


































Energy and Earth Science 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2020 

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ISSN 2578-1359 (Print)   ISSN 2578-1367 (Online) 

139 

Original Paper 

Recommended Optimal Land Utilization and Farming 

Techniques (ROLUFS) in Pendurthi Mandal, A Geospatial 

Approach, Vishakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA 

Usha Chirala
1*

 & Bhavana Pedada
1
 

1
 Department of Geo-Engineering, Andhra University, Vishakhapatnam, AP, INDIA  

*
 Usha Chirala, Department of Geo-Engineering, Andhra University, Vishakhapatnam, AP, 530003, 

INDIA 

 

Received: September 22, 2020   Accepted: October 8, 2020   Online Published: November 30, 2020 

doi:10.22158/ees.v3n2p139          URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ees.v3n2p139 

 

Abstract 

Integrating land and water resources is a major key in sustainable development. Managing agricultural 

land is a concerning task keeping the ever increasing population in mind as agriculture utilizes largest 

amount of water in the world. A case study of Pendurthi mandal, Vishakhapatnam district, Andhra 

Pradesh, India has been taken up for resource appraisal. Basic integration of land and water resources 

(BILWRUS), generation of thematic maps using remote sensing in conjunction with Geographical 

Information System, and ground laboratory techniques has been the major task. The proposed landuse 

has been assigned to all the 23 villages of the study area, using recommended optimal land utilization 

and farming techniques (ROLUFS) as per the norms set by National water Development Program for 

Rainfed areas (NWDPRA). 

Keywords 

bilwrus, rolufs, mandal 

 

1. Introduction 

Indian civilization was rich and prosperous in the ancient past. However with the ever increasing 

population and the changing philosophy of the governments, the traditional methods of rural lifestyle 

and practices have become anachronistic. This has necessitated a change in the outlook and practices in 

so far as rural living, agriculture, arts, crafts and administrations are concerned. In the light of this 

application, modern and scientific methods has become necessary and mandatory too. Inappropriate 

and uncontrolled use of natural resources can downgrade their quality and destroy them. Sustainable 



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development and optimized use of natural resources involves effective utilization of the existing 

resources without damaging the assets and preserves these valuable resources for the future generations. 

At Present, scientific and optimized management of agriculture and natural resources are considered to 

be important items in sustainable development. In order to achieve sustainability and optimized land 

allocation we can use linear programming, multi objective linear programming and Geographical 

Information System (GIS) approaches. Watershed Planning and management (2018).  

Land use is a crucial link between human activities and the natural environment. Large parts of the 

terrestrial land surface are used for agriculture, forestry, settlements and infrastructure. This has vast 

effects on the natural environment. Land use is the most important factor influencing biodiversity at the 

global scale. TijanaVulević et al. (2018), freshwater availability Rosegrant et al. (2002), Sala et al. 

(2000). Global biogeochemical cycles, McGuire et al. (2001), and climate Brovkin et al. (1999).  

Keeping the above objective in mind, the study area Pendurthi Mandal of Vishakhapatnam district with 

a total area of 120sqkms consisting of 23 villages, has been taken up for resource appraisal and 

utilization of its natural resources using modern techniques of remote sensing and GIS. With critical 

study, and analysis of a wealth of information related to the people of the mandal coupled with survey 

of India toposheets, geological maps, satellite imageries, thematic maps, Basic Integration of land and 

water resources (BILWRUS) has been generated, and integrated with landuse/landcover. Finally 

proposed landuse for all the 23mandals have been derived from Recommended optimal land utilization 

and farming system (ROLUFS) as per the norms set by National Water development Program for 

Rainfed areas (NWDPRA). 

 

2. Review of Literature 

Few studies have been carried out in and around Pendurthi mandal and Meghadrigedda, the major river 

that flows through the mandal. Among them are Identification of soil erosion zones with special 

reference to silt deposition in Meghadrigedda reservoir,Usha Chirala, Ph.D Thesis (2013),Correlation of 

geometric parameters for the hydrological characterization of the Meghadrigedda watershed, 

Vishakhapatnam, A GIS approach, Usha Chirala et.al. (2012), Nageswara Rao and Narendra, (2009 & 

2006), Mapping and evaluating the urban sprawl, Nageswara Rao et al. (2008), on the ground water 

quality of the Meghadrigedda Watershed, Narendra and Nageswara Rao (2006), Mapping of 

Hydrogeomorphic features in the Pendurthi mandal using IRS data Usha Chirala (2003). 

 

3. Study Area 

The study area, Pendurthi mandal falls in Vishakhapatnam mandal in between 17
0
49’30” north latitudes 

and 82
0
12’13” east longitudes under SOI toposheet 650/1 and 0/2&3 on 1:50000 scale (Table 1). The 

total area is 120sqkm, 40m above MSL. The mandal headquarters is located 25km north-west of 

Vishakhapatnam and extends for a maximum distance of 20km in the north-south direction and 12km in 

east-west direction. The vegetation type is deciduous comprising mostly of deciduous dry and deciduous 

javascript:;


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scrub. Red soils predominates the area. Agriculture is the main economic activity of the people. Paddy is 

the main crop and other crops include sugarcane, groundnut, macrotyloma uniflorum (horsegram), finger 

millet (ragi) and sesame. There is no irrigation system; the entire activity is under dug wells, bore well 

and tanks. The number of tanks found after delineation are 108 covering an area of 5.22 sqkm. as per 

2020 Sentinel-2 satellite data. 

The location map of the study area is shown in Figure 1(a) and the sentinel data of the study area in 1(b). 

 

Table 1. Division of Mandals (Blocks) 

Narsipatnam division 13 

Paderu agency division 11 

Vishakhapatnam division 19 

Total 43 

 

 

Figure 1(a). Location Map of the Study Area 

 

 



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Figure 1(b). Satellite Image of the Study Area 

 

4. Physiography 

The study area forms part of Vishakhapatnam fold belt, and the foliation generally strikes NE-SW. In the 

central part of the EGGB there are four main tectono thermal events dated at 2600, 2200-1900, 1180-950 

625-500Ma Fonarev et al. (1998). Majority of the area is plain and under agriculture, with hills in the 

eastern, northern and southern parts of the mandal. The predominant rock type is khondalite, followed by 

charnockites, kalonized clay and quartzite. The charnockites occur as outcrops in small patches. Some of 

the big rock (khondalite quarries) are at Juttada and Chinnamushiwada. Laterite with iron oxide 

concretions is exposed near Pendurthi. All the hills inside the study area are khondalites. Workable 

deposits of graphite are reported near Narava (Figure 2a). 

 

 

Figure 2(a). Geology Map and (b) Drainage Map 

 

 

 



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The study area enjoys sub-tropical climatic conditions and the temperature ranges between min 14
0
-20

0
C 

during the month of December and maximum 33
0
-42

0
C during May. The area receives rainfall during 

June to December from both south-west and north-east monsoon and the average rainfall is 1110mm per 

annum (Source: Zilla Praja Parishad, Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh). 

