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Emerging Perspectives 
ep.journalhosting.ucalgary.ca 

 

 
Vocational Training for Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: 

Effectiveness of the Practical Assessment Exploration System (PAES) 

Amanda Smith-Demers, Adam W. McCrimmon, Katrina S. Shaw 

University of Calgary 

There are few specific, validated vocational training programs for individuals with 

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The Practical Assessment Exploration System 

(PAES) is a functional vocational skills training tool that teaches and measures 

vocational potential in individuals with developmental disabilities. This project 

utilized a mixed methods approach to better understand the effectiveness of PAES in 

enhancing the vocational abilities of twelve adolescents and young adults with ASD. 

Results indicated a statistically significant improvement in vocational skill and 

behaviour after completing PAES. Additional qualitative interviews with parents and 

attendees highlighted four primary themes: strengths, benefits derived, limitations, 

and program suggestions. Implications of these findings are discussed.  

Keywords: Autism Spectrum Disorder, vocation, intervention, adolescents, young 
adults 

 
Smith-Demers, A., McCrimmon, A. W., & Shaw, K. S. (2017). Vocational training for 

adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder: Effectiveness of the Practical Assessment 

Exploration System (PAES). Emerging Perspectives, 1, (1), 1-19. 

 

Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) experience varying degrees of impairment 

in socio-communicative functioning and restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviours, activities, or 

interests (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Due to the variety and severity of 

demonstrated impairments, each individual with ASD can present with unique challenges that 

change throughout development, resulting in significant challenges with providing targeted 

intervention (Cimera & Cowan, 2009). The focus of research and intervention efforts for ASD has 

largely been dedicated to early identification and intervention in infancy and childhood, with little 

emphasis on adolescents and young adults (Taylor et al., 2012). This restricted focus has limited our 

understanding of the specific and varying outcomes for adolescents and adults with ASD (Bailey, 

2012; Taylor et al., 2012). This issue is particularly concerning when considering these individuals’ 

transition to adulthood and the developmentally appropriate interventions that are often necessary 

during this period to facilitate independent daily living, communication, social, and vocational 

functioning to promote their independence throughout adolescence and adulthood (Seltzer, 

Shattuck, Abbeduto, & Greenberg, 2004). 

The purpose of this article is to report the findings of an empirical investigation of a unique 

vocational intervention, the Practical Assessment Exploration System (PAES), designed to enhance 

the job-related skills of adolescents and adults with a developmental disability and its specific 

effectiveness with individuals with ASD, including program strengths, limitations, and potential 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               2 

 

areas for improvement. We begin with an overview of vocational skills and their importance to 

developmental outcome in adulthood. We then review the challenges with vocational skills in adults 

with ASD. PAES is introduced as a possible intervention program for adolescents and adults with 

ASD. We describe the mixed-methodology employed in the present study and the results in support 

of the program for this population. Finally, implications of the findings are discussed. 

Vocational Skills 

Two broad categories of skills essential to positive employment outcomes are work or 

vocational skills and social skills (Chadsey, 2007). Vocational skills involve a variety of daily 

living abilities and capacities to enhance independence in the home, work, and community 

environments (Canella-Malone et al., 2006). Core skills include literacy, numeracy, paperwork, 

computer use, problem solving, decision making, critical thinking, task planning and organization, 

memory, oral communication, interpersonal skills, and continuous learning, among others (Human 

Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011). In addition, there is a wide range of task-

specific skills that may require visual-motor coordination, processing speed, and fine and/or gross 

motor coordination. Previous research has suggested that there are vocational skills that can be 

generalized across job sites, such as following instructions, but that these skills must be socially 

validated in what is expected of individuals for each job placement (Hendricks, 2010). For 

example, social validation of following instructions would involve detailing a specific set of 

instructions for their workplace and why that set would be appropriate for the environment/context 

of the employment. Regardless of the workplace-specific skills, the skills taught to each employee 

will be contingent on the needs of the employer and the employee’s vocational interests and 

capabilities (Chadsey, 2007). Acquisition of skills may also depend on the interests, abilities, and 

cognitive capacities of the trainees; however, there is the potential that as more direct and intensive 

supports are required, additional resources will also be necessary to accommodate these individuals 

and help them adapt in an employment setting. 

Vocational Skills in ASD 

Adults with ASD struggle to obtain and maintain employment, likely due to under-

developed vocational skills (Howlin, 2000; Hurlburt & Chalmers, 2004; Müller, Schuler, Burton, 

& Yates, 2003; Nesbitt, 2000) in addition to their characteristic socio-communicative and 

behavioural impairments (Cameto, Marder, Wagner, & Cardoso, 2003; Dew & Alan, 2007).  

