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Energy and Earth Science 
Vol. 2, No. 2, 2019 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/ees 
ISSN 2578-1359 (Print)   ISSN 2578-1367 (Online) 

18 
 

Renewable Energy Sources for the Present and Future: An 

Alternative Power Supply for Nigeria 

Ebuete Abinotami Williams1, Raimi Morufu Olalekan2 & Ebuete Ibim Yarwamara3, Oshatunberu 

Modupe4  

1 Department of Geography and Environmental Management, Niger Delta University, Nigeria 
2 Department of Community Medicine, Environmental Health Unit, Faculty of Clinical Science, Niger 

Delta University, Nigeria 
3 Department of Art & Social Science, School of Foundation Studies, College of Health Technology 

Otuogidi-Ogbia Town, Bayelsa State, Nigeria 
4 Department of Environmental Health, College of Health Sciences and Technology, Ijero-Ekiti, Ekiti 

State, Nigeria 

 

Received: June 22, 2019   Accepted: August 5, 2019    Online Published: August 30, 2019 

doi:10.22158/ees.v2n2p18         URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ees.v2n2p18 

 

Abstract 

It is estimated that at least 600 million people in Africa lack access to electricity and three out of five 

people don’t have access to electricity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Though Africa is rich in a wide range of 

energy resources including solar, bio, natural gas, oil, coal and Uranium, the continent is far from energy 

self-sufficiency. Addressing climate change will require deep and quick reductions in fossil fuel use so 

that the systems developed around producing, transporting, and consuming energy are decarbonized by 

the middle of the century. In the ongoing age, sustainable power source has taken another swing to 

limelight on the planet, particularly in developed and emerging nations, as it assumes a noteworthy 

part both in economy and the general job of the world. Significantly, Nigeria an oil-rich country, comes 

as no surprise that almost all of her energy consumption comes from non-renewable energy sources as 

coal, natural gas and oil, and as such it is highly vulnerable to shocks due to overdependence on the 

fossil sources; often time is controlled by the international market. On the whole, the fossil fuel is 

expected to span only but a millennium (1700-2700) of human civilization while the imperative of an 

energy shortage situation is felt in every sector of the country considering the poor electricity 

consumptions in the country, which has reflected on the country’s economy and productivity rate. In 

revamping the economic sectors in Nigeria, the need for an alternative energy sources that is 

augmentable in supply keeping in view sustainable development as the hallmark for all sector 

development. Thus far, Nigeria ought to likewise be opened to universal investments as this would help 

support the improvement of its assets. This paper, therefore, supports no other sources but renewable 



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energy in promoting the countries productivity at all segments. It further stressed on the 

implementation of the country’s Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) to meet global competitors by 

the year 2030. Similarly, senior political figures, policymakers and CEOs should engage in a policy 

dialogue by identifying unique opportunities and best practices for developing and investing in Nigeria 

and in Africa’s energy markets for “…without this energy supply, the sophisticated skills of the 

industrial world are merely a burden in the struggle for survival.” 

Keywords 

climate change, energy self-sufficiency, renewable energy, fossil fuel, power supply, energy markets, 

decarbonized, Niger Delta 

 

1. Introduction 

Energy and public health among its various welfare effects is closely linked together at all scales and it 

use is central to human activity and can be viewed as the progressive development of new energy 

sources and their associated conversion technologies, from household and community to regional, 

national and global. Energy and its systems have a central role in social, economic development and 

human welfare. Though Africa is rich in a wide range of energy resources including solar, bio, natural 

gas, oil, coal and Uranium, the continent is far from energy self-sufficiency. As noted by the International 

Energy Agency (IEA) at least 600 million people in Africa lack access to electricity, and “three out of 

five people don’t have access to electricity in Sub-Saharan Africa”. Similarly, United Nations 

Development of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) also state that “…85% of the 1.2 billion 

people who lack access to electricity and 78% of the 2.8 billion who still rely on unsustainable solid 

biomass as fuel for cooking and heating, live in rural areas…” (UN DESA, 2014). This is unacceptable 

in economic and moral terms and no country should take it electricity and security issue as an excuse, 

with many African countries reluctant to liberalize their electricity sectors due to energy security 

concerns, private investment and security were not mutually exclusive (https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa). 

Thus far, the time is right to tap into alternative power supply potential which tends to play a key role in 

a clean, secure and affordable energy future. This can help tackle various critical energy challenges 

which offers ways to decarbonise a range of sectors including long-haul transport, chemicals, iron and 

steel where it is proving difficult to meaningfully reduce emissions. It can also help improve air quality 

and strengthen energy security. Despite very ambitious international climate goals, global 

energy-related CO2 emissions reached an all-time high in 2018. Schematically, outdoor air pollution 

which knows no borders remains a pressing problem, with around 7 million people dying prematurely 

yearly; that’s 18,000 deaths daily. What’s worse, 92% of people around the globe don’t breathe clean 

air which is driven by fossil fuel usage that simultaneously drives climate change and contaminates our 

air. Unfortunately, nine out of ten people breathe polluted air daily (WHO, 2016; 

www.who.int/news-room/details). In 2019, air pollution is considered by WHO as the greatest 

environmental risk to health and a major global health hazards with low and middle income countries 



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bearing the pollution brunt (Raimi et al., 2018; Olalekan et al., 2019). 

Admittedly, most of the resources used like petroleum, natural gas, coal are not sustainable sources of 

energy. Numbers of countries in the world including Nigeria are currently passing through the critical 

phase of population explosion and the growing population demands more energy inputs. With this, the 

current population estimate range from 198 to 210 million people, growing at the rate of 3.2% per 

annum, Nigeria faces the challenge of population impact on its poor infrastructural development (Raimi 

et al., 2017; Olalekan et al., 2018; Raimi et al., 2018; Raimi et al., 2019; Olalekan et al., 2019; Raimi et 

al., 2019). Despite her rich natural resources, Nigeria has a per capita income of around $390 and life 

expectancy of 45 years (World Bank, 2006). A more graphic comparative data on the socio-economic 

condition of Nigeria and Electricity access in the year 2009: Africa and other regional aggregates is 

presented in the Table 1 and Table 2 below: 

 

Table 1. Comparative Data on Socio-economic Condition of Nigeria and Other Developed 

Countries 

Indices (2006) Nigeria Malaysia UK USA 

Population (millions) 201 25.2 59.4 293.5 

GNI per capita (atlas method, US$) 390 4,650 33,940 41,400 

Human Development Index (HDI) 158 61 15 10 

Poverty (Head Count Ratio) 92.4 9.3 …. …. 