 

5. Hydrology of Meghadrigedda Reservoir  

The study area has numerous ephemeral streams, and depicts dendritic type of drainage which is found 

in regions where rocks offer uniform resistance in a horizontal direction. The highest order obtained is 

6
th

, most part of this particular subbasin comes under the jurisdiction of the study area. Meghadrigedda 

is an east flowing river taking its rise from the Eastern Ghats from the Nandikonda hill. It flows south 

upto karupavani village and thereafter in south eastern direction until it joins the sea near Dolphin’s nose, 

Vishakhapatnam town (Figure 2b). Meghadrigedda reservoir drains an area of 220.77sqkm . 

The Meghadrigedda reservoir occupies 6.6 sqkm in the study area, hence deserves a mention separately. 

The geographical dam site is East Longitude 83
0
11’27’’ and North Latitude 17

0
45’54’’. Meghadrigedda 

reservoir was formed near the confluence of Meghadrigedda and Narava rivers to supply 8MGD drinking 

water to the people of the Vishakhapatnam city. The flood bank was formed on the left side of the 

reservoir to protect the Howarh-Vizianagaram railway line. The FRL of the reservoir is fixed at 61.00m. 

The gross capacity of the reservoir at FRL is estimated to be 1169mcft. The dead storage is 1043mcft. 

The catchment area is under the influence of S.Kota, Vishakhapatnam, Chodavaram and Anakapalli rain 

gauge stations. The catchment is studded with numerous tanks above the full reservoir level. Below the 

reservoir there exists wetland of 510 acres on the right sided which is stabilized under the reservoir 

scheme. Lower riparian rights have been considered while working out the proposals for the reservoir 

scheme. The catchment area is influenced by both south west and north east monsoons form June to 

September, and flash floods occur mostly in October and November due to the influence of cyclones in 

the Bay of Bengal (Source: Zilla Praja Parishad, Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh). The drinking water 

facilities are met by 385 bore wells, 15 open wells and 1 piped water supply. The minor irrigation 

sources are 115, along with 15 sprinklers and 4 drips covering an ayacut of 1835 hectares (18.35sqkm) 

where tanks cover 1.24sqkm, tube wells 6.55sqkm dug wells 4.55sqkm, sprinklers 0.12sqkm and drip 

irrigation covering 0.03sqkm as per the year 2018-2019 (source: Chief Planning Officer, 

Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh). 

 

6. Methodology 

Sentinel data 2 has been georeferenced using Survey of India (SOI) topographical maps 65O/1 and 

65O/2&3 on 1:50000 which cover the study area. The drainage network has been demarcated as a vector 

layer in *.shp format. Individual maps as well as thematic maps have been studied in combination. 

Generation of basic resources and thematic maps using remote sensing in conjunction with ground 

laboratory technique has been the major task for integration. Geology, geomorphology and structural 



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maps have been combined to achieve at ground water potential zones. Basic Integration of land and 

water resources (BILWRUS) was generated using slope, soil, hydrogeomorphology and 

landuse/landcover (Table 6). Schematic chart showing methodology adopted for integrated resource 

analysis for the study area is shown in (Figure 8). Various intersecting polygons have been classified 

according to combinations, and the two composite maps have been integrated to arrive at 

Recommended optimal land utilization and farming techniques (ROLUFS). Finally present landuse and 

proposed landuse of the study area has been displayed in Table 7. 

 

 

Figure 3(a). Slope and 3(b) Hydrogeomorphology 

 

7. Thematic Maps 

7.1 Slope 

Slope, aspect and altitude are the important terrain parameters which influence micro climatic 

temperature regime and runoff which play a significant role in soil development, vegetation and crop 

productivity. Slope plays a very important role in the utilization of the prevailing land surface. A higher 

slope contributes very high erosion as compared to lower slope to less erosion. The first paper in which 

observed slope form is applied to the elucidation of the origin of landforms was studied by Sorby (1850) 

of the origin of the striking steep sided valleys. Significant contributions have been made in calculation 

of slope by Wentworth (1930), Raisz and Henry (1937), Robinson (1948), Miller (1953), and Strahler 

(1957). 

Highest slopes of more than 15 degrees to 35 degrees are confined to south-western, eastern and 

norther parts. Major part of the area is under less than 1 degree (Figure 3(a) and Table 2).  

 

 

 



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Table 2. Contour Spacing Related to Percentage Slope 

1 Slope Lower and upper limits of contour spacing 

2 0-1 >4cm 

3 1-3 1.33-4 

4 3-5 0.8-1.33 

5 5-10 0.4-0.8 

6 10-15 0.26-0.4 

7 15-35 0.11-0.26 

8 >35 0.11 and less 

 

7.2 Hydrogeomorphic Units 

According to Jean Bhunes, “there is no house or human habitation in the building of which man has not 

had to take into account the proximity of water” in the archaeological excavations of the Saraswati and 

Indus Valley civilizations well developed water works came to light. Vishnu Kautilya (4th century B.C) 

in his book “Artha Shastra” mentioned about the importance of water resources in the economy of the 

state. Varahamira (3
rd

 Century B.C) in his book “Brihat Samhita” discussed about the ground water 

exploration and quality. 

Extraction of hydrological parameters from remotely sensed data were done as early as by Jackson and 

Mcuen (1979) Kelly et al. (1977), Peck et al. (1981), Johnson et al. (1982), Peck et al. (1983). 

Hydrogeomorphology deals with the ground water occurrence, its distribution and has the 

interrelationships with rock types, geological structures, landforms and surface recharge conditions. 

Groundwater potential of any area is mainly dependent on geology (various rock types), geomorphology 

(different landforms) and structures (Lineaments, fractures etc.). The related hydrogeological characters 

have been considered, evaluated and presented together as hydrogeomorphological units. The occurrence 

of ground water plays an important role in sustainable agricultural operations. 

Twelve hydrogeomorphic units have been categorized in the study area viz, Pediplain moderate, 

Pediplain shallow, structural hills, Inselbergs, residual hills, pediment zone and pediment. The three 

geomorphic units made up of pediplain moderate, pediplain shallow, pediplain and pediment zones 

dominate the study area, followed by small patches of residual hills and inselbergs (Figure 3b and 

Table 3). Ground water prospects map of the study area shows a plenty of scope to increase ground 

water sources. There is no irrigation system; the entire activity is under dug wells, bore well and tanks. 

The total number of tanks are 108 tanks and tank area is 5.22sqkm, the smallest tank is in Juttada 

covering 0.01sqkm and the largest tank is in Pinagadi covering an area of 0.87sqkm (Sentinel data 2020, 

Figure 3(b) and Table 3). 

 

 



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7.2.1 Pediplainmoderate (PPM) 

There are plain table lands with very gentle to nil slopes (flat table lands) with ground water potential 

being moderate to good. It has moderately thick 5-20m over burden of weathered material of varying 

lithology. This unit covers the western and northern parts of the mandal lying in the contour interval of 

10-30m. The pediment is overlaid with moderate layer of overburden (cobble to clay). Ground water 

prospects are moderate to good because the unit is adjacent to rivers Meghadrigedda and Naravagedda. 

7.2.2 Pediplainshallow (PPM) 

These are flat and smooth surface of buried pediment with shallow 0-5m of overburden of weathered 

material of varying lithology. Ground water prospects are poor to moderate. This unit mostly covers the 

eastern part of the mandal, and lies to some extent in western and southern parts, and is between the 

contours 20-30m. In this layer the pediment is laid with a thin layer of overburden and is exposed to 

shallow depths. 