Indeed, competitive, independent employment for these individuals was once considered unlikely 

(Mawhood & Howlin, 1999; Nesbitt, 2000) and it has been estimated that 50 to 75% of adults with 

ASD are unemployed (Shattuck et al., 2012; Wehman et al., 2012). Notably, this unemployment 

rate is the highest of any disability category studied (Shattuck et al., 2012; Shattuck, Wagner, 

Narendorf, Sterzing, & Hensley, 2011). 

Regarding employment locations, recent research indicates that 56% of young adults with 

ASD sampled were employed in sheltered workshops or day activity centers, rather than 

independent competitive community employment (Taylor & Seltzer, 2011). Both sheltered 

workshops and day activity centers are alternatives to community employment, whereby 

individuals usually attend a facility-based program and engage in “relatively simple work 

activities” (p. 1) that match the individual’s skillset (Migliore, 2010). Subsequent research indicates 

that only 7.4% of adults with ASD sampled were employed in a community-based setting without 

supports and 10.2% were employed in the community with supports (Taylor & Seltzer, 2012). In 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               3 

comparison, Taylor and Seltzer (2012) indicated that 34.7% of individuals were engaged in a 

sheltered vocational setting for 10 hours per week or less. Furthermore, young adults with ASD 

and intellectual disability were three times more likely to engage in sheltered or supported daytime 

vocational activities than individuals without intellectual disability, who typically do not 

participate in sheltered or supported settings (Taylor & Seltzer, 2011). Even among higher 

functioning individuals with ASD, who have cognitive ability in the average or above ranges, 

researchers have indicated that the employment rate rarely surpasses 30 percent and that these 

employees are underpaid and underskilled (Howlin, 2000; Howlin, Alcock, & Burkin, 2005).  

Despite these findings, community-based supported employment is becoming more 

common for these individuals (Howlin & Mawhood, 1996; Müller, Schuler, Burton & Yates, 2003) 

and researchers have shown that individuals with ASD are capable of working in a variety of 

occupations and organizations with this additional support (O’Brien & Daggett, 2006).  Current 

perspectives emphasize the implementation of technology and distinctive and specialized 

vocational support to assist adolescents and adults with ASD in developing vocational skills and 

obtaining competitive employment (Gentry, Wallace, Kvarfordt, & Lynch, 2010; Schaller & Yang, 

2005) as they do not often benefit from general vocational training (Müller et al., 2003). This prior 

research indicates that vocational support is not meeting the needs of the ASD population and 

emphasizes the importance of specific vocational support directed at individuals with ASD. Indeed, 

despite the identified challenges with vocation and employment in adults with ASD, vocational 

programs for this population are virtually non-existent, resulting in low levels of independence and 

employment in adulthood (Howlin et al., 2005; Müller et al., 2003). In sum, it is apparent that the 

vocational needs of this population are not being adequately met and research findings indicate that 

adolescents and young adults with ASD would benefit from support for obtaining and maintaining 

employment (Gentry et al., 2010; Schaller & Yang, 2005). Indeed, individuals with ASD should 

have the same entitlement to work as is afforded to the rest of society (Hendricks, 2010). 

Employment can provide an opportunity to enhance personal dignity and has been shown to 

improve cognitive performance for individuals with ASD (Garcia-Villamisar & Hughes, 2007; 

García-Villamisar, Wehman, & Navarro, 2002; Persson, 2000). Enhancing the vocational abilities 

of adolescents and young adults with ASD has been identified as an important intervention goal 

(Mavranezouli et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2012). As individuals with ASD have under-developed 

vocational skills and present with unique behavioural and cognitive symptoms, this population 

often does not benefit from typical vocational intervention as generalized supportive services fail 

to meet their unique vocational needs (Müller et al., 2003). Hence, a distinct and specialized 

intervention approach to support vocational skill development for individuals with ASD is sorely 

needed. 

As mentioned, there are limited specific, validated vocational training programs for 

individuals with ASD (Wehman, Targett, Schall, & Carr, 2014). However, PAES is a functional 

vocational skills program that teaches and measures vocational potential in individuals with 

disabilities. As such, its intended purpose may address the unique vocational needs of adolescents 

and young adults with ASD. 

The Practical Assessment Exploration System 

The Practical Assessment Exploration System (PAES; Swisher, Green, & Tollefson, 1999) 

teaches a variety of vocational tasks associated with business, home economics, and the industrial 
arts to participants with various developmental disabilities. These tasks include filing, collating 

papers, food preparation, sewing by hand, using linear measurement tools, and using hand tools. 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               4 

 

PAES is a group-based intervention that runs in 12-week increments and attendees are divided into 

groups based on age: adolescents are aged 13 to 17 and adults are aged eighteen or older. Each 

group contains 8 to 12 participants, and both adolescent and adult groups are run simultaneously 

at different, preset weekly times. Within these groups, trainees are able to sign up and repeat the 

PAES program as individuals acquire skills at different rates.  