Literacy (% of population age 15+) 67 89 95 95 

GDP (US$ billions) 72.1 118.3 2,140.9 11,667.5 

Source: Adapted from World bank, 2006 

 

Table 2. Electricity Access in the Year 2009: Africa and Other Regional Aggregates 

Country  Population without 

electricity (millions)  

Electrification 

rate (%)  

Urban 

electrification 

rate (%)  

Rural 

electrification 

rate (%)  

Africa  587  41.8  68.8  25.0  

North Africa  2  99.0  99.6  98.4  

Sub-Saharan Africa  585  30.5  59.9  14.2  

Developing Asia  675  81.0  94.0  73.2  

China & East Asia  182  90.8  96.4  86.4  

South Asia  493  68.5  89.5  59.9  

India  288  75.0  94.0  67.0  

Latin America  31  93.2  98.8  73.6  

Middle East  21  89.0  98.5  71.8  



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Developing countries  1,314  74.7  90.6  63.2  

World*  1,317  80.5  93.7  68.0  

* World includes OECD and Eastern Europe / Eurasia.  

Source: Adapted from US Energy Information Administration, World Energy Outlook 2011. 

 

Total use of energy is related to population growth and economic output, but there is much variation in 

the effectiveness of energy use across societies (Grubler et al., 2012). The amount of energy used, as 

well as the quality of energy, drives economic productivity; more efficient and flexible energy sources 

(liquid fuels and especially electricity) are associated with higher productivity (Toman & Jemelkova, 

2003). Currently, approximately 65% of all global primary energy is consumed in the industrialized 

countries that make up the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the 

former Soviet Union (FSU), with per capita consumption averaging five times that of developing 

countries (World Bank, 2001). Contributions to GHG emissions follow a similar pattern. Per capita 

energy consumption in North America is more than 25 times that of the poorest nations in sub-Saharan 

Africa, 20 times the per capita consumption in India, and 10 times that in China (World Bank, 2001). 

Global carbon emissions are approximately one metric ton of carbon per year per person 

(tC/person-year). Per capita emissions in the United States are more than 5 tC/year compared to 

approximately 0.6 tC/year in developing countries as a whole, and they are less than 0.2 tC/year in the 

50 developing nations with lowest emissions (Baer et al., 2000). Coupled with low levels of per capita 

energy consumption, fuels and energy conversion technologies currently used in developing nations 

result in much higher exposure to local pollution. Therefore, from an environmental health perspective, 

energy options in developing countries are of notable importance because of lack of access to clean 

energy sources and technologies. Further, the most rapid future growth in energy consumption is 

expected to take place in developing countries, as a result of both population growth and economic 

development (Reddy et al., 1996; Reddy, 2000).  

However, Nigeria suffers from poor infrastructural development including road networks which are 

still underdeveloped and there are a host of communities and cities cut off from each other due to 

unassailable transportation networks and electricity/power supply etc. The education system is 

under-funded and illiteracy rate is up to 40 percent. More than two-thirds of Nigerians are poor. In 1980 

an estimated 27 percent of Nigerians lived in poverty. By 1990, 70 percent of the population had 

income of less than $1 a day and the figure has risen since then (NEEDS, 2005). Nigeria has one of the 

worst health care systems in the world and the doctor-patient ratio is about 1:1000. The public sector is 

very weak and on top of these, corruption threatens to crumble the country. As such, compared to the 

Western standard, there is a total collapse of government in Nigeria. The three major sectors of the 

economy are oil and gas, financial services and telecommunications. These sectors co-exist with 

thriving traditional agricultural and trading economies. This context of poverty, poor infrastructure and 

weak institutions provides a fertile ground for more vulnerability and to the ongoing impacts of climate 



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change (Raimi et al., 2018; Olalekan et al., 2019). 

Interestingly, to have any chance of preventing runaway climate change and keeping human-caused 

temperature increases to no more than 1.5 degrees Celsius (°C), societies must commit to rapid and 

deep decarbonization that will transform global and domestic energy systems. The threat of climate 

change demands a major energy transition (Anita, 2015). However, a clear route from fossil fuels to 

clean energy has been slow to materialize (Cameron & Emma, 2017). A prominent yet contested route 

for facilitating a conversion to clean energy involves the use of so-called “bridging” fuels (Christian, 

2014), such as unconventional gas. As with other bridging fuels, their promotion and commodification 

rests on the argument that no single energy source can currently ensure accessible, reliable, and 

affordable energy, while also slowing the emissions lock-in of coal power (Michael et al., 2016). 

Nonetheless, unconventional gas provides a less carbon-intensive fuel source (relative to other fossil 

fuels), while still being abundant and feasible to access. Schematically, the newfound popularity of 

unconventional gas has generated concerns regarding risks of high methane emissions, subsidence, 

changes in the use of food-producing land, water pollution, and reduced water availability (Maria et al., 

2014; Morufu & Clinton, 2017; Raimi & Sabinus, 2017; Raimi et al., 2017; Olalekan et al., 2018; 

Olalekan et al., 2018; Raimi et al., 2019; Raimi et al., 2019). Globally, the demand for energy remains 

on the increase and according to Monique Barbut, CEO and Chairperson, Global Environment Facility 

“Between now and 2030, energy demand is projected to grow by 1.6% annually, adding up to a 

dramatic 45% increase. Meanwhile, energy demand in developing and transition countries is predicted 

to grow even faster than in developed countries. Such rapidly growing energy demand is particularly 

challenging given that most of the world’s population still rely on energy from limited fossil fuel sources 

and traditional biomass.” 

Complete energy decarbonization would result in an unprecedented change to the world’s “social 

metabolism”, (Manuel et al., 2015) altering not only the amount of fossil fuel based energy the world 

consumes, but also entire social and economic systems involved in resource extraction, processing, 

delivery and use (Shelley, 2018). These systems include the human societies that have been built 

around providing the labour and capital necessary for fossil fuel exploitation, as well as the natural 

environments that have supported, and been degraded by fossil fuel extraction and combustion 

(Gonzalez & Toledo, 2017). The energy transformation necessary to mitigate climate change will 

profoundly alter societies and the natural world (Clark et al., 2013). Energy decarbonization has the 

potential to bring much more justice, opportunity, and sustainability to communities around the world. 

