servant 
leadership skills among academic leaders may be challenging as the theory lacks credibility in 
relation to other leadership theories. I suggest that future research could explore the work/life 
satisfaction of expatriate academics at institutions that embrace servant leadership. Additionally, 
there is scope for research into academic leaders’ experiences with servant leadership and their 
perceptions of its effectiveness in relation to their needs in managing expatriate academics.   

 



St. Germain / Emerging Perspectives (2017)               7 
 

Conclusion 

 A shift towards a more market-oriented higher education sector in many countries, 
combined with the increase in demand for higher education across the world has led many 
universities to engage in internationalization as a method to grow their tuition base (Barber, 
Donnelly, & Rizvi, 2013). Internationalization has created an increase in the international mobility 
of labour in the higher education sector, and an increasing number of academic staff find 
themselves working outside of their home country (Richardson & McKenna, 2003). Expatriate 
academic staff often face challenges when working abroad and require additional support both at 
the office and in their daily lives. Gonaim (2016) suggested that many leaders in higher education 
are promoted through the ranks of academia and are not properly trained in leadership. The current 
role of an academic leader is highly complex, and many may find it difficult to adapt. In addition 
to this, academic leaders may not possess the knowledge and skills required to create the necessary 
conditions for expatriate academic staff to adapt and thrive in their new work environment. A 
leader’s style can have a significant impact on employee output and the ability for an organization 
to meet its goals (Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014). 

With the huge university investments in internationalization efforts, it is essential that 
leaders can lead a diverse workforce to achieve success. More investment needs to be made by 
higher education institutions in training academic leaders to become confident in their leadership 
roles. Leadership is highly dependent on situation (Hersey, Blanchard, & Natemeyer, 1979). There 
is no one best way to lead in today’s increasingly complicated world. Academic leaders need to be 
able to understand and apply many different leadership styles in order solve the diverse problems 
they face every day (Goleman, 2000). One possibility is servant leadership, which is a leadership 
style that is in line with the values of higher education. Academics who become leaders could 
apply servant leadership in many situations, since it shares many of the same principles as being 
an educator. Its key traits of empowering and developing people are well-suited for supporting 
expatriate academic staff as they adjust to their new lives in new countries. Higher education 
institutions need to put more emphasis on developing the leadership skills of their academic 
leaders, and could consider including the principles of servant leadership in their leadership 
development programs as managing expatriate staff becomes more important with the increased 
internationalization of universities. 

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