Attendees in the PAES program typically demonstrate cognitive impairment and the 

programming in PAES is tailored to meet their needs. Vocational skills are systematically taught 

to participants, including appropriate workplace behaviours such as arriving on time, clocking in 

for a shift, storing belongings upon arrival, and break time. PAES also introduces the concept of 

supervision. Although PAES is designed to assist the educational and vocational decision-making 

processes for students with developmental disabilities in general (Swisher et al., 1999), its 

effectiveness in the ASD population has yet to be investigated. Thus, a gap in the research literature 

pertaining to the use of PAES with this population exists. 

Research Purpose 

This project aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of improvements in 

vocational skills and overall enjoyment associated with participation in PAES. Specifically, we 

evaluated the effectiveness of PAES as a vocational intervention for adolescents and adults with 

ASD, including identification of the strengths and limitations of PAES for this population.  

Research Questions 

1. Will PAES effectively enhance the vocational skills of adolescents and adults with ASD? 

2. What are the strengths and limitations of PAES for adolescents and adults with ASD? 

3. What suggestions can be made in regards to programming to increase the effectiveness of PAES 

for this population? 

 We anticipated that PAES would effectively enhance the vocational and related skills of 

adolescents and adults with ASD. Additionally, we expected that qualitative data from attendees 

and their parent(s) would highlight program strengths, limitations, and potential areas for 

improvement.  

Methods 

Participants 

Twelve adolescents and young adults with ASD participated in this study. Attendees were 

required to have a diagnosis of ASD made by an appropriately licensed professional prior to 

participating. All attendees were registered to attend PAES and subsequently were recruited to 

participate in this research study upon giving consent. This research sample represents two 

adolescent cycles and two adult cycles of PAES with data collected over a six-month time period. 

The mean age of the sample was 17.7 years, with a range of 14 to 22 years. Nine attendees were 

male, equating to an expected gender ratio given the distribution of the population diagnosed with 

ASD (APA, 2013; Baio, 2012; Newschaffer et al., 2007). Attendees completed a measure of 

cognitive ability to determine their current level of development in this domain, and their ability to 

understand and answer interview questions. Those who were verbal, i.e., demonstrated spontaneous, 

communicative speech, completed the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence – Second 

Edition (WASI-II; Wechsler, 2012) whereas those that presented with language impairment (i.e., 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               5 

minimally or non-verbal) completed the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI; 

Hammill, Pearson, & Weiderholt, 2009). In addition, the attendees’ parents completed the Adaptive 

Behaviour Assessment System – Second Edition (ABAS-II; Harrison & Oakland, 2006) to evaluate 

their child’s current level of adaptive functioning. Lastly, the attendees’ parents and program 

facilitators completed a semi-structured interview upon completion of PAES. Attendee 

demographics and performance on inclusionary measures are presented in Table 1. 

 

Table 1. 

Demographic and Clinical Information. 

 Mean SD Range 

 

Age (years) 17.7 3.06 14.1-22.7 

Gender (% male) 75% (n=9) n/a n/a 

 

FSIQ 

   

WASI-II (n=4) 83.0 16.09 65-102 

CTONI-2 (n=8) 72.9 19.57 47-105 

ABAS-II (n=12) 54.7 14.99 42-91 

 

Note. Age is reported in decimalized format (e.g., 19 years, 6 months is 19.5 years). The Wechsler 

Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, 2nd Edition (WASI-II) is from Wechsler, 2012; and the Comprehensive 

Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, 2nd Edition (CTONI-2) is from Hammill, Pearson, & Weiderholt, 2009. 

FSIQ refers to Full Scale Intelligence Quotient. The Adaptive Behaviour Assessment Scale – Second Edition 

(ABAS-II) is from Harrison & Oakland, 2006. Mean and standard deviation performance for each of these 

measures is reported in standard score units. 

Measures 

As there were no standardized assessment tools designed to evaluate improvement in 

vocational ability, a mixed-methods approach was utilized to gather information on vocational 

skills in the sampled adolescents and young adults with ASD. Specifically, both quantitative and 

qualitative approaches were utilized to provide converging evidence in support of PAES for use 

with adolescents and young adults with ASD. 