However, this will not happen without an intentional focus on the full social metabolism of the energy 

system. Given the current fossil-fuel-dominated energy portfolio and projections for the development 

of renewable energy technologies, it is inevitable to conclude that fossil fuels will continue to supply an 

important percentage of the growing global energy needs during the next few decades. Nevertheless, 

electricity generation, industrial processes, and transportation consume the most energy as well as 

contribute the most to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, in particular carbon dioxide (CO2) (Raimi et 



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al., 2018). Interestingly, energy development is essential and a primary input for almost all economic 

activities and is therefore vital for improvement in quality of life. Virtually, all human economic sectors 

utilised energy for its growth; such sectors includes industrial, commercial, transportation, 

telecommunications, wide range of agricultural and household services which has compelled us to 

focus our attention to ensure its continuous supply to meet our ever increasing demand (Al-Baijali & 

Shamayleh, 2018) (Figure 1). This global picture is not quite different when compared with the 

situation in Europe where the major drivers of GHG are the energy and transport sectors with forestry 

having little or no contributions (Figure 2). Though deliberate efforts have been made by the 

Government to provide power to all Nigerians in order to spur development and improve livelihoods. 

The main sources for the country’s power production and hydropower, petroleum and Natural Gas. It is 

projected that the country’s energy requirements will substantially increase. The country’s energy 

policies must therefore ensure a robust and efficient energy system that is secure and sufficient. There 

are multiple energy sources, and the technical processes for harnessing, usage and impact on the 

environment vary from one energy type to another. The 2007 policy Guidelines on Energy takes 

cognisance of the need to protect the quality of the environment and the population from hazards of 

energy exploitation and utilisation. It further aims at improving the nations technical capacities in the 

energy sector for the state security, self-reliance and economic competitiveness, with increasing 

emphasis on renewable energy to facilitate green economic growth. 



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Figure 1. GHG Emissions by Sector, Globally 

Sources: Data from Climate Change 2007; Raimi et al., 2018 and Greenhouse gas and emission trends 

and projections globally in Europe (2007) 



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Figure 2. GHG Emissions by Sector, and in the Countries belonging to the European Union 

Sources: Data from Climate Change 2007; Raimi et al., 2018 and Greenhouse gas and emission trends 

and projections globally in Europe 2007 



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According to Dhameja (2013), energy demand is not an exception to the economic theory of limited 

means and unlimited want as in the place of exploitation. The energy resources have been growing 

overtime and has resulted in gradual depletion of the scarce reserves. The critical linked between 

energy and economy has exposed the vulnerability of nations to the volatile energy situation; which has 

reflected on the key factor in deciding the product cost at micro levels as well as indicating the inflation 

and the debt burden at the macro levels (Ibid, 2013). In view of this, the Nigerian government spent 

over $356billion on fuel subsidy in five (5) years (2010-2014) (Bayagbon, 2018); and is currently 

spending ₦3.76 billion daily on fuel subsidy (Chijioke, 2018) in managing fuel cost and inflation in 

Nigeria. 

Recently, the imperatives of an energy shortage (depleting energy crisis) situation confronting the 

world community has led to the formulation of a new energy policy framework of energy conservation 

within which the rate of growth and pattern of energy consumption could be regulated. This steady 

increase in gap has not only compelled technocrats and decision markers in the industry to develop new 

measures of energy conservation but also to have systematic approach towards present trend of energy 

consumption through energy auditing and application of modern techniques and methods for 

minimizing energy wastage. Thus, relying solely on fossil fuels for the country energy supply will not 

be enough to meet the energy needs of the country. Hence, the need for renewable energy sources 

considering the insurmountable factors confronting the energy supply in Nigeria such factors according 

to Oricha and Olarinoye (2012) including government policies; economic factors, natural factors, 

society/community factors, efficient technology and security.  

Nigeria is blessed with abundant of natural and human endowment, capable of transforming the 

Nigerian power sector. The power sector who rely solely on fossil such as Coal, Oil, Gas and Water is 

vulnerable to shock because of the hovering change in crude oil price in the international market 

(Newsom, 2012; Shaabona & Potinrinac, 2018). Undoubtedly, the sector has witnessed a very 

insignificant amount of growth which has invariably affected its production capacity. Inspit of the 

fundamental changes over the past few years in the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industry (NESI) under 

the government privatisation reform program in the global power industry even with the present 23 grid 

connected generating plants supplying power in the country; the total electricity consumption per capita 

in the country remain 1000KWh- which compares poorly with 4,500KWh; 1,934 and 1,379KWh in 

South Africa, Brazil and China respectively (Akuru & Okoro, 2012; Nwagbo, 2017). There is no 

gainsaying, the fact that a large percentage of Nigerians (over 85million and more than 60%) do not 

have any form of accessibility to power and this in no small way affects their productivity and that of 

the country at large (NERC, 2008; Oricha & Olarinoye, 2012). 

Paul (2017) stresses that, constant power supply is the hallmark of a developed economy and any 

nation whose energy need is epileptic in supply prolongs her development and risk-losing potential 

investors. In Nigeria, there are few things that may discouraged investors as far as infrastructural 

development is concerned, which is nothing other than the amount of losses an investor would incur 



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since the electricity system in the country is outdated (Ubari, 2013). Most interestingly, is that Nigeria 

has been ranked as the second worst nation in power supply by the year2017 as power dropped 3,851 

Megawatts from the 16,000GWh (www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01/nigeria), which is unequally 

distributed in the country. In view of the above, this paper address and redressed the importance of 

alternative renewable energy generation sources in the country’s power supply and utilisation to 

enhanced productivity in Nigeria particularly in the Niger Delta region. 

