


































Energy and Earth Science 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2020 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ees 

ISSN 2578-1359 (Print)   ISSN 2578-1367 (Online) 

49 
 

Original Paper 

From Renewable Energy to Renewable Fuel: A Sustainable 

Hydrogen Production 

Rafiq Mulla
1
 & Charles W. Dunnill

1*
 

1
 Energy Safety Research Institute, Swansea University, Bay Campus, Fabian Way, SA1 8EN, UK  

*
 Charles W. Dunnill, E-mail: c.dunnill@swansea.ac.uk 

 

Received: July 17, 2020      Accepted: July 31, 2020      Online Published: September 16, 2020 

doi:10.22158/ees.v3n2p49              URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ees.v3n2p49 

 

Abstract 

Hydrogen, a zero-emission fuel and the universal energy vector, can be easily produced from many 

different energy sources. It is a storable, transportable product that can be used on demand to 

overcome supply and demand imbalances. As of today, most of the hydrogen produced comes from 

natural gas; the production process itself is in fact not so pollution free. As the world is looking for a 

low carbon future, researchers have therefore been looking for more sustainable, environmentally 

friendly pathways of hydrogen production by using renewable energy sources such as solar and wind. 

Among the different methods, water electrolysis is a conventional and promising method of hydrogen 

production if renewable energy sources are to be employed in the process. Lots of progress has been 

made over the past few years in extending the use of hydrogen in different sectors. This perspective 

article briefly covers the recent developments in the hydrogen fuel-based projects and technologies and 

provides a description of the advantages of employing renewable energy sources for sustainable 

hydrogen production. 

Keywords 

Hydrogen, renewable energy, electrolysis, thermoelectric, zero emission, sustainable production 

 

1. Introduction 

Renewable energy sources (solar and wind etc.) will be the fastest-growing power sources for 

electricity generation in the near future. These intermittent sources, however, suffer from supply and 

demand imbalances (Jones, Al-Masry et al., 2018; Quarton, Tlili et al., 2020), as there is no correlation 

between say the strength of the wind or the position of the sun in the sky and the consumers desire for 

electricity. At low levels this is not too much of an issue, but as the percentage mix increases this will 

become an increasingly important topic. Balancing this supply and demand is developing into one of 



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the biggest challenges facing energy scientists around the globe. Much work is currently underway, 

correlating the supply with demand producing “Smart systems” however there is an alternative which is 

to decouple supply from demand using a university energy vector. The storage of energy in the form of 

hydrogen is just such a possible energy vector. All forms of energy can easily and relatively efficiently 

be converted into hydrogen and all forms of power can be utilized from the hydrogen; electricity and 

heat via fuel cells or heat from combustion, either 100% pure or as a enrichment to natural gas (Jones, 

Al-Masry et al., 2018). Once produced, hydrogen can be stored for unimaginable lengths of time thus 

decoupling supply from demand. As long as there is storage capacity and the demand does not exceed 

the supply, the inherently “Smart” system will balance itself out, even with a 100% renewable 

intermittent input. 

 

 

Figure 1. The Number of Micro-CHP Systems Installed to Date (Solid Lines) and Near-Term 

Projections (Dotted Lines) for Residential Use (YoY Stands for Year-Over-Year). Reproduced 

from (Staffell, Scamman et al., 2019) Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry 

 

The implementation of hydrogen-fuel based technologies is growing rapidly all over the world to cut 

the burning of fossil fuels wherever possible. Japan has been working towards a hydrogen society to 

reduce environmental burdens and revitalize regional economies by extending its use by (i) promoting 

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), (ii) increasing hydrogen production, and (iii) introducing fuel 

cells for residential applications (Energy 2014; Staffell, Scamman et al., 2019). It is also envisioning to 

establish a carbon-free hydrogen supply by 2040 (METD 2017; Staffell, Scamman et al., 2019). Japan 

has deployed a large number of residential fuel cell systems (micro-CHP) and is one of the leading 

countries in the world in implementing hydrogen technologies for daily uses (micro-CHP technology: 

Micro combined heat and power, is a technology that generates heat and electricity from the same 



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energy source, and the fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (hydrogen) into 

electricity). Recently, many European (EU) countries are beginning to promote hydrogen as a fuel in 

different fields; it is also being introduced for automobile industries as new techniques to store 

hydrogen in liquefied form have been developed and found to be successful on primary testing which is 

crucial to implement the technology for small vehicles such as scooters (FCW 2020). Figure 1 

illustrates the contribution of major countries in implementing micro-CHP technology for residential 

use. The extension of hydrogen usage to automobile industry will improve air quality as vehicles’ 

contribution to the CO2 emission is very high and ever increasing. Similarly, France has launched a 

hydrogen project; hydrogen is produced from the renewable energy and will be stored and transported 

in the natural gas grid which flows in pipes under the streets of a village, aiming to energize hundreds 

of homes (ENGIE 2016). This year, Scotland is also planning for its first ever hydrogen-powered 

homes; as a part of a pilot scheme (Sampson, 2020), a few homes will be incorporated with micro-CHP 

fuel cell technology. Interestingly, hydrogen can also be burnt as a flame or catalytically (du Preez, 

Jones et al., 2019; du Preez, Jones et al., 2020). 