TEACCH Transition Assessment Profile. The Treatment and Education of Autistic and 

related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH) Transition Assessment Profile (TTAP; 

Mesibov, Thomas, Chapman, & Schopler, 2007) is a non-standardized measure of vocational and 

related skills in adolescents and adults with ASD. The TTAP was created using evidence from 

successful transition programs such as the Adolescent and Adult Psycho Educational Profile 

(AAPEP) as well as education laws and current research (Mesibov & Shea, 2010; Mesibov et al., 

2007). Direct observation, parent, and school/work scales provide information on six domains 

across different settings. Specifically, this measure evaluates vocational skills, vocational 

behaviour, independent functioning, leisure skills, functional communication, and interpersonal 

behaviour. For the purposes of this project, the vocational skills and vocational behaviour subscales 

were used from a direct observation standpoint to measure change in the amount of vocational skill 

and behaviour items that were passed, both pre- and post-intervention. These two subscales were 

administered following the standardized procedure outlined in the examiner’s manual. 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               6 

 

The TTAP was created using a scoring system on which each item is scored as a pass when 

the task is completed successfully, emerging when the task is partially completed and an initial 

understanding is displayed, or a fail when an individual is unwilling or unable to complete the task. 

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997), assessments should 

aid in identifying life-skill domains requiring accommodation; therefore, the TTAP utilizes 

structured teaching to identify how much support an individual requires before they are able to 

complete a task independently (Mesibov et al., 2007). 

Qualitative. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with program attendees who were 

verbally and cognitively able, a parent for each attendee, and seven out of the eight facilitators 

working in the program. The goal of these interviews was to tap into domains that may not have 

been assessed adequately by quantitative measures. Specifically, interviewees were asked about 

perceived strengths and limitations of the program, perceived changes in routines, self-esteem, 

social behaviour, motivation, any positive or negative side effects they associated with program 

participation, and any suggestions they may have had for program improvement. Interviews were 

semi-structured so as to allow participants to expand on topics that were not otherwise covered 

within the interview protocol. The interview questions are presented in Appendices A, B and C. 

Research Design 

 A convergent mixed-methods approach was used as both quantitative and qualitative data 

were collected, analyzed separately, and then compared (Creswell, 2014). This approach holds the 

key assumption that both types of data provide different sources of information and together should 

provide similar results (Creswell, 2014). Regarding the quantitative aspect of analysis, a quasi-

preexperimental design was used as it involved a pre-post no-control group design without 

randomization of participants (i.e., all participants completed PAES at the same time). 

Procedure 

The intake process for PAES involved four phases: 1) parents of attendees contacting the 

program expressing interest, 2) telephone screening, 3) written application for programming, and 

4) an intake meeting with each potential attendee and his/her family/guardian. At the time of the 

intake, each attendee and his/her family was asked for their consent to participate in this study and 

was provided a consent form. Upon consent, the ABAS-II and WASI-II/CTONI-2 were 

administered prior to the start of the intervention. The TTAP was administered both before and 

directly after the intervention. After the program was complete, semi-structured interviews were 

conducted with attendees and their parent(s), as well as program facilitators. Participants were 

informed of their right to withdraw consent and were assured of confidentiality. 

Results 

Quantitative 

A Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was used to compare participant performance on the 

Vocational Skills and Vocational Behaviours domains of the TTAP before (T1) and after (T2) 

intervention. The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test is a non-parametric alternative to the standard t-test 

when comparing two related samples or repeated measurements from a single sample. This 

statistical method was selected as the most appropriate due to the small sample size (n = 12). 

Results of this analysis indicated that both Vocational Skills, T1 (Mdn = 9.0) and T2 (Mdn = 11.0), 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               7 

z = -2.69, p = .007, and Vocational Behaviours, T1 (Mdn = 8.5) and T2 (Mdn = 11.0), z = -2.37, p 

= .018, significantly increased following completion of PAES.  

Qualitative 

Thematic analysis was selected for evaluating and illustrating themes within the qualitative 

data as the primary researcher sought a deeper understanding of parental/guardian and attendee 

experiences surrounding participation in PAES. Thematic analysis consists of five steps and 

interested readers are directed to the work of Braun and Clark (2006) to familiarize themselves 

with the process. 

Transcription of the interviews occurred subsequent to their completion and hard copies 

were provided to the first author. Interviews were then read and notes were made as this process 

occurred. At this point, open coding occurred line by line and notes were made when possible codes 

or ideas occurred to the primary researcher. Once open coding was completed, grouping into 

preliminary codes and themes began. After all of the interviews had been coded, segments of 

interviews were retrieved and written with codes to further develop code groupings. Further 

grouping and code re-establishment aided in the development of themes, and the resulting themes 

were then named and defined to answer each research question.  