The Niger Delta is a region located in the South-South Geopolitical zones of Nigeria, covering about 

8% of the country’s landmass (Wifa, 2018). The region is known as the storehouse of Nigeria’s crude 

oil which accounts for approximately 90% of foreign exchange, paradoxically however, the region is 

yet in her own pervasive local poverty due to deep-rooted mistrust, frustrated expectation, unfavourable 

and erratic government policies, oil politics which is restlessly driven by powerful interests, the 

government and the oil firms, unprecedented restiveness etc, among leading factors is the power 

outraged, which has consistently drag on the region’s economic performance and expectation for 

development (Raimi et al., 2019 in print). If all things been equal, the adoption of renewable sources of 

energy will reshape the economic productivity in the region, considering the vast opportunity for its 

adoptions. However, the current proposal for climate change mitigation is a portfolio of technologies 

that must be urgently and concurrently implemented. This portfolio includes renewables, energy 

storage, energy efficiency, bioenergy, nuclear energy, clean power generation, transportation, 

electrification and carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS), among others. However, it is 

important to understand that many of these technologies still require significant advances before they 

can be considered safe, reliable, and economically profitable. 

 

2. Energy Policy/Plan 

Energy access for all is the single most important component of any development strategy. In the words 

of Gerald Foley— “…without this energy supply, the sophisticated skills of the industrial world are 

merely a burden in the struggle for survival.”(Gerald, 1992). Worldwide energy consumption and 

demand are growing up since past 50 years and according to Monique Barbut, “Between now and 2030, 

energy demand is projected to grow by 1.6% annually, adding up to a dramatic 45%increase. 

Meanwhile, energy demand in developing and transition countries is predicted to grow even faster than 

in developed countries. Such rapidly growing energy demand is particularly challenging given that 

most of the world’s population still rely on energy from limited fossil fuel sources and traditional 

biomass.” The situation is worrisome leading nations to deregulate their power sectors to expand 

energy service to include renewable energies, attract private investment and attract independent power 

purchasers to the market. These appear to be essential for renewable energy development, even though 

privatization of the power sector is inherently biased against capital intensive investment in renewable 

energy. To create a favourable investment climate for private sector involvement in the delivery of 

clean and decentralized energy, a framework of laws, regulations and policies that is long term, 



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consistent, possess strong governance conditions, clear administration procedures, low transaction costs, 

strong public acceptance and enforcement is critical (Xiadong, 2007). In effect, to sustain the expected 

fast pace of industrialization in the future, reliable and appreciable supply of renewable energies is 

needed. 

In addition, the National Energy Policy establishes guideline for the protection of the environment in 

the exploitation of Nigeria’s fossil. It also emphasizes the exploration of renewable and alternative 

energy sources, primarily solar, wind and biomass. Nigeria envisions a peaceful and prosperous nation 

driven increasingly by renewable energy. By the middle of the century, sustainable and affordable 

renewable energy will provide half of a country’s total energy demand, thereby contributing to the 

country’s effort to keep GHGs at barest minimum. The country’s Renewable Energy Master Plan 

(REMP) has several pertinent specific objectives which if achieved will enable Nigeria to address 

climate change risks in the energy sector, as well as ensure that the country meets it increasing energy 

demands. In particular the country will be able to pursue an economic development path that is less 

dependent on fossil fuels (e.g. oil). 

Policy, according to Thomas Birkland, is about problem solving, and is shaped by social, institutional, 

political, and economic factors. Public Policy as applicable in this context, serves as a guide to decision 

making that would affect a greater variety of people and interests. This is why government and the 

policies made by government are sometimes so controversial, frustrating, and at the same time very 

important since the public is the source of political authority (Birkland, 2014). These various policies 

on renewable energy in Nigeria are faced with challenges of non-adoption, non-implementation, 

non-binding, erratic and inconsistency because it varies from one government to the other. Where a 

government can easily discard existing policies to pave way for new ones, it becomes extremely 

difficult to attract investors whose investments are needed to bolster the sub-sector, which according to 

a 2011 Report by the International Centre for Energy, Environment and Development (ICEED), 

requires an estimate of about US $200billion to improve Nigeria’s infrastructure for power, transport 

and water (Ewah Eleri et al., 2011). These policies must be transformed to provide concrete solutions to 

the energy crisis in Nigeria. 

Moreover, National policies and law play pivotal roles in the expansion of the renewable energy market 

as they have the capacity to either stimulate or stifle improved energy access. However, Nigeria lacks 

an appropriate legislation that would address fairness and open access to the grid, robust feed-in-tariffs, 

simplified licensing process, renewable portfolio standards, capital reliefs, incentives, capacity building, 

standards and codes specification, research and development; these factors are important to drive the 

renewable energy market. A National legislation on renewable energy should align with articulated 

policy statements to create a favourable investment climate for private sector involvement in the 

delivery of clean and decentralized energy. Nigeria needs a legally enforceable codified document that 

would promote energy services for both the urban population and the rurald wellers; policies alone, 

cannot deliver on this. It is believed that, law has the propensity of propelling the development of 



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renewable energy, which in turn can improve energy access and cause socio-economic development in 

the nation. 

2.1 Renewable Energy over Non-Renewable Energy 

Economy of a nation refers to total wealth of that nation measured in Gross Domestic Products (GDP) 

or Gross National Product (GNP). Where there is an increase in GDP/GNP in a country, it is obvious 

that there will be imbalance in the demand and supply of energy as increase in GDP/GNP means more 

use of materials for production activities. Dhameja (2013) opined that, the quest of meeting various 

human needs, man over-exploited the natural resources with total disregard to the incalculable harm 

being caused, leading to disastrous consequences, which has called for the post 1992 UN Conference 

on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, focused on the restrictions on the 

release of greenhouse gases, that can only be achieved through renewable sources of energy.  

Renewable Energy refers to energy (like solar, wind, geothermal, ocean tide, biomass) obtained from 

energy sources whose utilization do not result in the depletion of the earth’s resources. However, 

renewable energy is replaceable on a human time scale, having the inherent ability to reappear, or 

replenish themselves by recycling, reproduction or replacement, hence remained augmentable in flow. 

