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Energy and Earth Science 
Vol. 2, No. 2, 2019 

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ISSN 2578-1359 (Print)   ISSN 2578-1367 (Online) 

1 
 

Characterizing Land Use Systems within Awoja Watershed 

Charles Aben1, John James Okiror1, Jacob Godfrey Agea1 & Esbern Friis Hansen2 
1 Department of Extension and Innovation Studies, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, 

Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda  
2 Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen, Denmark 

 

Received: April 15, 2019   Accepted: June 20, 2019   Online Published: July 5, 2019 

doi:10.22158/ees.v2n2p1         URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/ees.v2n2p1 

 

Abstract 

This manuscript analyses trends in land use changes in Awoja Watershed with the aim of exploring the 

underlying causes of degradation in this watershed within the context of frequent draughts and floods. 

Changing trends of land use characteristics were used as indicators of ineffectiveness of control of 

access to resource use in the watershed. The study was carried out in the districts of Katakwi, Amuria 

and Sorotiin Eastern Uganda where the watershed is experiencing increasing trends of degradation 

despite the presence of elaborate watershed management institutions. The study used Remote Sensing, 

and focus group discussions to acquire relevant data on land use changes and their perceived causes. 

Perceptions of respondents on the effectiveness of the local governance processes were generated. The 

findings show increase in built-up areas from 0.21% between 1986-1996; to 3.28 between 2006 and 

2016 and a notable decrease in forest cover from 107.48 Km2 in 1,986 to 6.94 Km2 by 2016. The results 

also show a dramatic increase in small scale farming area from 629.44 Km2 to 2,376.64 Km2 from 

1986-2016 while the area of wetland reduced from 2,810.47 Km2 to 1,355 Km2over the same period. 

Results from focus group discussions revealed that although climatic and demographic factors were 

responsible for land use changes in Awoja, control of access to natural resources was inadequate to 

stop degradation. Climatic factors mentioned included increased frequency of floods and draughts that 

were perceived to have been responsible for changes in vegetation cover, water levels and 

infrastructure. Socio economic factors driving the changes in land use included increased cultivation of 

wetlands and communal land, increased sale of fuel wood, charcoal and sand, increased migration of 

cattle herders into the watershed during draughts and out of it during floods and increased fishing. 

While climatic factors were important, socio political factors such as displacements of communities, 

resettlements in the fragile environment brought about by government efforts to demarcate wetlands 

and wild life conservation areas were cited as drivers of degradation. The study concludes that besides 

climatic factors, inadequate management of access to resources was contributing to degradation of the 

watershed. 

 



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Keywords 

watershed management, land use changes, climate change 

 

1. Introduction 

Land use/cover changes have now emerged as a global phenomenon and perhaps the most significant 

regional anthropogenic disturbance to the environment (Egeru & Majaliwa, 2009). The rate of land 

use/cover change is high and is escalating globally (Krumhanslet al., 2015; Palmer, 2009; Townsend et 

al., 2011). Africa is said to have the fastest rate of deforestation in the world as a result of over- 

dependence on primary resources (Ademiluyi et al., 2008). 

Although the cause for most land use/cover changes is deemed to be population growth (Ramankutty et 

al., 2002b) there are several other interacting factors involved. In Egypt, Ibrahim and Mosben(2015) 

showed a decline of agricultural land while in India, land use cover change of 88.8% was due to 

increase in built up area. In essence both land use/cover changes are products of prevailing interacting 

natural and anthropogenic processes. Land use/cover change detection allows for the identification of 

major processes of change (Fasona & Omojola, 2005). 

Traditionally, local institutions have been instrumental in safeguarding resources, including the 

protection of forests and watersheds (Agrawal, 2010). In Uganda today, the role of Institutions has been 

enhanced by decentralization of natural resource management. This has empowered district land offices, 

fisheries offices, Agriculture of Forestry officials with facilities and resource protection enforcement 

tools (MLG Report, 2017). In the face of climate change therefore, Institutions are profoundly 

influencing implementation of adaptation to climate change, an idea also supported by Agrawal et al. 