7.2.3 Pediment Zone (PZ) 

It is a transitory zone between the debris slope and the next important hill slope element the Pediment. 

Nookaraju and Vaidhyanadhan (1971). This zone lies in the contour interval of 50-100m. It’s noticeable 

on the foot hills near the villages Porlupalem, Cheemalapalli, Vepagunta, Sowbhagyapuram and 

Mudapaka. 

Being at the foot of the hills they are composed of loose and rocky outcrops with a thin a veneer of 

detritus. The pediments in this unit have developed on charnockites and khondalites. Ground water 

potential depends on the thickness of the debris. Wide pediments have been observed on the eastern and 

southern sides of the mandal. Moderate ground water aquifers are identified in this zone. 

7.2.4 Pediment (P) 

Pediment as stated by Twidale (1976) is a complex phenomenon and single explanation applies to all 

pediments; several different processes could apparently produce similar landforms.  

Pediment is noticeable in Chintagatla, Mudapaka and Vepagunta villages. It lies in the contour interval of 

30-50m. It has a gentle slope and rocky surface. The joints in the khondalites will be the channels of 

recharge to groundwater. 

7.2.5 Inselbergs (I) 

Expansion of the pediment or series of pediments may continue until all the remains of the original 

mountain mass are scattered knolls which rise above its surface. Such hills are analogue to Mouad rocks 

on a peneplain surface and were originally and to some extent are still, called Insebergs. Thornbury 

(1999). These inselbergs are noticed at four places lying in the contour interval of 100 to 200m near 

Sowbhagyapuram (281 and 211m), Mudapaka (169m) and in Chintagatla (211m) made of charnockites. 

The slope of these inselbergs is between 6 to 18 degrees. 

 

 

 



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7.2.6 Residual Hills (RH) 

These residual forms are relic features lift out during scrap retrieval and pediplanation. These boulder 

maps owe their origin to mineralogical resistance (Twidale, 1976) and to primary parting/pacing 

Schumm and Chorley (1966) Garner (1974). These isolated hills are noticed at two places lying in the 

contour interval of (80-100m) Jerripotulpalem village (96m) and Pulagalipalem (98m) and are also made 

of charnockites. The slope of the hills varies from 12 to 18 degrees. The slope and sparse vegetation 

accounts to high runoff, hence ground water prospects are very poor. Mass wasting is prevalent in the 

form of soil creep. 

7.2.7 Structural Hills (SH) 

There are five structural hills, Yerrakonda (370m), Narava (375m), Vepgunta (263m), Porlupalem 

(324m), and near Mudapaka (321m). These are made up of well jointed Khondalites. The slope of the 

hills is in between 12 to 13 degrees. The Yerrakona hill range in the reserve forest is named after the 

forest. The Narava hill and the reserved forest are named after the Narava village. 

 

Table 3. Hydrogeomorphic Units of the Study Area 

S.No Hydrogeomorphic unit 
Area in 

sqkm 

Percentage of the 

study area 

1 Structural hills 17.70 14.75 

2 Residual hills 0.50 0.41 

3 Inselberg 0.52 0.43 

4 Pediment zone 12.03 10.02 

5 Pediment 3.10 2.58 

6 Pediment shallow 39.22 32.68 

7 Pediment moderate 46.02 38.35 

8 Total 120 100.00 

 

7.3 Ground Water Prospects and Water Quality  

Ground water hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence of the distribution and 

movement of water below the surface of the Earth Todd (1980). Ground water prospects map is 

prepared for the study area (Figure 4). 

92 samples were collected from the 23 villages of the study area (Table 4). The hydrochemcial data 

includes the samples from both bore and open wells for certain parameters like pH, TDS, chlorides, 

flourides, hardness, alakalinity etc. These are determined by using the standard procedures (US salnity 

Laboratory, 1954; USGS, 1996; Hem, 1970; APHA, 1971) in the laboratory. 

 

 



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pH is determined elcetronically with a direct reading called public health meter. Chloride is estimated 

by tritating  the water sample against shear nitrate solution (0.005N) using potassium chromate 

indicator. Total alakalinity of water sample is estimated by tritating against standard sulphuric acid 

using methyl orange as indicator and represented as cacosin mg/l. Hardness of the water sample is 

determined  by tritating against EDTA solution (0.02N) and expressed as mg/l. Flouride  is 

determined by the Zirinium alizarine method and is expressed as mg/l (Figure 5(a), (b) and (c)). 

 

 

Figure 4. Ground Water Prospects Map 

 

 

Figure 5. Water Quality Maps (a) Chorides (b) Fluroide (c) Total hardness 

 

 

 

 



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7.4 Soils and Soil Erodability  

Barring the hills and the water bodies the rest of the area is covered with alluvial soils and red loams and 

clays The gravelly loams are confined to the peripheral areas of the hills in the eastern and northern part 

of the study On the basis of the soil map prepared, the soils of the Pendurthi mandal have been 

categorized into alluvial, redloams and clays, gravelly loams and shallow skeletal sandy soils which are 

confined to the mountains. Figure 6(a). The soils of Pendurthi are free from salinity hazard, but the study 

area is subject to varying degrees of erosion hazard depending upon the topographic location. The soil 

fertility is low to medium, necessitating the application of both organic and chemical fertilizers for 

obtaining good yields. Soil samples were collected for estimation of physical and chemical 

characteristics in the Laboratory (Anakapalli soil Laboratory, Ankapalli, Vishakhapatnam district). 

Based on the soil analysis, it can be stated that the soil reaction (pH) is tending to be alkaline. The soluble 

salt content is normal (less than 0.1mhos/cm). The fertility status in respect of organic carbon is low, 

available Po5 is low to medium attaining good crop yields. The spatial distribution of the soils is shown 

in (Table 5).  

 

Table 4. Chemical Analysis of the Water Samples of the Study Area 

No 

Name of the 

Village 

Type 

of 

Source 

pH T.D.S 

Total 

Alkalinity 

as CaCo3 

Total 

Hardness 

as CaCo3 

Fluoride 

as Fd 

Chloride 

as Cl Nitrate 

Magne-sium 

as Mg 

Iron 

as Fe 

mg/lit 

Calcium 

as Ca 

Carbonate 

Hardness 

as CaCo3 

Remarks 

mg/lit mg/lit mg/lit 

1 Pendurthi (W.A) B. W 7.4 570 135 524 0.2 72 Nil 33 Nil 116 389 Potable 

2 

Pendurthi 

B. W 6.8 1500 220 324 0.2 256 Nil 28 Nil 208 104 Potable 

Near Vet Hos 

3 Jerripotulapalem B. W 8.2 480 200 180 0.6 60 Nil 22 Nil 90 Nil Potable 

4 

MPWS Mudapaka 

colony 

B. W 8.2 570 240 180 0.4 60 Nil 20 Nil 100 Nil Potable 

5 

MPWS at 

Gurrampalem 

O. W 8.2 1680 310 320 0.4 300 Nil 50 Nil 110 10 

Excess in 

TDS 

6 MPWS SR Puram B. W 8.2 1630 340 460 0.4 340 Nil 36 Nil 310 120 

Excess in 

TDS& 

Calcium 

7 Juttada O. W 8.2 1390 340 420 0.2 230 Nil 44 Nil 240 80 Potable 

8 

Purushotam 

B. W 7.3 1200 450 380 0.1 160 Nil 60 Nil 120 Nil Potable 

puram 

9 Pulagalipalem O. W 7.5 660 260 220 0.4 60 Nil 24 Nil 120 Nil Potable 

10 

Chinnamushidwada 

(MPWS) 