Other energy sources are non-augmentable having some impact on the environment. Fossil-fuel, coal, 

oil and natural gas do substantially more harm than renewable energy source by most measures 

including air and water pollution, damage to public health, wildlife and habitat loss, water use, land use 

and global warming emissions (Raimi et al., 2018). In contrast, most renewable energy sources produce 

little to no global emission even when including “Life Cycle” emission of clean energy (i.e the 

emission from each stage of technology’s life-manufacturing, installation, operation and 

decommissioning). The IPCC (2011) opened that, the global warming emission associated with 

renewable energy are minimal. For instance, burning natural gas for electricity releases between 0.6-2 

pounds of carbon dioxide, equivalent to per Kilowatt-hour (CO2E/KWh), Coal emits between 1.4-3.6 

pounds of CO2E/KWh; while Wind is responsible for only 0.02-0.04 pounds of CO2E/KWh on a 

life-cycle basis, Solar 0.07-0.2 CO2E/KWh, Geothermal 0.1-0.2CO2 E/KWh, and Hydroelectric 0.1-0.5 

CO2 E/KWh. Increasing the supply of renewable energy would allow us to replace carbon intensive 

energy sources and significantly, Nigeria global warming emissions. For example, a 2009 UCS analysis 

found that a 25 percent by 2025 national renewable electricity standard would lower power plant CO2 

emissions 277 million metric tons annually by 2025 (UCS, 2009). Further, the air and water pollution 

emitted by coal and natural gas plants is linked with breathing problems, neurological damage, heart 

attacks, cancers, and premature death (Raimi et al., 2018). The study of Epstein et al. (2011) proved 

that an estimated life cycle costs and public health effects of coal and gas is 74.6 billion dollar every 

year. In Nigeria the annual women death of 90,000 is linked to smoke inhaling form kitchen operation 

(Nigeria Current, 2014).  

Renewable energy industry is more labour intensive, unlike fossil fuel industry that are typically 

mechanised and capital intensive, thereby creating more job opportunities. For instance, in 2016, the 



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wind energy industry directly employed over 260,000 full-time, equivalent employees in a variety of 

capacities (Wiser & Mark, 2017); while Geothermal alone employed 5,800 (Geothermal Energy 

Association, 2010); In contrast to the 160,000 employed by coal industry (Dept. of Energy, 2017). In 

2017, the global employment from renewable energy was 500,000 according to Channels TV (2018). 

Again, Renewable Energy provides an affordable electricity prized if properly harnessed since the fuel 

is free. For instance, the Channels TV (2018) put the prize ratio differences between non-renewable 

energy to renewable energy as 50%. In Nigeria, single room pay monthly electricity bill fall between 

₦3000-₦5000 irrespective of her epileptic nature, whereas Solar Power Box supply by MTN cost 2000 

only with constant power supply. This lag provides readily market for investors. In the U.S; over 500 

factories invested into Wind Project, yielding about 13billion (Wiser & Mark, 2017); Furthermore, 

renewable energy creates Economic Ripple effects, that is benefiting unrelated local businesses from 

increased household according to the EPA (2010). 

Renewable energy sources create readily income for individual and government in the form of property 

and income taxes. For instance, the Nigerian government saves over 1.4 trillion naira from fuel subsidy 

removal annually (Bayagbon, 2018); and if such gesture continues and possibly, the guest for 

renewable energy sources is achieved, then the country’s reserved will be robust. Another advantage is 

that, the renewable energy industries are economical and multipurpose, because the same piece of land 

can be used for electricity generations as well as agricultural activities. Furthermore, renewable energy 

are distributed including modular. Distributive because it spans through large space of land with vase 

alternatives. Modular because power generation is sequentially connected, hence a break off in one 

solar panel or wind fan will not obstructs power supply; thereby encouraging constant power supply. 

2.2 Sources of Renewable Energy 

Renewable sources of energy offer several potential advantages. They do not irreversibly deplete finite 

resources, and most have a lower climate footprint than do fossil fuels. If managed well, they can pose 

minimal health risks and can yield social and economic benefits. Whether the benefits are realized 

depends strongly on how renewable energy is produced. No energy source is free of health and 

environmental impacts. Issues of land use, maintenance, materials inputs, and energy storage raise 

concerns about environmental, occupational, and community health impacts. 

2.3 Wind Turbine 

Wind energy is a manifestation of the solar energy and globally, wind power is one of the most 

expanded renewable and sustainable energy sources. Wind has the potential to supply a significant 

portion of world energy needs and provides a small but growing segment of electrical energy, reaching 

2% to 3% globally (with higher proportions in some countries, such as nearly 26% in Denmark, 16% in 

Spain and Portugal, and 12%in Ireland) (REN21, 2012). Harnessing power from the wind is one of the 

cleanest and most sustainable ways to generate electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global 

warming emissions. Wind is also abundant, inexhaustible, and affordable in the Niger Delta which 

makes it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels. In 1980s, wind energy generation of the 



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world was 10 megawatts and in the year 2000 it was 14,000 megawatts (Dhameja, 2013); and 

according to the Financial Time World Renewable Energy Conference held in Brussels, Belgium, in 

1999; and the Green Piece International Estimates that if the trend continuous, wind power could 

supply 10% of the world’s electricity and create 1.7million new jobs by 2020 (Christopherson, 2013). 

This effort would reduce global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) by 10 billion metric tons. On a 

more perspective, every 10,000 Megawatts of wind generated capacity reduces carbon dioxide 

emissions by 33 million metric tons if it replaces coal or 21million metric tons if it replaces mixed fuels. 

Wind energy source is ideal particularly for mini-industries, rural areas, remote areas and forest houses. 

Again, a Wind Energy Mapping Project conducted by the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology 

in 2002 to identify potential sites for exploitation which showed that wind energy could be harnessed in 

the northern border regions and some coastal States. As early as the mid-1960s, in the northern region 

of Sokoto and Garo, over 20 homes and a school used windmills to pump water but the following 

decades saw the prices of fossil fuel drop and therefore with cheap energy, wind power was not an 

appealing alternative; investments in windmill ceased as the infrastructure deteriorated. The reasons for 

this under development may lie in the lack of awareness, promotion and practical government support 

in form of subsidies or substantial facilitation for the import of the technology (Mshelia, 2012). 

Electricity generation from wind energy requires more investment even though, today, there is a 10MW 

wind farm at Lambat, and Rimi in Katsina State (Sambo, 2010). Health benefits of wind power include 

the absence of greenhouse gas and other pollutant emissions during operation (although some 

emissions are associated with manufacturing the equipment), as well as the absence of aroutine waste 

stream. 