(2009) when he notes that institutions have been instrumental in facilitating adaptation and channeling 

external resources. It should be noted however that where climate change adaptation measures have 

given less attention to social and institutional alternatives the impact of climate change amplifies 

existing unfavourable conditions (McCarthy et al., 2001) and resources are prone to exploitation 

because of the compromise that arises in the resource governing institutions. Global narratives on 

natural resource governance point to struggles of local governments with implementation of climate 

change adaptation policies (Agrawl et al., 2013, Nam et al., 2015). Various scholars have shown that 

management of environmental resources largely neglects complexity and the human dimension 

(Holling & Meffe, 1996; Ludwig, 2001; Gleick, 2003; Pahl-Wostl, 1995, 2007 a, b, c). Uncontrolled 

cultivation and unsustainable harvesting of resources with corresponding influences in fragile watershed 

areas are some of the main human activities escalating environmental degradation (Ministry of Water and 

Environment, 2013). 

Despite the presence of elaborate governance infrastructure composed of local government, NGOs and 

local environmental committees, Awoja watershed in Kyoga Water Management Zone of Eastern 

Uganda with an area of 10.281 km2is a key watershed degradation hotspot with a perceived degradation 

rate of 76% as compared to 63% from Lake Victoria crescent and 41% in the south western farmlands 



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of Uganda (NEMA, 2008; Turyahabwe et al., 2013). With increasing frequency of floods and draughts 

increasing degradation in this Watershed threaten the sustainability of the social and ecological system 

in the region. Virtually no part of Awoja watershed has remained untouched by the community’s 

compulsion to transform nature and livelihoods in order to survive changing climatic conditions. As 

noted by (Turyahabwe et al., 2013; Qingqing, 2015; Junguo et al., 2016) in Akello et al. (2016), 

population growth, increased conflict on resource use and limited alternatives are some of the factors 

fueling land use changes in the Lake Kyoga Basin of which Awoja is part. However, little is known 

about the constraints posed by local interest factors on sustainable management of this watershed. As 

local institutions strive to manage and control access to natural resources in Awoja; local political, 

economic and social interests appear to be getting in the way leading to uncontrolled access to natural 

resources within the watershed. 

Within Awoja watershed in Eastern Uganda little is known on the magnitude, extent and level of land 

use cover change (de Leeuw, 2016; Mbogga, 2014; Mutengeka et al., 2013). While recent studies have 

underscored the importance of quality of participation and information dissemination in watershed 

restoration, (Akello et al., 2017) little is known about the local influences and the human factors 

escalating the degradation of this watershed. This study sought to relate land use change to the 

governance of resource us in the watershed. 

Owing to the fact that land use changes are not a consequence of climate change effects alone, 

characterizing the changes was important in order to unravel the causes of degradation as it went much 

beyond technologies and emphasized amalgamating technological tools with broad-ranging political, 

social and economic factors. 

 

2. Materials and Methods 

2.1 Research Design 

The study applied a cross sectional survey research design. According to Amin (2005), a cross sectional 

survey is such study that is carried out at one point in time. The design employed both the qualitative 

and quantitative approaches to allow triangulation in data collection and data analysis that helped the 

researcher to obtain quality results. The approach of triangulation in a cross sectional research design 

was also supported by Amin (2005), as viable in generating quality results.  

2.2 The Study Area 

This study was conducted in Amuria, Katakwi and Soroti districts, in Awoja watershed of Eastern 

Uganda where draughts and floods have become frequent in the last decades. The watershed has 

experienced a high degradation rate of about 20% in the last two decades of about 20%, which is much 

higher than the national average of 11% (MWE 2013). 

Soroti district was purposively selected because it is host to the Awoja Wetlands where the greater part 

of the Awoja Watershed lies. Administratively Soroti has been the mother district from where most of 

the districts in Teso have been curved. Therefore it is most endowed with historical information on the 



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watershed. Katakwi was selected because of its trans boundary interactions with Karamoja sub region 

and their struggles for common pool resources such as water and pasture during floods and draughts. 

Amuria district was selected due to its vulnerability to floods. Amuria is also the only district in Teso 

sub region that comprehensively implemented wetlands policy including the government interventions 

of wetlands demarcation and legislation. 