 Evaluating qualitative research. In general, thematic analysis is not tied to any particular 

theoretical framework but instead can be used in tandem with many theories. This characteristic 

makes thematic analysis particularly well suited to a mixed methods approach as it avoids 

philosophical paradigm clashes. For the purposes of this study, an essentialist or realist perspective 

was adopted, which entailed reporting experiences/meaning and reality of participants (Braun & 

Clarke, 2006). This perspective allowed for the theorizing of experiences, motivations, and 

meaning in a direct way while assuming a unidirectional relation between experiences/meaning 

and the language used in expression (Braun & Clarke, 2006).  

 It is also essential that qualitative research is methodologically rigorous (Creswell, 2014) 

and thus steps were taken to ensure trustworthiness of the qualitative data. Throughout the research 

process, the primary researcher engaged in a process of reflection, identifying any biases she held, 

to ensure as much objectivity as possible. During the initial coding process, re-coding of the data 

occurred as necessary to add or remove themes. It was also during this step that an objective 

individual re-coded the data to ensure intercoder reliability and consistency of theming. Any 

discrepancies were discussed between the two coders and resolved to ensure agreement between 

both coders before moving forward. Finally, a process of triangulation also occurred, as the 

researcher examined the findings both qualitatively and quantitatively as a further means to check 

the accuracy of the data (Creswell, 2014).  

Findings 

The qualitative questions explored the strengths, limitations, and suggestions for 

improvement as discussed by verbal program attendees, their parents, and program facilitators 

using thematic analysis. Through the use of thematic analysis, a fourth theme was highlighted, as 

all interviewees spoke to the benefits achieved by program attendees post programming. Of the 12 

program attendees, only six were cognitively and verbally able to complete an interview with the 

primary researcher. A total of 11 parents completed a final interview; the remaining guardian was 

unable to complete an interview due to time constraints and the transition of his/her child attendee 

into adult services.  



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               8 

 

Qualitative analysis indicated four primary themes with several subthemes within each 

identified by interview respondents: 1) Program Strengths (i.e., program enjoyment and structure); 

2) Benefits Derived (i.e., personal growth, engagement, and reduction of anxiety); 3) Program 

Limitations, such as length of program too short, program overly complex; and 4) Program 

Suggestions, such as increased length of program, inclusion of visual aids. A description of each 

theme and sample quotes are provided below and presented in Table 2. 

Table 2.  

Summary of themes for the PAES program as identified by attendees, parents, and facilitators. 
Theme Description Example quote from interviews 

 

Program 

Strengths 

Qualities of PAES that 

are working well, 

qualities of the program 

that benefit program 

attendees, and specific 

assets of the program for 

individuals with ASD 

“He enjoys coming every week.”  

“It’s really hands on and tangible, where they came and did actual 

learning skills that will benefit them.”  

“One of the strengths is the amount of activities and tasks that there 

are. So it gives a lot of the participants the opportunity to see what 

they may be interested in and that they didn’t even know existed”  

“The structured setting is really a strength because it can help us 

identify the needs that they require or what strengths they have or 

what areas need an adaptation so they can go out in the 

community.”  

 

Benefits 

Derived 

Benefits of the program 

as observed in 

behavioural and/or skill 

change in the attendees 

“I met a new friend”  

“He wants to be more sociable. He will now go up and talk to 

people.”  

“I definitely have seen social skills or being able to communicate 

with staff change. Being more comfortable in a work place setting 

you see a lot of their skills increase.”  

“It does give them the sense of accomplishment, which is 

something that I don’t know if they get that in a ton of other stuff 

that they do.” 

 

Program 

Limitations 

Qualities of the program 

that currently are not 

working well, that 

restrict program 

attendees, and specific 

parts of the program that 

are not designed well for 

individuals with ASD 

“Wish it was longer or more times per week”  

“Part of the problem with PAES is the instructions that the 

individuals are given. I think the instruction cards and how they are 

worded, and sometimes they seem very rigid. I think if those were 

to change then it would serve a greater range.”  

“Autism is such a spectrum. To find one task that meets everyone’s 

needs directly. Like for some it may be too easy whereas other 

clients it may be too hard… So it’s hard because they are all 

different” 

 

Program 

Suggestions 

Ideas or 

recommendations for 

program improvement 

“Just awesome the way it is”  

“Lengthening the program span”  

“It would be helpful if the facilitators broke down to families (what 

they have been working on in the program) or whoever is 

supporting them, so you can see changes are happening outside the 

program”.  

 

“Simplify instructions, and reduce the amount of steps” “Re-doing 

all of the instruction cards, trying to make everything consistent.” 