2.4 Solar Power 

Solar energy has the maximum potential of all sources of depleting fossil fuels as it has the maximum 

potential of all the sources of renewable energy (Paul, 2017). Three technologies are used to generate 

electricity from solar radiation: photovoltaic (PV) cells, which generate electricity directly; 

concentrating solar power thermal systems, which use a liquid to transfer absorbed heat to a steam 

generator that drives a turbine; and solar towers, which are effectively chimneys in which rising hot air 

powers turbine generators. Solar energy echnologies have been deployed in both small-scale (mainly 

rooftop) applications and in large-scale electrical production. Like wind, the sun provides a tremendous 

resource for generating clean and sustainable electricity. The current situation of renewable energy in 

Nigeria shows that, there is an annual average of daily solar radiation of as high as 7kwh/m2/day in the 

coastal regions of Nigeria. This means that the annual average of daily hours of sunshine varies from 9 

hours in the north and up to 4 hours in the south. The total available solar radiation in Nigeria could 

provide 120,000 times the total amount of electricity currently generated in the country. Also, sunlight 

received during day hours and clear sky has power density of between 0.4KW/m2 and 1KW/m2. In 

Nigeria, the current annual fossil fuel production in the country of 258.62million barrels and 4.11x1010 

litres of crude oil amount to 4.2x105GWh of electricity production and out of the 5% technical 



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potential of solar energy in the country only 1.5x1018J is useful annually (Oyedepo, 2012; Nwagbo, 

2017; Premoboere & Raimi, 2018), hence there is more to solar energy exploitation in the country. The 

major energy routes of solar energy utilization were; direct passive heating of building, farms, green 

houses, water; solar thermal electric power plants using steam cycle or binary cycle; solar photovoltaic 

power plants using several PV cells connected in series. The former is economically competitive in 

mini-industries, remote areas, satellite power supply, forest houses, mountain areas etc. For instance, 

the fee ratio between the NEPA to solar is about 50% in Nigeria (The Channel, 2018). Thus far, solar 

PV systems are gaining grounds in Nigeria and can be found in Sokoto, Sokoto State; Uyo in 

Akwa-Ibom State, Solar PV for Telecommunication along Kaduna-Abuja Road and Solar PV at Ilaje, 

Ondo State (World Alliance for Decentralised Energy, 2009). 

The major health concern from solar power relates to the life cycle of PV cells. These are typically 

made with crystalline silicon and, depending on the technology used, include compounds such as 

copper indium diselenide (CIS), copper indium gallium diselenide (CGS), gallium arsenide (GaAs), 

and cadmiumtelluride (CdTe). Silica mining is associated with risk of silicosis, a type of 

pneumoconiosis (Leung et al., 2012). PV manufacturing, like semi conductor manufacturing, may 

entail exposure to toxicmetals (cadmium, arsenic, chromium, and lead) and gases (arsine, phosphine, 

and silane) (Fthenakis et al., 2008; Taylor, 2010), available data suggest that environmental emissions 

are generally low (Fthenakis et al., 2008), although waste management and end-of life product disposal 

remain challenges (Silicon Valley Toxics Coalit, 2009). Overall the health impact of solar power is 

likely to be far less than that of any of the fossil fuels. 

2.5 Geothermal Energy 

Geothermal energy is the energy that lies embedded within the earth’s crust. There is increase in 

temperature of the earth with increasing depth below the surface; such heat is stored in the earth’s crust 

as thermal energy which constitutes an inexhaustible source of energy term as geothermal energy. The 

most widely developed type of geothermal power plant (known as hydrothermal plants) are located 

near geologic “Hot Spot” were hot molten rocks is close to the earth’s crust and produces hot water. 

According to Khitoliya (2002), deposits of hot water and steam at relatively lesser depth (3000m) can 

be extracted from such deposits by means of production wells. The technology for its use is either 

through direct steam, flash or binary which required a cooling technology in the form of water-cooled 

or air-cooled. Energy supply through geothermal is ideal for major and mini industrial activities, and 

domestic uses etc. Furthermore, from the 2012 Renewable Energy Master Plan, (draft revised edition), 

there is no programme target nor a projected electricity supply from geothermal energy. Does this mean 

Nigeria has no plan for harnessing resources from geothermal energy? Advocates of geothermal energy 

believe that Nigeria is well endowed with the resource and should take advantage of it. According to 

Timothy Oladimeji “Geothermal energy is a renewable resource, and production from individual 

geothermal reservoirs can be sustained for decades and perhaps for centuries.” He pointed out that 

“compared to other types of power plants, geothermal plants have relatively little effect onthe 



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environment, and geothermal power plants have been successfully operated in farms, in sensitive desert 

environments and in forested recreation areas.” Geothermal energy in Nigeria is yet to evolve; it 

should also be given adequate attention just like solar and hydro power energy (Segun, 2013). 

2.6 Biomass for Electricity 

This is energy sources from green plants. Green plants capture solar energy through the process of 

photosynthesis and convert it into organic matter. This organic matter is known as biomass and is 

basically a form of solar energy, which is converted into chemical energy by the green plants i.e. solar 

energy in the form of chemical energy. Bio energy is generated when this biomass is burned in the form 

of wood, charcoal and agricultural waste or animal. Biomass power plants share some similarities with 

fossil fuel power plants; since both involved combustion of a feedstock to generate electricity. Biomass 

plants raise similar but not identical concerned about air emissions and water use as fossil fuel plants. 

On the contrast, the feedstock of biomass plants can be sustainably produced, while fossil fuels are 

non-renewable. Its production sources include energy crops (Switchgrass), agricultural waste, manure, 

forest products and waste, and urban waste. The present contribution of biomass energy is between 4% 

and 18% of total primary energy consumption of various developed and emerging countries 

respectively. The situation is likely to be changed dramatically and rapidly during coming years with 

increase in the biomass energy consumption from 25% to 40% by 2015 (Khitoliya, 2004). Biogas has a 

high calorific value (5000 to 5500Kcal/Kg) which can be used for cooking processes, operating small 

engines when properly utilised can aid productions in Nigeria. 

2.7 Hydro-Energy 

Hydrogen as a non-conventional energy resources has a tremendous potential as it can be produced 

from water which is available in abundance in nature. It has a very high energy content and its burning 

is non-polluting according to Paul (2017). Hydrogen can be produced from fossil fuels, but it is usually 

obtained from water by means of electrical energy which in turn may be generated from geothermal 

energy, wind energy, solar energy etc. The total hydroelectric power potential in Nigeria is about 

8,824MW and only 24% large scale and 4% small hydroelectric power potential have been exploited 

(Oyedepo, 2012; Nwagbo, 2017), hence more of the country’s hydro energy capacity remained 

unexploited. Hydrogen energy can be used for generating electricity for operating domestic appliances 

and mini industry. 