Gweri Sub County in Soroti was selected due to its experiences with controversies surrounding 

wetlands encroachment; rice production and JICA rice interventions in Awoja wetlands while Magoro 

Sub County in Katakwi was purposively selected because of flood vulnerability and its struggles with 

Uganda Wild Life Authority (UWA) on demarcation of game reserves. Wera Sub County and the two 

parishes of Morungatuny and Okile in Amuria were selected because of their participation in the 

wetlands demarcation program by Amuria District Local government. 

The communities in the sample area are mainly agro-pastoralists, practicing the Teso Farming System 

characterized by both crop production and livestock rearing. These areas suffer from similar incidents of 

flooding, draughts and displacements but vary widely in their water and land resource endowments and 

utilization. They also differ in the extent of implementing of natural resource laws and regulations. The 

sub-region experiences bi-modal type of rainfall and crop production is by far rain-fed. The crop 

production cycle follows the pattern of rainfall on annual basis. The average rainfall is 1,200mm per 

annum. The vegetation of the sub-region can best be described as grassland-savanna predominated by 

grassland and shrubs. The soils are mainly sandy loam with variation from sandy to loamy soils 

depending on the terrain.  

2.3 Data Collection and Analysis 

a) Remote Sensing 

Thematic classification of multispectral images was adopted to assess land use systems and cover 

changes in Awoja watershed. Image classification was performed, where satellite images were 

converted into thematic data. The process involved compressing a mosaic of pixels that belong to a 

common and relatively homogeneous class into one theme. The intention of image classification was to 

ease the analysis of thematic characteristics of some environmental features like land use/land cover 

within the GIS-basedmodeling.  

The administrative boundary of the study area was projected to Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) 

projection in Zone 36 North and datum of World Geodetic System (WGS 1984), same to that of the 

imageries. The administrative layer was used for clipping the imagery scene to the study area extent. 

The information generated was mainly based on analyses of land use changes as shown by results of 

GIS maps generated over 10 year intervals. The images were accessed from U.S. Geological Survey 

provided through web portal of Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/). Pre-processing and 

classification of Land sat images were carried out by using Harris ENVI 5.3 software. Standard 

methods, which included the use of image elements like tone, texture, shape, location, association, 

pattern, etc., of digital image processing were adopted for thematic land use land cover mapping. 



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Training Signatures were developed aided by google imagery at 5m spatial resolution obtained from 

Portable basemap Server (https://geopbs.codeplex.com/) within the ArcGIS software. With the 

high-resolution image, training samples were collected, evaluated, edited to create the training data 

(signature file) for use in the land use land cover classification. Ground truth points collected using the 

GPS was extracted into shape file data format using DNRGPS application version 6.1.0.6. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Remote Sensing Methodology 

 

b) Documents Review  

This involved a comprehensive literature review to capture information on legal, policy, administrative 

and implementation frameworks related to natural resource management at local government levels. It 

also reviewed relevant information and other studies from various sources. Some of the documents 

reviewed included: The National Climate Change Policy (NCCP, 2012), the Local Government Act 

(1997), The Decentralization Policy, Wetlands Protection Act, Development Plans, Annual Budgets, 

Monitoring and Evaluation Reports and many others. 

c) Key Informant Interviews  

This was used to collect primary data that was used to evaluate the policy development processes, 

including the principles in the framing of policies governing natural resource management. The tool 

was also used to measure variations between policy frameworks and real governance practices of 



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natural resource management in a changing climate and influence of stakeholders on institutional 

practice.  

Face-to-face/one-on-one interviews with civic leaders and leaders of NGOs involved in adaptation to 

climate change were carried out to achieve the above. Semi structured questionnaires were used due to 

their flexibility to probe for details. Inputs from people at various levels of governance, local 

government technical (Sub county: Senior Assistant Secretaries, Parish Chiefs, Environment Focal 

Point Officers, and political wing (LC III Chairperson, Councilors, and members of the Sub-county 

executive). Information was also collected from CSOs and extra local institutions (members of Parish 

Development Committees and members of Disaster Risk Management Committees) 

d) Focus Group Discussions 

This was organized at each sampled parish from all three sub counties under study. In all 6 FGDs were 

carried out. Each FGD had at least 8-12 people selected with the help of Local Government and NGO 

partners at the sub county. Efforts were made to cover variations among women, youth and the elderly. 