B. W 8 1010 350 400 0.4 160 Nil 65 Nil 130 150 Potable 



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11 

MPWS 

Chimalapalalli 

O. W 8.5 960 370 240 0.2 100 Nil 65 Nil 130 150 Potable 

12 Porlupalem O. W 8.5 2580 430 610 0.4 520 Nil 112 Nil 150 180 

Excess in 

TDS 

13 Vepagunta O. W 7.5 920 280 270 0.2 100 Nil 30 Nil 160 Nil Potable 

14 

MPWS at 

Peddagadi 

B. W 7.5 1480 230 280 0.4 270 Nil 60 Nil 30 50 Potable 

15 MPWS at Pinagadi B. W 7.5 730 180 220 0.4 60 Nil 43 Nil 50 60 Potable 

16 Rampuram B. W 7.5 1090 160 190 0.1 180 Nil 34 Nil 50 30 Potable 

17 Gorapalli B. W 7 1500 160 320 0.4 340 Nil 60 Nil 70 160 Potable 

18 MPWS at Saripalli B. W 8 1630 230 300 0.6 320 Nil 46 Nil 110 70 

Excess in 

TDS 

19 Rayyayapeta B. W 8 900 240 260 1 70 Nil 46 Nil 70 20 Potable 

20 

Peddagadi 

Elementary 

B. W 7.5 5240 Nil 1860 0.2 1880 Nil 136 Nil 1300 Nil 

Excess in 

TDS, TH, 

CL, Mg, 

Ca 

School 

21 Saripalli SC colony B. W 8.5 2900 380 480 0.6 660 Nil 48 Nil 280 100 

Excess in 

TDS &Ca 

22 

Pinagadi NH 

roadside 

B. W 8 1010 340 280 0.4 260 Nil 49 Nil 72 Nil Potable 

23 Pinagadi B.W 8.2 1040 220 480 0.2 860 Nil 82 Nil 143 260 

Excess in 

Ca 

hardness 

24 Pinagadi O.W 8.2 3060 348 1240 0.2 240 Nil 288 Nil 80 890 

Excess in 

TDS, TH, 

Mg&CH 

25 Laxmipuram B.W 8.4 1500 296 610 0.2 280 Nil 130 Nil 64 310 

Excess in 

TDS, TH, 

CH 

26 Laxmipuram O.W 8.2 1720 292 630 2 1360 Nil 110 Nil 170 340 

Excess in 

TDH, 

TH&CH 

27 Laxmipuram O.W 8.4 3120 468 1080 0.3 430 Nil 243 Nil 56 610 

Excess in 

TDH, 

TH&CH 



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28 Laxmipuram B.W 8.2 1770 260 690 0.2 1540 Nil 150 Nil 68 430 

Excess in 

TDH, 

TH&CH 

29 Laxmipuram B.W 8.2 1060 380 680 0.3 560 Nil 132 Nil 142 300 

Excess in 

TH&CH 

30 Laxmipuram B.W 8.4 1011 820 664 3 456 Nil 153 Nil 36 Nil 

Excess in 

TH, 

Fluoride 

And Mg 

31 Laxmipuram B.W 8.6 1040 600 749 1.8 400 Nil 151 Nil 130 140 

Excess in 

TH, 

Fluoride 

And Mg 

32 Laxmipuram B.W 8.5 840 580 372 0.3 200 Nil 74 Nil 66 Nil Potable 

33 Laxmipuram O.W 8.9 890 540 428 1 190 Nil 94 Nil 40 Nil Potable 

34 Pinagadi O.W 8 5610 272 3040 0.2 1300 Nil 527 Nil 870 2760 

Excess in 

TDH, TH, 

CL, Mg, 

Ca &CH 

35 Pinagadi O.W 7.8 1900 332 1300 0.3 2280 Nil 277 Nil 160 970 

Excess in 

TDH, TH, 

CL, 

Mg&CH 

36 Pinagadi B.W 8.2 1880 590 524 0.3 260 Nil 110 Nil 42 Nil 

Excess in 

TDS 

37 Pinagadi B.W 8.2 1040 480 240 0.3 140 Nil 50 Nil 26 Nil Potable 

38 Porlupalem B.W 8.8 700 440 340 0.8 200 Nil 76 Nil 26 Nil Potable 

39 Porlupalem O.W 8.7 1120 450 344 2.8 190 Nil 68 Nil 64 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

40 Porlupalem B.W 8.8 1700 454 280 2 100 Nil 41 Nil 110 Nil 

Excess in 

TDS& 

Fluoride 

41 Porlupalem O.W 8.6 3560 510 436 2 260 Nil 147 Nil 32 126 

Excess in 

TDS&  

Fluoride 

42 Pinagadi B.W 8.4 1210 488 932 0.4 336 Nil 82 Nil 48 Nil Potable 



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43 Pinagadi O.W 8.4 1840 362 656 0.2 488 Nil 135 Nil 96 304 

Excess in 

TDS, TH, 

CH 

44 Pinagadi B.W 9 1030 490 472 2.2 280 Nil 79 Nil 148 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

45 Pinagadi O.W 8.8 790 548 380 2 190 Nil 60 Nil 110 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

46 Pinagadi B.W 8.4 1050 410 368 2 360 Nil 77 Nil 52 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

47 Pinagadi B.W 8.5 710 510 280 1.8 140 Nil 60 Nil 32 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

48 Cheemalapalli B.W 8.4 700 350 320 2 144 Nil 34 Nil 180 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

49 Cheemalapalli B.W 8.5 630 430 268 1.8 80 Nil 56 Nil 37 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

50 Cheemalapalli B.W 8.4 650 490 290 1.8 20 Nil 63 Nil 32 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

51 Cheemalapalli B.W 8.4 740 580 360 1.8 100 Nil 66 Nil 92 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

52 Saripalli B.W 8.4 1830 480 660 0.8 752 Nil 138 Nil 92 180 

Excess in 

TDS, TH 

53 Saripalli B.W 8.6 1510 420 652 0.4 508 Nil 148 Nil 92 280 

Excess in 

TDS, TH 

54 Saripalli B.W 8.6 1680 440 790 0.8 404 Nil 178 Nil 40 350 

Excess in 

TDS, TH 

&Mg 

55 Saripalli B.W 8.5 1190 440 408 0.4 1180 Nil 75 Nil 90 Nil 

Excess in 

P.H 

56 Saripalli O.W 9 1320 400 500 0.4 220 Nil 114 Nil 26 100 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

57 Saripalli B.W 9 960 320 220 2.2 160 Nil 39 Nil 58 100 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

58 Saripalli B.W 8.8 780 490 200 2.1 260 Nil 34 Nil 56 100 Potable 

59 Rajayyapeta B.W 8.6 640 460 52 0.8 68 Nil 1 Nil 28 100 Potable 

60 Rajayyapeta B.W 8.7 400 280 44 0.4 64 Nil 1 Nil 28 100 Potable 

61 Rajayyapeta O.W 8.7 400 280 260 0.8 52 Nil 56 Nil 32 100 Potable 



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62 Rajayyapeta B.W 8.6 620 320 306 0.2 116 Nil 58 Nil 66 100 Potable 