 

Theme one: Program strength. This theme included the qualities of PAES that are working 

well and/or benefit program attendees, and specific assets of the program for individuals with ASD. 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               9 

In general, interviewees were very positive about PAES. The most common program strength 

identified by 10 parents was overall program enjoyment. Parents spoke to the quality of 

programming in that attendees could come to learn new skills and still experience enjoyment and 

a willingness to participate. As has been identified within previous literature, it is important to 

consider the overall enjoyment experienced by individuals to further improve independence and 

overall quality of life (Hendricks, 2010). Parents also indicated diversity as a strength of the 

program in that the activities used in the intervention were varied and afforded attendees the 

opportunity to engage in different types of vocational tasks to both develop new skills and to 

explore novel employment activities. Overall, program enjoyment and diversity of activities 

contribute to the attendees’ overall enjoyment of and success with the program.  

Parallel to this notion of overall program enjoyment, participants emphasized learning as a 

program strength. Concurrent with learning, parents also described specificity of skills as a 

subtheme by speaking about skills that involved “actual learning.” Specifically, two parents stated, 

respectively, “it’s really hands on and tangible, where they came and did actual learning skills that 

will benefit them” and “the tasks they do actually have a purpose.” The subthemes of learning and 

specificity of skills are consistent with quantitative data pertaining to the TTAP as there was a 

significant improvement in vocational skill and behaviour displayed by attendees. 

The most common strength identified by program facilitators was the structure that PAES 

provides for program attendees. Structure has typically been emphasized within the literature as 

beneficial for individuals with ASD because, much like transitioning, structure provides adequate 

preparation and predictability and reduces confusion (Dettmer et al., 2000). Both facilitators and 

parents described structure as an overarching quality of the program that supported the needs of an 

ASD population. This was noteworthy as PAES was designed for students with various disabilities 

(Swisher et al., 1999) and thus this strength further signifies some preliminary support for benefits 

of using PAES with an ASD population. 

Theme two: Benefits derived. This theme is described as benefits perceived by the 

interviewees after they attended PAES. Within this theme, parents and facilitators highlighted the 

attendees’ personal growth, belonging/engagement, and reduced anxiety after completing PAES. 

Furthermore, parents and facilitators described positive changes in social communication and 

overall social skills. Specifically, one parent/guardian attributed her son’s increase in social 

communication as a direct reflection of participation in PAES as he was not participating in any 

other programming or learning environments. Facilitators also highlighted this positive change in 

social behaviour by describing the attendees’ improvement in communication with staff during 

programming. Social communication is one of the core deficits for individuals with ASD (APA, 

2013) and research continues to emphasize the need to enhance this domain of functioning 

(Centelles, Assaiante, Etchegoyhen, Bouvard, & Schmitz, 2012).  

Theme three: Program limitations. The third theme, program limitations, is described as 

qualities of the program that are not currently working well or that restrict program attendees and 

specific parts of the program that are not designed well for individuals with ASD. The most 

common limitation highlighted by parents and facilitators was the length or overall duration of 

PAES. Several parents stated that they wished that the program was recurrent or longer, as learning 

is continual and does not stop once individuals with ASD reach adulthood. Indeed, many parents 

mentioned that there are few supportive programs for individuals with ASD once they reach 

adolescence or adulthood. It was also stressed that learning can be a longer process for many 

individuals with ASD than for individuals with other developmental disabilities and therefore 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               10 

 

parents felt that their children would have acquired more skills if PAES was longer. It is then not 

surprising that parents recommended an increase in program duration as a program suggestion, 

highlighting the importance for continual learning and need for repeated teaching in the acquisition 

of new skills for individuals with ASD. 

Facilitators also emphasized program materials as a limitation and suggestion for program 

improvement, primarily due to an “unnecessary degree of complexity” within program instructions. 

This topic was highlighted by all seven facilitators and thus should be considered significant when 

considering modifications to this program for individuals with ASD.  Specifically, facilitators 

suggested re-doing instruction cards and including visuals as primary suggestions for improving 

PAES for use with those with ASD. This suggestion is consistent with much of the literature as 

individuals with ASD present with variable communicative abilities (APA, 2013; Human 

Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2011) and this variability must be addressed for more 

individuals to achieve success within a vocational environment 

Theme four: Program suggestions. The fourth theme, program suggestions, is described as 

ideas or recommendations for program improvement. In alignment with topics from Theme Three, 

parents indicated an increase in the duration of the program as a potential improvement to the 

program. Additionally, they stated that more direct communication to parents of the program goals 

from the program facilitators may have enhanced their understanding of the program and its 

influence on behaviors outside of the intervention context. Attendees varied in their responses, 

which included the belief that the program should be lengthened, the program should be made 

much more difficult, and that the program was effective as designed in the manual.  Facilitators 

noted that simplification of instructions and modification to the visual materials may increase the 

program’s effectiveness with the ASD population, as they observed that the attendees often 

required additional support around task instructions, etc. 