This was meant to measure community perceptions on local participation in resource management. It 

was also used to measure social inclusiveness of policies, and institutions governing adaptation in the 

study area. Secondly, FGDs were conducted at institutional levels to determine the organization profiles, 

institutional linkages, institutional interactions and changes in policy and practice among institutions 

involved in adaptation to climate change.  

 

3. Results 

The findings are presented starting with a description of the key land use systems in Awoja watershed, 

recent changes in land use patterns in the watershed, the key drivers of these changes and the 

implications for sustainability in this watershed are presented.  

3.1 Quantification of Key Land Use System in Awoja 

Figure 2 shows the subsequent land use cover maps for 1986, 1996, 2006 and 2016which had an overall 

map accuracy of 90.2%, 89.2%, 90% and 80%respectively for all the images by using the error matrix. 



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Figure 2. Trends in Land Use Cover Changes from 1986-2016 

 

This approach has been popular in evaluating per-pixel classification (Lu & Weng, 2007) Kappa 

statistics were also computed for each classified map to measure the accuracy of the results for the three 

years giving 0.881, 0.839, 0.883 and 0.791 for the above years respectively. The overall results are viable 

for subsequent analysis and change detection (Lea & Curtis, 2010). 

Table 1 shows the quantification of land use/cover over four decades from 1986-2016. The main land 

use types include grasslands covering 32.8% in 1986 but down to 27.81% in 2016; woodlands at 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1986 

 

1996 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2006 

 

2016 



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19.10% coverage in 1986 and 20.55% in 2016. The built up areas covered is 18.9% Km2 in 1986 

representing 0.21% and 296.21 Km2, representing 3.28% in 2016. The area covered by wetlands was 

substantive at 2,810.87equivalent to 30.85% in 1986 but had reduced to 1,353.03 Km2 equivalent to 

14.85% by 2016. 

 

Table 1. Quantification of Land Use/Cover (1986-2016) 

  1986 1996 2006 2016 

Landcover Type Area (Km2) % 
Area 

(Km2) 
% 

Area 

(Km2) 
% 

Area 

(Km2) 
% 

Built up areas 18.9 0.21 43.71 0.48 146.64 1.59 298.61 3.28 

Woodland 1740.43 19.1 1863.64 20.46 2143.73 23.23 1872.36 20.55 

Forest 107.48 1.18 95.47 1.05 49.99 0.54 6.94 0.08 

Grassland 2988.42 32.8 3124.55 34.3 2579.18 27.94 2533.57 27.81 

Open water 814.58 8.94 729.14 8 635.92 6.89 669.25 7.35 

Small scale farming 629.44 6.91 865.09 9.5 1659.46 17.98 2376.64 26.09 

Wetland 2810.87 30.85 2388.67 26.22 2015.28 21.83 1353.03 14.85 

 

Figure 3 shows a graphical representation of the percentage coverage of land use types in Awoja 

watershed described above.  

 

 

Figure 3. Graphical Representation of Land Use Cover in Awoja Watershed 1986-2016 

 

3.2 Land Use Cover Changes 

Table 4.2 shows the dynamic changes in land use/cover types from the period 1986 to 2016. The table 

indicates an increase in built areas from 0.3% between 1986-1996; to 1.7% between 2006 and 2016. 

There is a notable decrease in forest cover from 107.48 Km2 to 6.94 Km2by 2016. The table also shows 



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a dramatic increase in small scale farming area from 629.44 Km2 to 2,376.64 Km2from 1986-2016 

while the area of wetland reduced from 2810.47 Km2 to 1,355 Km2over the same period. It can also be 

seen from the table that the area covered by open water has reduced from 814.58 KM2 to 669.25 Km2 

between 1986-2016. 

The quantified changes in square kilometers and the percentage change in area is presented on table 2. 

The table indicates that the area covered by forests continued to decline from 1986-2016. It can also be 

seen from the table that despite positive changes in the land area between 1986-1996, the area covered 

by woodlands also declined over the last 2 decades; between 1996-2016. 