63 Gurrampalem O.W 9 960 460 370 0.3 462 Nil 80 Nil 42 100 Potable 

64 Gurrampalem B.W 8.8 1000 400 440 0.6 240 Nil 92 Nil 60 40 Potable 

65 Gurrampalem O.W 8.8 600 320 330 0.2 88 Nil 58 Nil 90 10 Potable 

66 Gurrampalem B.W 8.4 840 370 640 1 160 Nil 140 Nil 52 270 

Excess in 

TH&CH 

67 Gurrampalem B.W 8.6 1400 600 210 2.6 360 Nil 44 Nil 26 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

68 Gurrampalem B.W 8.2 1300 670 456 1 352 Nil 100 Nil 40 Nil Potable 

69 Mudapaka O.W 8.2 1090 320 260 0.2 310 Nil 44 Nil 34 Nil Potable 

70 Mudapaka B.W 8.6 440 260 220 0.2 100 Nil 32 Nil 86 Nil Potable 

71 Mudapaka O.W 8.7 410 320 200 2.4 40 Nil 36 Nil 48 Nil 

Excess in 

Fluoride 

72 Mudapaka B.W 8.3 1840 320 836 0.4 740 Nil 143 Nil 50 560 

Excess in 

TDS, 

CH,C 

73 Mudapaka B.W 8.8 520 380 272 0.6 410 Nil 41 Nil 100 Nil Potable 

74 S.R. Puram B.W 8.4 1000 590 644 0.2 316 Nil 151 Nil 20 54 

Excess in 

TH & MG 

75 S.R. Puram B.W 8.5 820 260 600 0.2 128 Nil 126 Nil 78 384 

Excess in 

TH & CH 

76 S.R. Puram O.W 8.1 960 440 310 0.4 252 Nil 60 Nil 52 384 Potable 

77 

Saripalli 

B. W 8.4 1400 330 460 0.6 490 Nil 92 Nil 22 130 Potable 

MPWS 

78 

Chinamushivada 

PWGS 

B. W 8.6 880 260 460 0.6 138 Nil 94 Nil 74 200 

Excess in 

TH, MG, 

CH ETC 

79 

Purushotam 

B. W 8.6 540 270 280 0.6 50 Nil 50 Nil 62 10 Potable 

Puram PWS 

80 

Purushotam 

B. W 8.5 940 560 440 0.4 150 Nil 80 Nil 84 Nil Potable 

Puram PWS 

81 Pendurti OW B. W 8.4 730 280 220 0.3 90 Nil 40 Nil 53 Nil Potable 

82 Mudapaka B. W 8.5 660 210 200 0.4 110 Nil 40 Nil 32 Nil Potable 

83 Gurrampalem O. W 8.4 1900 240 420 0.4 84 Nil 94 Nil 28 180 Potable 

84 Rampuram B.W 7.8 1600 200 624 0.6 420 Nil 115 Nil 48 420 

Excess in 

TH, MG, 



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CH ETC 

85 Rampuram O.W 8.7 1720 270 490 0.4 500 Nil 92 Nil 110 270 

Excess  

in TH, 

MG, CH 

etc 

86 Rampuram O.W 8 1010 260 490 0.4 80 Nil 80 Nil 84 160 Potable 

87 Rampuram B.W 8 2400 300 1200 0.3 1020 Nil 243 Nil 200 460 

Excess in 

TDS, TH, 

CL, MG 

88 Rampuram O.W 8 2400 300 1140 0.2 1060 Nil 219 Nil 84 160 

Excess in 

TDS, TH, 

CL, MG 

89 Rampuram B.W 8.2 200 260 1080 0.3 910 Nil 210 Nil 220 420 

Excess in 

TDS, MG 

90 S.R. Puram B.W 8.7 1240 300 380 0.8 246 Nil 78 Nil 55 80 Potable 

91 Rampuram B.W 8.8 980 220 180 0.3 142 Nil 37 Nil 28 Nil Potable 

92 Juttada O.W 8.4 1120 385   0.5 200 Nil 77 Nil 77 - 

Excess in 

TDS 

Note. * B.W( Bore well), O.W(Open Well). 

 

 

Figure 6(a). Soil and Figure 6(b). Soil Erodibility 

 

 

 



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Soil erodibility map has also been prepared and has been categorized into three categories. Figure 6(b). 

Slight erosion(e1) these areas are flat having none to slight degradation in the form of sheet wash 

resulting in the loss of 0.5cm top soil. 

Moderate erosion(e2). In moderate erosion soil profile loses about 50-75 percent of the soil erosion. 

Severe erosion(e3) when the soil profile has lost the entire surface horizon, and also a part of 

subsurface erosion, it is said to be severely eroded. 

 

Table 5. Soils of the Study Area 

S.No Category Area in sqkm 
Percentage of the 

study area 

1 Alluvial soil 39.22 32.68 

2 
Red loams and 

clays 
41.56 34.63 

3 Gravelly loams 15.20 12.66 

4 
Shallow skeletal 

sandy soils 
16.45 13.70 

5 Reservoir 6.60 5.50 

 Total 120 100 

 

7.5 Landuse Landcover 

Landuse refers to “mans” activities and the various uses which are carried out on the land. Landcover 

refers to natural vegetation, water bodies, rock/soil besides any artificial cover that may result due to land 

transformation. The terms landuse and landcover are apparently very closely related and are mutually 

dependent. According to Vink (1975), the use to which land in a certain region at a certain time is put to 

use is known as landuse. Based on the 1920 census data (USA) Weaver 1954 published a land use map of 

that country. Based on Stamps (1950) land utilization system numerous studies were carried out in the 

Eastern European countries. Landuse maps were prepared by Avery (1965) for the USA and Bruyin 

(1974) for Netherlands. The world Atlas of Agriculture (1973) was based on the landuse survey map of 

Vink (1975). 

It is estimated that the human footprint has affected 83 percent of the global terrestrial land surface and 

has degraded about percent of the ecosystems services in the past 50 years alone. Land Use and land 

cover (LUCC) change has been the most visible indicator of the human footprint and the most 

important driver of loss of biodiversity and other forms of land degradation (SD21, 2012). 

The landuse/landcover information mapped have been arranged and grouped into a framework of 

landuse/landcover classification system primarily developed for interpretation with remotely sensed 

data. The landuse/landcover has been classified into level I and level II classes, National Remote 



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Sensing Center (NRSA) Here, the “level” indicates the degree of information content. Higher the level, 

greater will be the information. Variations in multispectral responses of the different landcover 

categories enable detection, identification and categorization of different landuse classes commensurate 

with the scale of mapping. Temporal variability of landuse/landcover evidenced by seasonal changes in 

water bodies and agricultural crops as well as confusion arising from  similar spectral response from 

the different landuse/landcover classes categories are resolved by resource to multi season remote 

sensing data and group verification. Systematic image interpretation involving detection, identification, 

classification and codification of the landuse/landcover with reference to image interpretation keys in 

conjunction with corresponding SOI topographical sheets and other ancillary maps were utilized 

(Figure 7 and Table 6). 