Discussion 

This is the first study to report on the efficacy and implementation of a vocational 

intervention for adolescents and young adults with ASD. Integrating a qualitative approach 

produces a different kind of understanding of the experience of vocational training and perceptions 

pertaining to programming. The qualitative data provides a significant contribution to the overall 

experience of vocational training in the ASD community, as the data provides insight into firsthand 

experiences of the effectiveness of PAES with the ASD population.  

Results confirmed our primary hypothesis. In general, both the quantitative and qualitative 

results of this study provide convergent preliminary support for PAES in enhancing the vocational 

and related skills of adolescents and adults with ASD. Results from the TTAP indicated significant 

improvement on the vocational skill and vocational behaviour domains.  

The development of the four themes is significant as attendees, parents, and program 

facilitators reported on benefits of the program, including personal growth, belonging/engagement, 

and anxiety reduction achieved by the attendees because of their participation in PAES. The 

subthemes within the benefits derived theme further emphasize the benefit of PAES as an 

intervention for the ASD population and enhance our understanding of the experience of vocational 

training and perceptions pertaining to PAES. 

A major strength of the PAES specialized programming appears to be the experience it 

provides to attendees and their families. The most common program strength, identified by eight 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               11 

parents, was overall program enjoyment experienced by individuals attending PAES. This is an 

important finding as it is important to consider the overall enjoyment experienced by individuals 

(Hendricks, 2010) to further improve independence and overall quality of life. Parallel to this 

notion of overall program enjoyment, attendees emphasized learning as a strength of the program. 

Concurrent with learning, parents also described specificity of skills as a subtheme and spoke about 

skills that involved “actual learning.” The subthemes of learning and specificity of skills are 

consistent with quantitative data from the TTAP as attendees’ vocational skill and behaviour 

significantly improved.  

Parents emphasized diversity as a strength of the program, which not only spoke to the 

variety of different tasks that attendees were learning but also the different facilitators that attendees 

had supporting and supervising them each session. Parents indicated that the variety of and change 

in tasks each week helped to facilitate transitions for their child, which can often be challenging 

for individuals with ASD (Lorimer, Simpson, Miles, & Ganz, 2000). Furthermore, parents 

described the program structure as a quality of the program that supported the unique needs of the 

ASD population; in turn, this finding provides preliminary support for the use of PAES with 

adolescents and adults with ASD.  

While many significant strengths were identified, there were also program limitations that 

are important to recognize. The most common limitation subtheme highlighted by parents was the 

length, or overall duration of PAES. Parents stated that they wished the program was recurrent or 

longer as learning is continual and does not stop once individuals with ASD reach adulthood. 

Length and participation in programming was emphasized and was seen as significant because, as 

many parents mentioned, there are not many programs for individuals with ASD once they reach 

adolescence or adulthood. 

Limitations 

Several limitations are evident in the current study. The most prominent limitation is the 

small sample size. Due to the specificity of the programming and diagnosis of the assessed 

population, as well as the intensive nature of the data collection, obtaining a larger sample size was 

not possible. Additionally, this study did not use a control group and did not control for 

participation in other programming or additional skill development that might have impacted 

vocational or related skills as doing so would have further limited the study’s sample size.  The 

representativeness of the sample to the general ASD population may also have been limited by a 

variety of elements. Specifically, participation in this study required a substantial commitment of 

time, travel, and energy for both the individuals who attended the program and their parents. 

Moreover, it was limited to individuals who resided in the city where the program was offered. 

There is the possibility that a subset of the ASD population may be more likely to participate in or 

benefit greatly from PAES. Due to a vast range in capabilities it was difficult to provide adequate 

programming for some program attendees that were substantially lower or higher functioning than 

the rest of the group and some facilitators thought the program would be better suited for a more 

specific subset of the ASD population. It is likely that all of these factors influenced characteristics 

of the participant sample and, therefore, the generalisability of the findings.  

Finally, because of the nature of the study and the use of convenience sampling, the 

qualitative results are context bound. It is important that these results are considered in context as 

they are intended to provide a greater understanding of the experience of these particular families. 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               12 

 

Future Directions and Implications 

Future research exploring vocational and independence training for individuals with ASD 

should expand on the present study by collecting data from a larger sample and utilizing a waitlist 

control group matched for developmental level. Additionally, future research could screen for other 

services being provided to participants to control for the influence of these other programs on 

findings related to PAES. Furthermore, future research could employ a longitudinal design to 

capture the maintenance of vocational skills learned within PAES and to follow individuals 

exploring the outcome of participation in this programming.  