 

Table 2. Land Use Systems and Cover Change Statistics 

 1986 to 1996 1996 to 2006 2006 to 2016 

Land use Land 

cover 

Area (sq km) % Area (sq km) % Area (sq km) % 

Built-up areas 24.8 0.3 102.9 1.1 152.0 1.7 

Woodland 123.2 1.4 280.1 3.1 -271.4 -3.0 

Forest -12.0 -0.1 -45.5 -0.5 -43.1 -0.5 

Grassland 136.1 1.5 -545.4 -6.0 -45.6 -0.5 

Open water -85.4 -0.9 -93.2 -1.0 33.3 0.4 

Small scale 

farming 

235.6 2.6 789.4 8.7 722.2 7.9 

Wetland -422.2 -4.6 -488.4 -5.4 -547.3 -6.0 

 

Figure 4 shows a graphical representation of the percentage changes in land use in Awoja watershed 

over the period 1986-2016. As shown, there was continued reduction in the wetlands area all through 

1986-1996, 1996-2006 and 2006-2016. The built up area of the watershed continued to increase all 

through the period 1986-2016. The area covered by grassland that had increased between 1986-1996, 

declined from 1996-2016, while the area covered by forests continued to decline all through the period 

from 1986-2016. 

 

 

 

 

 



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Key: 

-Above 0% depicts positive changes in land use type 

-Below 0% depicts negative changes in land use type

Figure 4. Changes in Land Use in Awoja Watershed 

 

3.3 Drivers for Land Use Changes in Awoja Watershed 

Land use changes in the watershed were a result of inadequate control of access to resources, which can 

be linked to the local political, social and economic factors. Results from the household survey showed 

some of the major factors responsible for the escalation of land use changes. Close to equal proportions 

of respondents (32.8% and 30%) felt that there is overgrazing in the wetlands and that wetlands have 

been highly encroached. 29% felt that there was over cultivation and increased access to wetland 

resources, while 8% felt that the forests have been cleared. 

 

Table 3. Perception of Respondents on Changes in Land Use and Control (n=180) 

How demand for land has affected protection of wetlands  (%) Cum. 

Forests have been cleared 7.78 7.78 

Over cultivation and increased access to wetlands 29.44 37.22 

There is over grazing in wetlands 32.78 70.00 

Wetlands have been highly encroached 30.00 100.00 

Total 100.00  

 

From the KII Technical staff from environment department indicated that there was reluctance for the 

local government administrative and political staff to control access to wetlands resources and that 



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some of the leaders were also involved in wetlands cultivation. Politicians were also reported to be 

lenient to the population in order protect their votes. 

Participants in Focus Group Discussions identified a number of factors that were considered drivers of 

land use changes observed within the watershed as presented on Table 4.4. Secondary data from 

fieldwork of the Climate Change and Rural Institutions CCRI project was also used to corroborate the 

data obtained. 

The participants mentioned six major drivers of land use change in Awoja watershed, which were 

categorized into four main types namely: Climatic, Demographic, Policy and socio economic factors. 

Climatic factors include increased frequency of floods and draughts that were perceived to have been 

responsible for changes in vegetation cover, water levels and infrastructure. From the household survey 

all the respondents ever experienced floods or draughts. However, 46% and 44% of the respondents 

were adversely affected by the problems of floods and draughts respectively. Demographic factors 

comprised of increase in population and population distribution and migration were perceived to have 

been responsible for increase in built areas, reduced land for cultivation and increasing resource use 

conflicts. 30% and 41% of the respondents reported the problem of loss of land and land conflicts 

respectively.  

 

Table 4. Perceived Drivers of Land Use Changes in Awoja 

Observed changes Driver 

Reduced vegetation cover 

Increased wetlands cultivation 

Reduced water availability  

Increasing frequency of droughts 

Increase in water coverage 

Displacements of communities and emergence of camps 

Reduction in land for cultivation 

Destruction of infrastructure: Roads, schools, health 

centres 

Increasing frequency of floods 

Increased in built areas 

Increased small scale farming 

Land fragmentation 

Reduced forests, woodlands and vegetation cover 

Reduced communal land area 

Increasing Population 

Increased cultivation in uplands, displacements from 

wildlife areas to wetlands in Magoro, restrictions in 

cutting of endangered tree species, promotion of some 

enterprises e.g upland rice. 