When hydrogen burns, it produces no toxic/greenhouse gases but water (Figure 2), therefore, a 100% 

clean energy pathways can be created using production methods powered by renewable energy sources. 

At present most of the hydrogen is produced from steam reformation of fossil fuels, so called Brown 

Hydrogen and hence even hydrogen is also indirectly responsible for carbon emissions. This can be 

avoided or minimized by sequestering the carbon dioxide (Blue hydrogen, or by electrolyzing water 

using renewable energy such as excess wind; implementation of these clean methods is already under 

progress that releases virtually zero greenhouse gas to the environment.  

 



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Figure 2. An Illustration Showing H2 Burning Produces No Greenhouse Gases 

 

2. Hydrogen Production from Renewable Sources 

A direct and promising method to generate green hydrogen is found to be water electrolysis: a process 

of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity (Gannon, Warwick et al., 2020). A simple 

two electrode (anode and cathode) unit called an electrolyzer (usually, it consists of three parts: 

electrodes, separators/membranes, and electrolyte) is used for the purpose (Mulla & Dunnill, 2019). 

There are three types of electrolyzer designs such as (i) Alkaline Electrolysis Cells (AEC), (ii) Proton 

Exchange Membrane Electrolysis Cells (PEMEC), and (iii) Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) of 

which AECs have been in use in various industries as they have simple designs and can be built at a 

relatively low capital cost and are durable (Passas & Dunnill, 2015; Phillips & Dunnill, 2016; Phillips, 

Edwards et al., 2017; Mulla & Dunnill, 2019). To start electrolysis process, a DC electric supply is 

passed through an electrolytic solution, splitting water (H2O) into its component parts (hydrogen (H2) 

& oxygen (O2)) where H2 being generated on the cathode and O2 on the anode (Figure 3). The 

decomposition of H2O into H2 and O2 happens due to the application of electric voltage which forces 

ions to undergo either oxidation or reduction at the electrodes, the mechanism can be expressed as 

follows:  

              .................. (1) 

 



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Figure 3. A Schematic of a Simple Electrolyzer for Hydrogen Production through Electrolysis 

 

In general, the efficiency of water splitting is determined by the amount of electrical energy used to 

generate an amount of hydrogen, can be defined as follows (Phillips & Dunnill, 2016; Phillips, 

Edwards et al., 2017; Mulla & Dunnill, 2019): 

    ....................... (2) 

where the term “Energy Output” refers to the amount of hydrogen produced and “Total Energy Input” 

is in general refers to the total electrical energy consumed in the production.  



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Figure 4. Water Electrolysis Powered by Renewable Energy for Hydrogen Production 

 

As illustrated by Figure 4, the required electrical energy can be provided by different renewable energy 

sources such as wind turbine, photovoltaic (solar panels), and also from solar thermoelectric generators 

(STEG). Wind turbine and photovoltaic systems are already well-known, successfully working on a 

large scale in different sectors, and are also recently being linked to hydrogen production units. Both 

the energy sources appear to be promising for water splitting according to recent developments; 

alongside, research on coupling STEGs to the electrolysis is also under progress (Baranowski, Snyder 

et al., 2012). Industrial waste heat is a fantastic source of cheap energy that can be utilized for 

hydrogen production (Mulla & Dunnill, 2019). Thermoelectric generators work on the principle of 

Seebeck effect, in which a temperature gradient applied across the device produces useful electric 

potential. STEGs generate electricity from concentrated sunlight; solar radiation is used as a source of 

heat to develop temperature gradient across the device. Larger temperature gradients across the 

generators can be achieved by using solar concentrators/lenses which result in better output power 



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density from the generator. The conversion efficiency (η) of the thermoelectric generators can be 

estimated using the following standard equation:  

            ..................... (3) 

where ZT is the thermoelectric figure of merit of the materials used in the generator, Tc and Th are the 

cold and hot side temperatures of the generators. Therefore, a large temperature difference across the 

generator designed with good thermoelectric materials (i.e., materials with high ZT value) is important 

to generate a decent electric power. Up to 15-30% efficiency is predicted from these STEGs when 

thermoelectric materials of ZT > 2 are used in the generators (Baranowski, Snyder et al., 2012).  

 

3. Challenges and Opportunities 

Currently, most of the hydrogen is generated from fossil fuels as they provide more economical 

methods over electrolytic water splitting. This production method, however, is unsuitable for a low 

carbon future. Presently, the largest consumers of hydrogen (produced by fossil fuels) are chemical 

industries where nearly half of hydrogen is used in ammonia production; it alone causes about 1% of 

total global greenhouse gases emission (Boerner, 2019). In the meantime, as the world is looking for a 

low carbon future, there is an increasing demand for renewable sources, shortly; they may become 

available at competitive prices. By utilizing clean nature of hydrogen, blending it with biogas (Mehr, 

Moharramian et al., 2020), implementing hydrogen injection in coal-dominated regions (Wang, Klemeš 

et al., 2020), etc can help reduction of CO2 emission. Hydrogen can be safely mixed in small quantities 

with natural gas depending on the end-use appliances. Countries like Germany and the Netherlands 

have 10-12% (by volume) blending levels (Staffell, Scamman et al., 2019). The advantage of hydrogen 

blending can be seen from the data in Figure 5 that shows the relationship between energy content and 

carbon savings with respect to hydrogen injection mixtures (Staffell, Scamman et al., 2019). So, about 

20% hydrogen (by volume) blend would give 13 gCO2 per kWh carbon emissions savings. However, at 

present, higher blending is not possible due to technical and administrative constraints (Staffell, 

Scamman et al., 2019).  