This research can be considered an encouraging step towards future research in the area of 

vocational ability for individuals with ASD. Prior research only employing quantitative research 

has been considered problematic (De Haan, Hawley, & Deal, 2002) as the overall experience of 

participants is not adequately captured. The current findings have implications for vocational 

intervention for individuals with ASD. Employment for individuals with ASD increases financial 

self-reliance and reduces dependence on both government and independently funded programming 

(Hendricks, 2010). When programs like these are validated, individuals with ASD can be provided 

with specific programming unique to this complex population, thereby increasing the employment 

success of individuals with ASD.  

The current project highlights the necessity for continued research in the area of vocational 

and independence training as well as the need to focus on adolescent and young adults with ASD. 

This research and focus may provide families with a more positive outlook and hope for the future 

as individuals with ASD face many challenges throughout their lives and have different needs.  

Conclusion 

The results provide convergent preliminary support for PAES in enhancing the vocational 

skills of adolescents and adults with ASD as well as in some areas of potential programmatic 

improvement. These findings are particularly important as there are few, if any, validated 

vocational training tools for this population. When programs such as PAES are validated, 

individuals with ASD can be provided with specific programming to increase their employment 

success.  

Vocational research in the context of ASD is limited. The preliminary evidence from the 

current study indicates that participants’ vocational ability and behaviours improved subsequent to 

completion of PAES. Additional qualitative inquiry yielded information on programmatic strengths 

and weaknesses that can be used to improve the program. The study also highlights the necessity 

for continued research in the area of vocational and independence training for adolescents and 

young adults with ASD. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need to focus on this period in 

development to provide families with a more positive outlook and hope for the future of their loved 

ones with ASD. 

  



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               13 

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Appendix A: Attendee Interview Guide 

 

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research project and to talk with me today. I would 

like to talk with you about your experience of having been in the PAES program. Although I would 

like this to be more like a conversation than an interview, I do have a few questions written down 

to make sure I cover everything. If you feel uncomfortable with any of the questions, you can 

choose not to answer that question and you do have the right to stop the conversation at any point. 

 

1. What was it like for you to participate in the PAES program? 

Prompts if needed:  

What did you like? 

Not like? 

 

2. What did you learn in the PAES program? 

Prompt if needed: 

Any new skills? 

 

3. Has the way you get along with people changed as a result of the program? 

Prompt if needed: 

How so? 

 

4. Has anything changed in your daily routine since you attended PAES? 

 

5. Has the way you think about yourself changed this coming to the program? 

 

6. What are the strengths of the program? 

 

7. What are the limitations? 

 

8. Do you have any suggestions on the way the program could be improved? 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19               18 

 

Appendix B: Parent Interview Guide 

 

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research project and to talk with me today. I would 

like to talk with you about your experience of having your son (daughter) participate in the PAES 

program. Although I would like this to be more like a conversation than an interview, I do have a 

few questions written down to make sure I cover everything. If you feel uncomfortable with any 

of the questions, you can choose not to answer that question and you do have the right to stop the 

conversation at any point. 

 

1. What was it like for you to have your son (daughter) participate in the PAES program? 

Prompts if needed:  

What did you like? 

Not like? 

 

2. What did your son (daughter) learn in the PAES program? 

Prompt if needed: 

Any new skills? Did you notice any change in level of his (her) motivation? Changes in level of 

independence? 

 

3. Has the way your son (daughter) gets along with people changed as a result of the 

program? 

Prompt if needed: 

How so? 

 

4. Has anything changed in your son’s (daughter’s) daily routine since he (she) attended 

PAES? 

 

5. Has the way your son (daughter) thinks about himself (herself) changed since attending 

the program? 

Prompt if needed: 

Self-esteem? 

 

6. From your perspective what are the strengths of the program? 

 

7. What are the limitations? 

 

8. Do you have any suggestions on the way the program could be improved? 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



Smith-Demers, McCrimmon, Shaw/ Emerging Perspectives (2017) 1-19                               19 

Appendix C: Facilitator Interview Guide 

Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research project and to talk with me today. I would 

like to talk with you about your experience of working in the PAES program. Although I would 

like this to be more like a conversation than an interview, I do have a few questions written down 

to make sure I cover everything. If you feel uncomfortable with any of the questions, you can 

choose not to answer that question and you do have the right to stop the conversation at any point. 

 

1. How well do you think the PAES program works with the ASD population? 

 

2. What changes have you noticed in your participants as they go through the program? 

 

Prompts if required? Self-esteem? Social behaviour? Communication? Workplace 

behaviour? Motivation? Problem solving? Independence? Repetitive behaviours? 

Anxiety? Behaviour problems? 

  

3. From your perspective what are the strengths of the program? 

 

4.     What are the limitations? 

 

5.     Do you have any suggestions on the way the program could be improved? 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