Government Interventions (land demarcation for 

conservation) 



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Increase in built areas, increasing demand for fuel wood, 

decreasing water resources 

Migration of agro pastoralists communities 

Increased cultivation in wetlands, emergence of new 

enterprises such as piggery, and charcoal burning. 

Socio economic pressures 

 

Government interventions mainly in the form of demarcation of wetlands and conservation areas were 

perceived to have been responsible for displacement and evictions from traditional cultivation areas. 

Farmers mentioned that demarcation had marginalized cultivators and benefited livestock farmers who 

were being allowed to graze their animals in the wetlands after the demarcation. From the FGD, a local 

leader of Omugenya in Gweri sub-county in Soroti District pointed out that “overgrazing by cattle 

keepers some of who come from outside the district had led to degradation of the Gweri wetlands” 

below is a detailed presentation on mobility as a cause of land use changes in the watershed. 

 

 

 

Figure 5. Mobility as a Driver to Land Use Changes 

 

Figure 5 indicates the mobility patterns within Awoja watershed in a changing climate. During heavy 

rains, because of floods, the cattle keepers move from lowlands to uplands and when there is drought 



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they return to the lowlands. This has significant effects on other enterprises in the uplands wherethere is 

intense competition with cattle keepers for grazing land. It was also noted that during floods, some 

community members who reside in low lands move to Internally Displaced Peoples Camps or even to 

homes of relatives in uplands. This creates a number of social and economic challenges that lead to 

compromises in enforcing rules governing resources use. It was revealed during interviews that 

whenever people moved from one place to another because of climate change, some never went back 

because they take up new income generating alternatives and others move to urban centers where they 

hide and do not want to come back to the villages. It was further revealed that the climate mobility was 

happening in all districts within the Awoja region and the impact on resources use had been the 

resulting land use changes that are a further challenge in Awoja watershed.  

Finally, socio economic pressures including food security needs, family incomes and social needs were 

deemed to have created competition for resources leading to increased cultivation of wetlands and 

monetization of rice and charcoal burning, sand mining and other natural resources. From the 

household survey, 46% and 39% of the respondents were involved in commercial charcoal burning and 

selling of fuel wood respectively. Further, 48%, 21% and 14% were encroaching on the wetlands for 

purposes of fishing and rice growing, cutting grass for thatching and grazing of animals respectively. 

85% of the respondents were involved in sand mining. 

3.4 Implications of Land Use Changes for Sustainability 

Respondents’ views on the implications of land use changes for the sustainability of the ecological and 

social system in Awoja watershed is shown in Table 5.  

 

Table 5. Respondents Views on the Implications of Land Use Change for Sustainability 

Land Use change % of 

Respondents 

Implications for sustainability 

Increased cultivation of 

communal land  

14.0 Access denied for other users, resource governance rules 

compromised. 

Increased fishing involving both 

men and women 

47.9 Survival of some fish species threatened 

Increasing rice cultivation in the 

wetlands 

47.9 Wetlands degradation (siltation, over flooding) 

Sand Mining in the Watershed 85.0 Water logging, harbors diseases agents such as 

mosquitoes, destroys landscapes 

Increasing sale of fuel wood and 

Charcoal by both men and 

women 

84.7 Deforestation and alteration of the water cycle. 

Increasing livestock numbers 13.6 Overgrazing in the wetlands, destruction of bird roosting 



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grazing in the wetlands  sites, uncontrolled burning to generate new pasture 

destroys bird roosting sites at the swamp fringes, 

accumulation of livestock diseases 

 

The respondents mentioned threats to the ecological system posed by increasing cultivation in the 

wetlands as well as cattle grazing in both the wetlands and uplands in the swamp fringes. Cattle grazing 

and upland farming activities are perceived to have resulted in increased soil erosion into the wetlands. 

Increased sedimentation to the wetlands has affected the water levels as well as fish habitats in the 

downstream. 

Increasing use of illegal fishing methods, increased sale of fuel wood and charcoal, sand mining and 

increasing encroachments on the Ramsar Sites all pose threats to the ecological system as forest and 

fish resources get depleted and breeding sites of important bird species in the Ramsar sites are 

destroyed. Respondents also mentioned that increased grabbing of communal land by individuals and 

families nearest to them denied access for some community members. It was mentioned that some 

individuals annex, cultivate and or fence off communal grazing areas and cattle tracks and routes to 

water sources. 