 

 



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Figure 5. The Relationship between Energy Content and Carbon Savings with Respect Hydrogen 

Injection Mixtures. Reproduced from (Staffell, Scamman et al., 2019) Published by the Royal 

Society of Chemistry 

 

The low efficiency of the thermoelectric generators is a major drawback to be used independently in 

the production of hydrogen, and therefore they can be used as a supplementary source by coupling with 

photovoltaic to improve overall efficiency or production rate (Mulla & Dunnill, 2019). At present, the 

commercial thermoelectric generators are mainly contained materials like Bi2Te3 and PbTe which 

makes them quite expensive, and also the elements like tellurium (Te) are highly toxic and scarce 

hence, a large-scale implementation facing difficulties (Mulla & Dunnill, 2019; Mulla & Rabinal, 

2019). Nevertheless, rigorous scientific investigations are under progress which produced many new, 

low-cost and non-toxic materials and improvements can be realized in the near future (Mulla & Rabinal, 

2018; Mulla & Dunnill, 2019). The efficiency argument however does need to be taken in context as 

the use of otherwise wasted heat yields green value from waste (Mulla & Dunnill, 2019) and is 

economically viable even with low efficiency, especially if the TEG can be produced cheaply (Mulla & 

Rabinal, 2018; Mulla & Dunnill, 2020; Mulla, Jones et al., 2020).  

There are also other methods to generate hydrogen from solar energy such as photoelectrochemical 

(PEC) water splitting which also offers a promising approach for hydrogen production; however, 

requires scalable PEC cells in addition to the stable and efficient photoelectrodes (Landman, Halabi et 

al., 2020). Another drawback of this method is associated with the collection of hydrogen gas from 



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millions of PEC cells (Landman, Halabi et al., 2020). Therefore, large-scale PEC water splitting under 

sunlight is yet to be demonstrated. Similarly, studies are under progress on improving photocatalytic 

hydrogen production using different and new photocatalyst materials and also on the use of 

photocathode materials (Warwick, Barreca et al., 2015; Crespo-Quesada, Pazos-Outón et al., 2016; 

Kuehnel & Reisner, 2018; Ghosh, Nakada et al., 2020).  

Although producing hydrogen from electrolysis is currently dominated by the cost of electricity, the 

capital cost of electrolyzer will become important in the future when electricity generated from 

renewable energy becomes abundant and cheap (Esposito, 2017). The recent cost reductions of wind 

and solar power enable new opportunities for a competitive hydrogen production. In such scenario, the 

cost of electricity could be around $ 30/MWh (as estimated by wind farms in Morocco and solar plants 

in Chile and Dubai) and it is predicted that hydrogen production cost would not exceed $ 2/kg 

(Philibert, 2017). Research priorities with regard to electrolysers include reducing the capital cost of the 

electrolyzer units, operation life, improving their designs, and efficiency (Phillips & Dunnill, 2016). 

Typically, in basic design of an electrolyzer, the two electrodes are separated by a liquid electrolyte, 

which hinders the charge flow and results in low current densities. So, efforts on improving 

electrolyzer cell designs are going on and new design concepts like “zero gap cell” are under 

investigation where the charges can move much easier than in the basic cell design (Phillips & Dunnill, 

2016). Similarly, research interest in membraneless electrolyzers is increasing to reduce the cost of the 

units (Esposito, 2017).  

Further, when there is excess electricity available from windmills, instead of curtailing, it can be used 

to generate hydrogen which can be stored for the future and it could be integrated with electric power at 

a wind farm for better supply-demand flexibility (Perni, Liu et al., 2008; Cloete & Hirth, 2020). In 

addition, offshore renewable energy resources also have a great potential to contribute to the 

sustainable hydrogen production (Gondal, 2019). Overall, there are numerous opportunities to firmly 

establish a clean production technology for hydrogen production from renewable sources. 

 

4. Conclusions 

Hydrogen can be used in a wide range of applications and the hydrogen-powered fuel cells could power 

our vehicles, replacing the fossil fuels used in most vehicles today. In order to achieve a clean future, 

the use of hydrogen must be extended. Clean production of hydrogen, therefore, is essential to reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions. With the help of wind and solar powers, sustainable production of hydrogen 

can be achieved. 

 

Acknowledgments 

Authors are thankful to the Welsh Government (EU European Regional Development Fund) for 

funding the RICE (Reducing Industrial Carbon Emission) project (Grant Number: 81435). 

 



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Conflicts of interest 

There are no conflicts of interest to declare. 

 

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