 

 

Figure 7. Landuse/Landcover 

 

7.5.1 Built Up Land  

It is defined as an area of human habitation developed due to no agricultural use where the land is 

covered with residential, transportation, institutional industrial recreational in association. The built up 

land in this mandal accounts for 15.01sqkm, 8.45 percent of the land area. 

7.5.2 Agricultural Land 

It is defined as the land primarily used for the cultivation of agricultural crops. The agriculture in the 

study area is irrigated by tanks and is rainfed. The major crops that are grown in the study area include 

7.5.2.1 Double Crop  

Double Crop refers to the standing crop during both kharif and rabi season. It constitutes to 29.86sqkm, 

i.e., 24.88 percent of the of the study area.   

 

 



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7.5.2.2 Kharif Unirrigated  

It is associated with rainfed crops under dryland farming covering 32.85sqkm of the mandal and 

accounting for 27.37 percent of the landuse. 

7.5.3 Plantations  

Plantations are clearly identified in the crop lands during rabi season by their relatively low response 

particularly red and infrared regions related to their internal structure of their foliage and sizable open 

area of the soil exposed between the trees. Major plantations in the region are Cashew, Casuraina and 

Mango, covering 4.50sqkm and constitute 3.75 percent of the study area.  

7.5.4 Forests 

It’s an area within the notified forest boundary having an association of trees and other vegetation types. 

The total forest area is 10.15sqkm covering 8.45 percent of the study area which is associated with 

trees and other vegetation cover. The scrub forest is an area of degraded forest mainly due to excessive 

biotic interference and natural causes which contain mainly bushes and scrubs. The degradation is 

mainly seen on steep slopes of the hills of the Pedurthi and Vepagunta area subject to severe erosion. 

 

Table 6. Landuse/Landcover 

Landuse Category 
Area in 

Hectares 

Area in 

percentage 

Forest 10.15 8.45 

Settlements 15.01 12.50 

Industrial 2.10 1.75 

Tanks 5.22 4.35 

Reservoir 6.60 5.50 

Upland with dense scrub 4.51 3.75 

Upland with sparse scrub 4.00 3.33 

Public Institution 1.30 1.08 

Plantations 4.50 3.75 

Stone quarry 0.07 0.05 

Mud quarry 1.09 0.90 

Steep sloping hilly area 2.50 2.08 

Double crop 29.86 24.88 

Kharif unirrigated 32.85 27.37 

Total 120 100 

 

 

 



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7.5.5 Water Bodies  

This class encompasses surface water bodies either impounded in the form of lakes ponds rivers, etc. 

7.5.6 River/Stream  

It is a natural course of water flowing on the land surface along a defined channel. It may be seasonal 

or perennial. 

7.5.7 Reservoir/Tanks  

A lake is a large body of surface impounded water natural or artificial within the landmass. Tanks are 

small lakes of impounded water. The reservoir constitutes 6.60sqkm, 5.50 percent of the study area and 

tanks 5.22sqkm comprising 4.35 percent of the study area. 

7.5.8 Others 

Industrial and mining are has been combined in the landuse/landcover map. It covers 2.10sqkm 

comprising 1.75 percent of the study area. 

 

 

Figure 8. Schematic Chart Showing Methodology Adopted for Integrated Resource Analysis in 

the Study Area 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 7. Basic Integration of Land and Water Resources (BILWRUS) 

S.No Category Lithology 
Geomorpholog

y 

Slope 

% 
Soil 

Land 

capability 
Landuse 

Groundwater 

prospects 

1 
Dryland 

agriculture 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 

Redloams 

and clays 
II 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
Moderate 

2 
Intensive 

agriculture 1 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

moderate 
0-3 Alluvial II 

Double 

crop 
Good 

3 
Intensive 

agricluture-2 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

moderate 
0-3 

Redloams 

and clays 
III 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
Good 

4 
Intensive 

agriculture-2 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

moderate 
0-3 Alluvial II 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
Good 

5 
Intensive 

agriculture-4 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 

Redloams 

and clays 
III 

Double 

crop 
Moderate 

6 
Intensive 

agriculture-5 
Khondalite Pediment 3-15 Alluvial II 

Double 

crop 
Poor 

7 
Agro 

horticulture-1 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 

Red loams 

and clays 
III Plantation Moderate 

8 
Agro 

horticulture-1 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 Alluvial II 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
poor 

9 
Agro 

horticulture-1 
Khondalite Pediment 0-3 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
poor 

10 
Agro 

horticulture-2 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 Alluvial II Plantation Moderate 

11 
Agro 

horticulture-2 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
>15 

Redloams 

and clays 
III Plantation Moderate 

12 
Agro 

horticulture-3 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

moderate 
0-3 Alluvial III 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Good 

13 
Agro 

horticulture-4 
Khondalite Pediment zone 0-3 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV Plantation Poor 

14 
Agro 

horticulture-5 
Khondalite Pediment 0-3 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV Plantation Poor 

 
Agrohorticultu

re-6 
Khondalite Pediment zone 5-15 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
Poor 

15 Horticulture-2 Khondalite 
Pediplain 

moderate 
0-3 Alluvial II Plantation Moderate 



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16 Horticulture-2 Khondalite 
Pediplain 

moderate 
3-5 Alluvial soil II Plantation Good 

17 Horticulture-3 Khondalite 
Pediplain 

shallow 
3-5 

Red loams 

and clays 
III Plantation Poor 

18 Afforestation Khondalite Inselberg >15 Alluvial VII 

Upland 

with dense 

scrub 

Poor 

19 Afforestation Khondalite Pediment zone 0-3 
Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Dense 

scrub 
Poor 

20 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 Alluvial VII 

Upland 

with dense 

scrub 

poor 

21 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII DO/DS Poor 

22 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 
Dense 

scrub 
Poor 

23 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 
Dense 

deciduous 
Poor 

24 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Deciduous 

open/Decid

uous scrub 

Poor 

25 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill 3-5 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Deciduous 

open/Decid

uous scrub 

Poor 

26 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill 5-15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 
Dense 

scrub 
Poor 

27 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 
Dense 

deciduous 
Poor 

28 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Poor 



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29 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15    Poor 

30 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill 5-15 
Red loams 

and clays 
VII 

Deciduous 

scrub 
Poor 

31 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 
Dense 

deciduous 
Poor 

32 Afforestation Khondalite Colluvium 5-15 
Red loams 

and clays 
III 

Dense 

scrub 
Poor 

33 Afforestation Khondalite Structural hill 5-15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Upland 

with dense 

scrub 

Poor 

34 Afforestation Khondalite Colluvium 5-15 
Red loams 

and clays 
VII 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Poor 

35 
Afforestation-

1 
Khondalite Colluvium 5-15 

Red loams 

and clays 
III 

Deciduous 

open/decid

uous scrub 

Poor 

36 
Afforestation-

1 
Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Deciduous 

open/ 

Deciduous 

scrub 

Poor 

37 
Social 

forestry-2 
Khondalite Residual hill >15 Alluvial VII 

Sparse 

scrub 
Poor 

38 
Social 

forestry-5 
Khondalite Pediment zone 0-3 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Steep 

sloping hill 

area 

Poor 

39 
Social 

forestry-5 
Khondalite Pediment zone 5-15 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Steep 

sloping hill 

area 

Poor 

40 
Social 

forestry-6 
Khondalite Structural hill 5-15 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV Pediment Poor 