Keeping large numbers of cattle and goats was also mentioned as a risk to crops especially cassava. It 

was mentioned that during dry conditions when pasture is inadequate, most livestock especially goats 

are left to wonder on free range and end up destroying crops in the field. Consequently, the 

communities have adopted the practice of sending all animals to the wetlands in a sort of free-range 

-community-ranching system. 

 

4. Discussion of Results 

The research findings show how the land use systems in Awoja watershed have been changing over the 

last 3 decades 1986-2016.These spatial and temporal changes are discussed in the context of political 

ecology of watershed management in a changing climate. The notable changes in the last decade has 

been the reduction in the wetlands, an increase in built area, an increase in small scale agriculture, a 

reduction in the forest cover, a reduction in the wood land and an increase in built up area. Whereas the 

open water area had decreased between 1986 and 1996 as well as from 1996-2006, there was an 

increase in open water area between 2006 and 2016 the trend shows an increasing recovery of open 

water area. This trend depicts an increase in human activity on the two major lakes Bisina and Opeta 

and the rivers that feed them.  

All these changes have occurred despite the presence of environment and climate change management 

institutions and signify the need to in contribution of the human agency in watershed degradation as 

well as the struggles of local institutions with the management of natural resources in a changing 

climate. 

The findings also show an increase in small scale farming comprising by small plots of between 0.5 to 



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1 acre, which characterize land fragmentation. Increase in small scale agricultural area has been at the 

expense of forests, woodlands and wetlands. The influence of population pressure on land use for 

agriculture is consistent with the views of Keter (2011), who argued that the social economic activities 

of an area are highly influenced by the type of population in that area. Gebreyesus and Kirubel (2009) 

reported that the heavy reliance of some 85 percent of Ethiopia’s growing population on an exploitative 

kind of subsistence agriculture is a major reason behind the current state of land degradation. In Awoja 

a higher population growth rate is pushing people to use all the land available including those within 

the proximity of the rivers, the lakes and the wetlands, which is not a good signal. The findings are in 

line with Kaggwa et al. (2009) who found that agriculture was the principal cause of watershed 

degradation. Land fragmentation has arisen from increasing population and traditional practice of 

dividing land among the children.  

While increasing birth rates and climate induced migration appears to have an influence on land use in 

Awoja watershed, control of access to environmental resources will play a big role in environmental 

protection. This suggests that while any land use improvement policy must focus on tackling both the 

birth rate challenge and the climate change effects in order to strike a land use equilibrium that is 

sustainable, policy implementation should emphasize compliance and plan to curb political processes 

that weaken control of access to the resources. 

 

5. Conclusions and Recommendations 

The major characteristics of land use changes in Awoja depict the effects of climate change and human 

activity and the weakness of institutions in controlling access and use of natural resources as shown by 

decrease of forest cover, decrease in wetland areas and increase of built up areas. The key conclusion in 

this study is that there is an increasing trend of land degradation in Awoja watershed as seen from the 

period 1986-2016, which needs to be curbed. While the land use changes are perceived to be due to 

population and climate change pressures, there is need to focus on the control of access to 

environmental resources in this watershed. Therefore, a good analysis of the local institutional factors 

catalyzing the degradation of the watershed in required in order to design appropriate management 

program for the watershed. The results also indicated the forest  

cover has reduced because of human activity and this has contributed greatly to changes in weather 

conditions including long drought periods and heavy rains leading to flooding in the Watershed. The 

role of institutions has been characterized with compromises which limit the capacity to enforce the 

rules governing resources use in the watershed. Generally, the study concludes that degradation in the 

watershed is vivid and is as much a result of increased human activity brought about by climate change. 

In view of the findings it is recommended that diversification of income sources that draws away 

communities from over reliance on the Awoja watershed resources is essential. This would include 

adoption of low risk but high yielding enterprises such as fruit production and tree planting in the 

uplands. The other recommendation is that local governments need to sensitize the community on the 



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Published by SCHOLINK INC. 

gravity of the current trends of degradation and enact bylaws to control the human causes of 

degradation of Awoja watershed particularly the current uncontrolled access to wetlands for rice 

cultivation and over fishing as well as deforestation. 

 

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