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Emerging Perspectives
ep.journalhosting.ucalgary.ca

Unpacking Formative Assessment Literacy Among Teachers in Confucian
Cultural Contexts: An Investigation in Online Learning Environments

Rong Fu*, Kim Koh

University of Calgary

This study critically examines the concept of formative assessment literacy within the
realm of Confucian cultural contexts, particularly in light of the widespread adoption
of virtual learning platforms and online schooling post-COVID-19. Despite the
universal expectation for teachers to develop sophisticated formative assessment
literacy, formidable challenges persist, specifically in Confucian heritage countries
in Asia, due to inadequate formative assessment literacy and limited professional
development opportunities. This paper dissects the historical and cultural barriers
preventing the implementation of formative assessment in these contexts, including
ingrained hierarchies, traditional utilitarianism ethos, and rigorous conformity. The
transition to online platforms has further complicated this landscape, underscoring
the urgency of equipping teachers with skills to navigate and leverage new
educational technologies effectively.

Keywords: Formative assessment literacy, Confucian, Cultural contexts, Teacher-student
relationship, Online learning

Fu, R., & Koh, k. (2024). Unpacking formative assessment literacy among teachers in
Confucian cultural contexts: An investigation in online learning environments. Emerging
Perspectives Special Edition: Designing for Digital Futures, 7(1), 1–9.

Introduction

To enhance student learning experiences, teachers around the globe are expected to

develop assessment literacy that enables them to implement sound assessment practices in the

classroom (Stiggins, 1999). Assessment literacy refers to teachers’ understanding of assessment

processes as well as their capacities to design, select, adapt, and use assessment tasks that elicit

students’ understanding of the subject matter and demonstration of cross-cutting competencies

(i.e., 21st-century skills) and that yield reliable and valid assessment data to inform instruction

*rong.fu1@ucalgary.ca



Fu & Koh/ Emerging Perspectives (2024) 2

and student learning (Koh, 2011; Koh et al., 2018). Teachers’ effectiveness in using assessment

to adjust instructional practices and to improve students’ learning has become a key aspect of

teachers’ assessment literacy (Koh et al., 2019). Clearly, formative assessment literacy has been

widely seen as a pivotal component of comprehensive assessment literacy since Black and

Wiliam’s (1998) seminal work on the positive effects of teachers’ formative assessment practices

on students’ learning in the day-to-day classroom. A substantial body of literature has centred

around teachers’ assessment literacy in general, especially teachers’ formative assessment

practices in the Western cultural context. In this article, we focus on teachers’ formative

assessment literacy in the Confucian cultural context.

Regardless of their teaching contexts, we posit that all teachers must develop a

sophisticated level of formative assessment literacy. However, many teachers face two enormous

challenges: inadequate formative assessment literacy and minimal professional learning

opportunities for developing formative assessment literacy. The situation is more complicated in

the aftermath of the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, particularly with the widespread

adoption of virtual learning platforms and online schooling, which has emerged as a prevalent

phenomenon both globally and within Confucian societies in Asia. The utilization of online

formative assessment is facing an invisible hurdle in the form of non-traditional face-to-face

classroom interactions inherent to the virtual learning environment.

The Context

Confucian cultural heritage context includes “chopsticks” countries, primarily in East

Asia and Southeast Asia (Wang, 2015). The most notable nation is Greater China, which refers to

mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Over the centuries, from ancient times to the

colonial period and the present day, these societies have embraced Confucianism as a



Fu & Koh/ Emerging Perspectives (2024) 3

fundamental belief system, integrating it into every facet of life and promoting its tenets through

education. Accordingly, Confucian societies have developed a strong emphasis on the pursuit of

academic excellence through summative assessment, leading K–12 teachers to rely heavily on

summative methods to determine student learning outcomes. Consequently, to prepare students

for success, teachers teach to the test (Popham, 2001).

The Barriers

Although formative assessment is well established in Western classroom practices and is

required as one of the underpinnings of teacher literacy (Popham, 2011), when the idea of

formative assessment was introduced to Confucian heritage countries in Asia, tensions for K-12

teachers arose due to both historical and technological barriers.