Some of the full advantage of this increasing momentum include. 

Hydrogen is versatile. Technologies already available today enable hydrogen to produce, store, move 

and use energy in different ways. A wide variety of fuels are able to produce hydrogen, including 

renewables, nuclear, natural gas, coal and oil. It can be transported as a gas by pipelines or in liquid 

form by ships, much like liquefied natural gas (LNG). It can betransformed into electricity and methane 

to power homes and feed industry, and into fuels for cars, trucks, ships and planes. 

Hydrogen can enable renewables to provide an even greater contribution. It has the potential to help 

with variable output from renewables, like solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind, whose availability is not 



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always well matched with demand. Hydrogen is one of the leading options for storing energy from 

renewables and looks promising to be a lowest-costoption for storing electricity over days, weeks or 

even months. Hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels can transport energy from renewables over long 

distances from regions with abundant solar and wind resources, such as Nigeria, Australia or Latin 

America, to energy hungry cities thousands of kilometres away. 

Hydrogen can be used much more widely. Today, hydrogen is used mostly in oil refining and for the 

production of fertilisers. For it to make a significant contribution to clean energy transitions, it also 

needs to be adopted in sectors where it is almost completely absent at the moment, such as transport, 

buildings and power generation. 

There have been false starts for hydrogen in the past; this time could be different. The recent 

successes of solar PV, wind, batteries and electric vehicles have shown that policy and technology 

innovation have the power to build global clean energy industries. With a global energy sector in flux, 

the versatility of hydrogen is attracting stronger interest from a diverse group of governments and 

companies. Support is coming from governments that both import and export energy as well as 

renewable electricity suppliers, industrial gas producers, electricity and gas utilities, automakers, oil 

and gas companies, major engineering firms, and cities. Investments in hydrogen can help foster new 

technological and industrial development in economies around the world, creating skilled green jobs 

particularly for the growing youth population in Nigeria. 

2.8 Hydro-Kinetic Energy 

This deals with the energy sources from waves and tidal/power which encompasses an array of energy 

technologies; many of which are in the early stages of development. The difference in the level of 

ocean water between high tide and low tide results in the ocean tide energy which is renewable. Tidal 

energy is a form of hydro energy occurring with every tide. The rise and fall of tidal water are 

maximum near seashore and river mouths (bays), so the choice of hydro-energy situations in the Niger 

Delta region of Nigeria is economically. The estimated tidal power in the world is about 3000X109 MW. 

Out of this about 1000X109MW is of shallow tides (<2m) and is not favourable for conversion and only 

about 2000X109 is likely to be usefully extracted. Hydro-Kinetic energy is ideal for industrial and 

domestic uses. 

 

3. Effective Support Feats of Renewable Energy in Nigeria including Niger Delta  

Researchers have established that renewable energy is available in Nigeria (Newsom, 2012; Shaabona 

& Potinrinac, 2014; Nwagbo, 2017). The effectiveness of renewable energy includes the following: 

availability of waves for potential hydro-kinetic energy productions and the abundant of wind is an 

added advantage in the Niger Delta considering her geographical location in supporting hydro-kinetic 

and wind farm. The intensity of the sun is very high and its durations in most part of the year could 

spine through ten (10) hours of the day (November-April and August) in the Niger Delta, hence 

supporting solar farm for electricity supply in the Niger Delta. Again, the Niger Delta region is located 



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within the Tropical Rainforest readily supporting the regular supply of feedstock for the biomass 

industry (Eli, 2012). 

Similarly, revolutionary strategies to increase national sustainable energy production by alternative 

power supply including biomass waste management and reusing it in systematic form may help to 

reduce dependability of Nigeria on other fossil fuel consumption. Alternative power supply technology 

is also a good option of sustainable energy and can be easily implemented in a country like Nigeria 

(Figure 3). 

 

 

Figure 3. Strategy for Possible Government Stress Reduction 

Sources: Adapted from Gauri et al., 2013 

 

4. Barriers to the Development of Renewable Energy in Nigeria 

The introduction of renewable energy in generating electricity or providing energy is not new to 

emerging countries including Nigeria. With the abundance of renewable energy resources, energy crisis 

should not be experienced, however, this is not the case. The following are barriers to the development 

of renewable energy in Nigeria: 

Lack of an Institutional Framework: The Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN), Nigeria Atomic 

Energy Commission (NAEC), Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Agency (NNRA), Nigerian Electricity 

Regulatory Commission (NERC), Nuclear Power Plant Operating Organisation (NPP-OO) and 

National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), Nigerian Environmental Standard Regulatory 

Commission (NESREA) etc provide for responsibilities by different agencies in carrying out activities 

for the development of renewable energy technologies. This is a problem because co-ordination 



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especially in the exchange of information between government ministries, parastatals and agencies is 

erratic, uncoordinated, weak and rather complex. The proper harmonisation and synergy of a specific 

agency robs the sector of a driving force for its growth and development. It is therefore important that 

an agency is given the mandate to propel the sector. 

Lack of Public Awareness: The awareness of the opportunities offered by renewable energies and its 

related technologies is low among private and public sectors. This lack of information creates a market 

gap that results in what renewable energy is perceived to be. It is believed that, renewable energy 

technologies are not yet mature for the Nigerian environment, it is expensive and suited only for the 

wealthy few. These and many more perceptions need to be corrected and the gap filled with the 

dissemination of information on renewable energy resources, availability, benefits, opportunities and 

potentials. Awareness in this respect is paramount to building public confidence and acceptance of 

these technologies. 

Non-Implementation of Existing Policies: The problems or challenges the agencies face are 

multi-sectoral. They range from Government policies down to community or societal apprehensive of 

public utilities. Government policies are erratic, lack implementation and uncoordinated. In turn, these 

result in apparent lack of very reliable database. Also, the several policies on renewable energy are 

most often not implemented due to lack of political will. A certain degree of policy short sightedness 

characterizes the implementation of policies of the country as very few concreteactions are taken to 

build the groundwork for meeting future energy security, as well as economic, social and 

environmental challenges (Energy Commission of Nigeria and United Nation Development Programme, 

2005). 