41 
Social 

forestry-6 
Khondalite Pediment zone 5-15 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Kharif 

unirrigated 
Poor 

42 
Social 

forestry-7 
Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Poor 



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43 
Social 

forestry-7 
Khondalite Inselberg 0-3 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

IV 

Upland 

with dense 

scrub 

Poor 

44 
Social 

forestry-7 
Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Shallow 

skeletal 

sandy soils 

VII 

Upland 

with  

dense scrub 

Poor 

45 Silvi pasture-2 Khondalite Pediment zone 0-3 
Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Poor 

46 Silvi pasture-3 Khondalite 
Pediplain 

shallow 
5-15 

Red loams 

and clays 
III 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

moderate 

47 Silvi pasture-3 Khondalite 
Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 

Red loams 

and clays 
III 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Poor 

48 Silvi pasture-4 Khondalite Residual hill >15 
Red loams 

and clays 
III 

Upland 

with sparse 

scrub 

Poor 

49 
Barren stone 

area 
Khondalite 

Pediplain 

shallow 
0-3 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Mud 

quarry 
Poor 

50 
Barren stone 

area 
Khondalite Pediment zone 3-5 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Mud 

quarry 
Poor 

51 
Barren stone 

area 
Khondalite Pediment zone 3-5 

Gravelly 

loams 
IV 

Mud 

quarry 
Poor 

52 
Barren stone 

area 
Khondalite Structural hill >15 

Gravelly 

loams 
VII 

Mud 

quarry 
Poor 

53 
Barren stone 

area 
Khondalite Pediment zone 3-15 

Red loams 

and clays 
VII 

Stone 

quarry 
Poor 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 8. Recommended Optimal Land Utilization and Farming Techniques (ROLUFS) 

S.No Categories Conservation measures 

I  Dryland Agriculture           KU-PPS- II Vegetation barriers and contour bunding 

II  Intensive Agriculture 
 

1)  DC-PPS, PPM-II 
 

2)  F, KU-PPM, VF-II, III Irrigation and water Management 

3)  DC-PPS, PPM-II(Sodic) Field bund maintenance 

4) DC-PPS, III 
 

5)  P, DC II 
 

III  Horticulture 
 

1) P,PPS, PPM Contour trenches 

2)  PPM,P, II 
 

3) PPS-II 
 

IV  Agrohorticulture 
 

1)  F, KU, PPS,P, IV, V II, III 
 

2)  LS, PPS,P, II, III, IV 
 

3)  LS, PPM, II 
 

4) P-PZ-IV 
 

5)  P-P-IV 
 

6)  KU-PZ, IV 
 

V  Silvipasture 
 

1) LS-P-V,VI Soil and moisture conservation 

2) LS-PZ,IV 
 

 
Sodic 

 
3) PPS-LS, III 

 
4) RH-LS,III 

 
VI  Social Forestry 

 
1) LS-P,V,VI,VII 

 
2) RH, LS,VIII 

 

3) PPS 
Gully plugging, contour trenches with vegetation 

hedges 

4) KU, hills-VI 
 

5) PZ,IV 
 

6) Hills, P,VII 
 

7) Hills-LS, VII 
 

VII  Afforestation 
 



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SF-Hills Vegetation barriers across waterways. 

 
Quarrying 

 
1) BSA-Hill Contour trenches with vegetation hedges. 

2) BSA-P 
 

 

The expanded form of the abbreviated words listed in the above table can be seen in Table 7. 

 

8. Development and Management Plans  

Inappropriate and uncontrolled use of natural resources can downgrade their quality and destroy them. 

Sustainable development and optimized use of natural resources involves effective utilization of the 

existing resources without damaging the assets and preserve these valuable resources for the future 

generations. At Present, scientific and optimized management of agriculture and natural resources are 

considered to be important items in sustainable development. In order to achieve sustainability and 

optimized land allocation we can use linear programming, multi objective linear programming and 

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) approaches (Watershed Planning and management 2018). 

The development of the landuse optimization tool called for a detailed understanding of the variation in 

productivity and physical characteristics on the field parcel scale, as these conditions are important 

drivers for land allocation and landuse changes. PirjoPeltonen-Sainio
a
et al. (2019). One of the most 

basic requirements for planning is the availability of timely accurate landuse data at the shortest 

possible time which was achieved here with the satellite data in the area of land use and more so in the 

agriculture land use. Following activities have been suggested pertaining to the hydrogeomorphology, 

slope, soil, and ground water prospects on the existing landuse/land cover for all the 23 villages to 

augment the income of the farmers as agrarian economy prevails in the study area. 

8.1 Intensive Agriculture 

Intensified agriculture which aims at higher yields per unit area. This particular type of cropping 

involves high amount of labor and money. If it’s practiced in the allocated villages, it will increase the 

incomes of the families.  

8.2 Agrohorticulture 

Alongside agricultural crops, horticulture sector has been suggested in the villages with a holistic 

growth of spices, fruits, vegetables, aromatic plants, coconut, cashew, etc. as nearness to 

Vishakhapatnam city makes a good business for supply of fresh flowers as well. 

8.3 Horticulture 

By switching on to species like local berries (ber), cluster beans, gooseberry (aonla) wood apple 

(custard apple) and pomegranate, the green cover can be increased to eight times. By adopting to drip 

irrigation the coverage increases to 32 times. The other moisture stress species are guava, cashew, 

pineapple and manilkarazapota, commonly known as sapodilla (Sapota). Flowers and aromatic plants 

can also be encouraged.  

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837718319781#!
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837718319781#!


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8.4 Silvipasture 

Nourishment of cattle improves their working capacity, milk and meat production. Jowar, maize, bajra 

and horsegram are good fodder crops followed by cowpea, glycine, digitaria, pospalum, and tubers like 

casava, sweet potato, and arrowroot are some of the crops which can improve the health of the cattle. 

8.5 Afforestation 

It grows maximum foliage next to forestry; an activity chiefly looked after the government. Wood 

industries are the chief consumers of plantations and forests, next only to fuel needs. Of them housing 

and paper industry takes the lions share. Wood dust boards must be used instead of main trunkbranches, 

and for paper, mesta based factories must be increased.NAP (National Afforestation Programme) NAP 

Scheme aims to support and accelerate the ongoing process of devolving forest protection, management 

and development functions to decentralized institutions of Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) 

at the village level, and Forest Development Agency (FDA) at the forest division level. 

(http://naeb.nic.in/NAP_glance.htm). NAP scheme could be taken as an aid by the mandal revenue office, 

and forward the proposed afforestation for the covered villages. 

Hibiscus Sabdarifa species yields 12-15 tonnes per hectare, while Cannabinus 10 to 17 tonnes/hectare. 

There are several species which spur out long branches in no time and they must be encouraged. 

EryhtinaIndica (local name, Dadap), ficusInfectoria (bunyan) and Firligosia (Pipa) are all very good to 

support afforestation, by implanting such ideas biomass growth can be increased. 