First, the ineradicable thought of filial piety, stemming from Confucius’s idea of Li

(feudal propriety), solidifies the hierarchical relationship between teacher and student that the

former possesses supreme authority over the latter. Xunzi, another important Confucian

philosopher after Confucius, juxtaposed teachers with nature, lords, and parents as one societal

underpinning element (Machle, 1993). This greatly jeopardized the everyday reciprocal

interactions in implementing formative assessment, especially providing feedback. One of the

principles of formative assessment literacy in practice is to engage student involvement in

assessment (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2002, p. 41). When Bloom (1969) defined the terminology of

formative assessment, he pointed out that its initial purpose was to provide feedback in the

teaching-learning process. That is, the foundation of formative assessment is deploying teacher

feedback, and the duty of teachers within formative assessment is “to assess the work and

provide feedback” (Yorke, 2003, p. 478). Nevertheless, local teachers tend to employ didactic

teaching approaches to manage the classroom, while students acquiesce to the absolute authority



Fu & Koh/ Emerging Perspectives (2024) 4

of the teacher by remaining silent. The existence of such a “silent” classroom hinders the

establishment of equitable feedback practices in formative assessment, which contravenes the

notion that students are expected to be “active participants” (Heritage, 2007, p. 141) in

accordance with the principles of formative assessment.

Secondly, the traditional utilitarianism ethos rooted in Ke-Ju (Imperial Examinations) has

resulted in a societal obsession with exclusively emphasizing academic outcomes, disregarding

the importance of the student learning process (Ko, 2017). Historically, Confucius established a

connection between the utilitarian objective of education and bureaucratic employment

(Confucius, 2007), which has pervaded the societal mindset to the present day. Moreover, the

content of Ke-Ju is solely comprised of Confucian Classics, which need to be more relevant to

practical applications in the real world (Feng, 1995). Consequently, the monotonous outcome of

student learning was obtaining admission to an ancient governmental position. On the other

hand, formative assessment is focused on holistic learning procedures, marking every learning

phase to progress students' learning visibly and gradually (Sadler, 1998). For example, teachers

can utilize synchronous or asynchronous formative assessment approaches to support student

learning processes (Khan & Khan, 2018), aided by either paper-based portfolios or online

technology, which provide dynamic and multi-dimensional means of documenting students'

seemingly insignificant yet enduring learning accomplishments. By prioritizing daily academic

progress over ultimate outcomes, this formative approach can substantially enhance the

significance of the overall learning process.

Third, rigorous adherence to conformity is another significant Confucian ritual.

According to Confucius, he comprehended nature's mandate and posited that human beings

ought to coexist in peace with nature, others, and oneself, which he termed as He (harmony)



Fu & Koh/ Emerging Perspectives (2024) 5

(Tan, 2013). Consistent with this notion, Confucian culture instills the habit of practicing

moderation in public, such as wearing a mask, as a guiding doctrine (Liang, 1975). However, a

crucial aspect of formative assessment is the individualized assessment process (Popham, 2008).

Research on Chinese students' implementation of formative assessment has revealed that Chinese

students prefer to display introverted tendencies (Ding & Chew, 2019). Accordingly, a

predilection exists to emulate their peers' evaluative schemas and substance. Innately, teachers

and students are inclined to reticence when confronted with the prospect of incorporating diverse

formative assessment approaches.

Implications for Online Assessment Practices

Our argument is that the fundamental features of an online learning environment can

impede the effective implementation of formative assessment in Confucian educational settings.

For instance, virtual classrooms and online feedback can function synchronously and

asynchronously (Khan & Khan, 2018). This duality may influence the immediate delivery of

feedback (Schuldt, 2019), which is typically prompt in traditional face-to-face settings with clear

human cues. Thus, addressing the challenge of implementing formative assessment in Confucian

cultures within an online context necessitates that teachers overcome the historical and cultural

influences of Confucianism. This involves embracing their ability to create and administer

formative assessment tasks that provide high-quality feedback, as well as developing virtual

learning environments that are effective and leveraged by new educational technologies. Using

mixed methods data sources, we suggest researchers examine the intricacy of implementing

formative assessment by teachers in Confucian nations amidst the prevalence of online learning

mandates and proffer recommendations for enhancing local teacher training programs in the

future. In conclusion, the provision of high-quality professional learning opportunities need to be



Fu & Koh/ Emerging Perspectives (2024) 6

made available for teachers to learn how to design and implement formative assessments that

align with local socio-economic, political, and cultural contexts, as well as to leverage new

technologies such as AI, machine learning, and data analytics for intelligent formative

assessment, which in turn contributes to improvement in students’ learning experiences and

outcomes.



Fu & Koh/ Emerging Perspectives (2024) 7

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