Research and Development Shortfalls: Research and development activities are vital to sustainable 

socio-economic advancement of any nation. Presently in Nigeria, there are six (6) Renewable Energy 

Centres having the responsibilities of research into various aspects of renewable energy but they are 

under-performing (Energy Commission of Nigeria, 2014). It is important that these centres are given 

adequate attention with regards to key issues such as energy development and utilization. This can be 

done by initiating and promoting energy related research and development programmes and these 

programmes must be result oriented and market driven (Organisation of African States, 2015). 

Lack of Manpower Development and Training: There is inadequacy in capacity building in the energy 

sector of the nation’s economy. Compared to the population of the country, there are insufficient energy 

related courses in most tertiary institutions (Energy Commission of Nigeria, 2014). Capacity building is 

lacking in the following areas viz: training of manpower to install, operate and maintain renewable 

energy technologies; development of manufacturing capabilities; development of critical mass of 

scientists, engineers, and economists to design an effective and functional institutional framework. It 

has become necessary to develop the human capacity needed to meet the manpower requirement of the 

renewable energy sector of the nation (Efurumibe, 2013). 

The Lack of a Legal Framework: There is no law but policies governing renewable energy in Nigeria. 



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To achieve adequate energy supply where renewable energies play a major role, the creation of an 

appropriate legal framework is necessary. The lack of a law on renewable energy could affect 

contractual obligations, property rights, transfer of technology, and fair competitive bidding processes 

for potential domestic and international investments. A law can ensure certainty and compliance, giving 

investors a degree of confidence in the government. 

 

5. Conclusion 

Energy is imperative for any nation’s development and improvement thus for Nigeria to develop they 

require a relentless increment in the measure of energy they create yearly. However, Nigeria needs to 

investigate its sustainable power source assets and make great utilization of it in order to upgrade 

monetary development and furthermore increment in the future of its natives and occupants. As fossil 

fuel age is expected to span only 1000 years of human civilization (1700-2700)according to Khitoliya 

(2004); considering the ever-increasing population and fuel consumption rates, and increase in 

petroleum product prices; the energy starvation is been felt by every developed and less developed 

country; renewable energy sources remain an alternative energy sources. Switching to renewable 

energy resources in Nigeria will not only led to positive contributions to rural development, lower 

health cost, energy independence and climate change mitigation, but will increase the energy capacity 

and availability in Nigeria; thus, bridging the energy gaps in the rural areas. 

Worthy of note is that, renewable energy sources (wind, solar heat, waves, etc) cannot be stored in 

original natural form, rather converted continuously to electrical form, transmitted, distributed and 

utilized without long-term intermediate storage, making it available in large quantity and free of cost. 

Hence, consumption of renewable should be maximised to enhance productivity in the country and 

save future generation from inherited negative actions laid down by the predecessors. The wide vision 

behind vitality arrangement must be to meet energy requests dependably with energy which is spotless 

and moderate, and this must be done in an earth practical way utilizing diverse energizes and types of 

vitality, regular and non-customary, and in addition new and rising sources to guarantee supplies 

constantly. It is basic for Nigeria to have a steady energy approach, together with persistent quest for 

energy proficiency and protection, amplifying coal generation and enhancing the rail and port 

framework and in addition improvement of elective foundation for coal transportation, for example, 

waterfront waterways on the grounds that coal, being the least expensive type of vitality, will be the 

banner carrier of Nigeria’s vitality needs. Policymakers should therefore undertake a comprehensive 

approach to energy decarbonization that aims to rapidly replace fossil fuels with zero-carbon energy 

resources while improving the economic and social welfare of communities around the globe. Thus far, 

Governments, senior political figures, policymakers, businesses, CEOs, development partners i.e. 

non-governmental organizations (Olalekan et al., 2019; Raimi et al., 2019), and others will need to 

engage in a policy dialogue identifying opportunities and best practices for developing and investing in 

Africa’s energy markets and develop smart and adaptive strategies to ensure a socially just, yet rapid, 



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energy transition for innovation and investment to rectify the lack of energy in the region. To date, 

however, most policies focused on energy decarbonization which have failed to take a system-based 

approach (James et al., 2014). Although there are now several studies and analyses that demonstrate 

how energy systems could achieve rapid decarbonization (Mark et al., 2015) very few governments 

have developed comprehensive strategies to change their energy systems (Miller & Jones, 2018). 

As a roadmap for the future, key recommendations to help governments, companies and others to seize 

this chance to enable clean energy to fulfill its long-term potential include. 

a) Implement the National Policy on Renewable Energy and Support Research &Development (R&D) 

to bring down costs. Alongside cost reductions from economies of scale, R&D is crucial to lower costs 

and improve performance. 

b) There should be successful implementation of the country’s Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) 

of 2006. This will explore renewable energy in quantities and at prices to promote equitable sustainable 

growth in the country. By installing enough wind, solar PV, solar thermal and hydroelectricity 

nationwide. 

c) Engage internationally and track progress. Enhanced international co-operation is needed across the 

board but especially on standards, sharing of good practices and cross border infrastructure. Hydrogen 

production and other alternative power supply use need to be monitored and reported on a regular basis 

to keep track of progress towards long-term goals. 

d) Develop and implement energy efficiency programmes in different sectors of the economy, as well 

as public and private buildings and Eliminate unnecessary regulatory barriers and harmonise standards. 

e) There should be enabling environment, economically attractive to encourage ready market for 

renewable energy by re-investing the annual fuel subsidy of 1.4trillion naira gained from the country’s 

fuel subsidy removal to boost renewable energy sector. 

f) Promote adaptation of the cleaner production concept in all energy production and consumption 

activities. 

g) Focus on four key opportunities to further increase momentum over the next decade. By building on 

current policies, infrastructure and skills, these mutually supportive opportunities can help to scale up 

infrastructure development, enhance investor confidence and lower costs: 

 Make the most of existing industrial ports to turn them into hubs for lower-cost, lower-carbon 

hydrogen and other alternative power supply. 

 Use existing gas infrastructure to spur new clean hydrogen supplies and other alternative power 

supply. 

 Support transport fleets, freight and corridors to make fuel-cell vehicles more competitive. 

 Establish the first shipping routes to kick-start the international hydrogen trade and other alternative 

power supply. 

 

 



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