8.6 Social Forestry 

Social forestry is an activity of utmost importance to the common man, hence must be practiced 

anywhere from high moisture zones like tank bunds, water harvesting structures, etc. Even broad 

casting of seeds in rock beds also will yield excellent results. The stress should be laid on local needs, 

growing a variety of plants and social fencing.  Neglect of the organic matter of the trees by training at 

growing stage not only wastes biomasss, but also stunts growth and economy. Close density hastens 

vertical growth, trimming girth, growth, and biomass. Social fencing is a must for survival of greenery. 

8.7 Barren Stone Area 

The quarrying is mostly done in the villages on the sides of the barren mountainous area. In the first 

place heavy quarrying must be stopped by the local government, however if the activity is being carried 

on with the support of the local or state government, then it must be encouraged in making large plunge 

holes in the center, in such a way that they become reservoirs of water in the monsoon season, 

especially near Vepagunta village. 



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Figure 9. Proposed Landuse for the Study Area 

 

Table 9. Current Landuse and Proposed Land Use of the Study Area 

S.No. Name of the Village Present Landuse Proposed Landuse 

1 Gorrapalle Rabi unirrigated, plantation, Double crop Dryland Agriculture, 

Agrohorticulture-2, 4, Intensive 

agriculture-1, 4 

2 Saripalle Double crop, Rabi unirrigated, Plantation Intensive agriculture-1, Social forestry 

3 Mudapaka Upland with dense scrub, Upland with 

sparse scrub, plantation, Rabi unirrigated 

Afforestation, Silvipasture, Agro 

horticulture-4,6, Dryland agriculture 

4 Gurrampalem Upland with dense scrub, Upland with 

sparse scrub, plantation 

Afforestation, Horticulture-2, Silvi- 

pasture, Agro horticulture 

5 Rajayyapeta Double crop, Rabi unirrigated, Plantation Social Forestry, Dryland agriculture, 

Silvipasture 

6 S.R. Puram Rabi unirrigated Dryland agriculture, Horticulture-2 

7 Valimeraka Plantation, forest, Rabi unirrigated, 

Upland with sparse scrub 

Agro horticulture-2, Horticulture-2, 

Intensive Agriculture-1, 2, Dryland 

Agriculture, Afforestation 

8 Pulagalipalem Rabi unirrigated, Plantation Dryland Agriculture, Social Forestry-2 



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9 Juttada Plantation, Double crop Agro horticulture-2, Horticulture-2, 

Silvipasture 

10 Chinnamushiwada Rabi unirrigated, Plantation, Settlements Dryland Agriculture, Agro 

horticulture-1, 2, 4, Intensive 

agriculture-1, Social forestry-2, 5, 

Silvipasture-2, Afforestation 

11 Ramapuram Plantation, Double crop, Rabi unirrigated Agro horticulture-1,2, Horticulture-3 

12 Pinagadi Plantation, Double crop, Rabi unirrigated, 

Industrial and mining area 

Intensive Agriculture-1, Agro 

horticulture-2, Dryland Agriculture 

13 Pedagadi Double crop, Rabi unirrigated, mining 

area 

Agro horticulture-2, Dryland 

Agriculture, Horticulture, Intensive 

Agriculture-2 

14 Chintagatla Double crop, Rabi unirrigated, Upland 

with sparse scrub, Plantation 

Agro horticulture-1, Silvipasture, 

Social Forestry 

15 J.R. Palem Forest, Upland with dense scrub, Upland 

with sparse scrub, plantation 

Agro horticulture-4, Silvipasture-3, 4 

16 Narava Forest, Upland with dense scrub, Double 

crop, Rabi unirrigated 

Silvipasture, Dryland Agriculture, 

Agro horticulture-1, 2, Horticulture-3 

17 Porlupalem Upland with dense scrub, Upland with 

sparse scrub, Stone quarrying 

Afforestation, Silvipasture, Intensive 

agriculture-2 

18 Chemalapalli Upland with dense scrub, Upland with 

sparse scrub, Rabi unirrigated, Stone 

quarrying 

Silvipasture-2, Dryland agriculture, 

Social Forestry, Afforestation 

19 Lakshmipuram Double crop, Plantation Agro horticulture-1, 2 

20 Krishnarayapuram Plantation, Rabi unirrigated, Industrial 

area, Settlements 

Social Forestry-2, Intensive 

agriculture-1, Agro horticulture-2 

21 Purushotampuram Rabi unirrigated, Settlements, Plantation Dryland agriculture, Intensive 

agriculture-1, Agro horticulture-2 

22 Vepagunta Double crop, Upland with sparse scrub, 

Rabi unirrigated, Plantation, Industrial 

area, Settlements 

Social forestry-2, 5, 7, Afforestation, 

Dryland agriculture, Agro 

horticulture-1, 2, 3, 4, Silvipasture-2, 3, 

Intensive agriculture-1 

23 Pendurti Double crop, Plantation Rabi unirrigated, 

Mining and Industrial area 

Social forestry, Silvipasture-2, Dryland 

agriculture, Horticulture 

 

 

 



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9. Discussions  

National Water  Development  Program for rainfed areas (NWDPRA) norms have been followed in 

acheiveng at (BILWRUS) Basic Inegration of land and water resources by integrating Drainage, Slope, 

Soil, and Hydrgeomorphology, which has inturn been overlayed with Landuselandcover to arrive at 

Recommended Optimal Landutilization and Farming Techniques (ROLUFS). The Prepared BILWRUS 

(Table 7) has been set as a guidleine to match with the ROLUFS (Table 8) to arrive at conclusion for a 

propsed landuse for each and every village (Table 9). In Table 7, 55 categories of land utlization have 

been covered as against  geology, geomorphology, slope, soil,landcapability, ground water prospects, 

and as per the pertaining landuse, the propsed land use has been suggested for all the 23 villages with 

sutiable conservation methods as well (Figure 9, Table 9). 

It is essential to develop rural technologies system with a proper setup of delivery modes in growing 

greens. The covered aspects are silivpasture, horticulture, social forestry afforestation and organic 

fertilization. Rain water strategy could be developed so that water is stored in underground channels 

during the rainy season when in plenty,and consumed duing the dry season, when water is scarce. This 

strategy will also complement the bore well technique which is much more expensive and sometimes 

non-functional. The constructiocn of rural roads must be backed with adequate transportation system so 

that the rural dweller should be able to transport their agriculture produce to the  district headquarters. 

The farmers could organize marketing of their products to obtain better returns. Facilities must be 

extended to lease out machinary as most of the villagers lack the machinery, and have to expend most of 

their energy for physical work, their productivity is also very low, and their cycle of poverty becomes a 

viscous one. In order to allow and maintain continuity in the rural development programs, the 

Government must enshrine rural development programs into Law, so that subsequent administration 

will continue to follow and maintain the program, as it is common practice when one administration 

leaves power, the subsequent administrations tend to jettison or underplay the  previous government 

programs. Proposed land use pattern helps in improving the environmental conditions and rural 

economic growth, equally helping in sustainable development. 

 

Acknowledgements 

The authors wish to thank USGS for the sentinnel data, 2020, Junior Irrigation Officer for the base map, 

the Chief Planning Officer and Zilla Praja Parishad for the source data. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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