EEJ 8 (3) (2018) 279 - 289 English Education Journal http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej Grammatical Equivalence of English-Indonesian Translation of Compound-Complex Sentences in Iadc Workover Completion Manual Santi Oktaviani 1, Djoko Sutopo 2 1. Pusat Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia Minyak dan Gas Bumi (PPSDM Migas), Indonesia 2. Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Article Info ______________ Article History: Accepted 24 March 2018 Approved 02 July 2018 Published 15 September 2018 ______________ Keywords: grammatical equivalence, English-Indonesian translation, compound-complex sentences, IADC Workover Completion Manual. __________________ Abstract ____________________________________________________________________ During the translation of IADC Workover Completion Manual, especially the compound-complex sentences, grammatical equivalence is crucial in order to produce accurate, acceptable, and readable translations. Therefore, this study is conducted to evaluate the realization of grammatical equivalence in English– Indonesian translation of compound-complex sentences in the manual and its relation to the translation quality. This study is a descriptive qualitative study. The researcher used document to collect the data of the compound-complex sentences. Besides, questionnaire and interview were completed by the target readers and the expert readers to assess the translation quality. The findings presents that out of 106 English compound-complex sentences that are translated to Indonesian, 74 (69.8%) of them are grammatically equivalent and 32 (30.1%) of them are not grammatically equivalent. It means that the 74 sentence translations’ structures are equivalent. In addition, the translations are literal and there are no shifts. In contrast, 32 non-grammatical equivalent translations are due to their free translations and lead to the translation shifts. From the findings, it can also be concluded that the grammatical equivalence influences the accuracy, the acceptability, and the readability of the translations for the target readers. On the other hand, for the expert readers, the grammatical equivalence only affects readability. © 2018 Universitas Negeri Semarang Correspondence Address: Jalan Sorogo No.1 Cepu, 58315 E-mail: santioktaviani111@gmail.com p-ISSN 2087-0108 e-ISSN 2502-4566 mailto:santioktaviani111@gmail.com Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 280 INTRODUCTION Translation generally refers to the process of transferring written or spoken source language texts to equivalent written or spoken target language texts (Yuliasri and Allen, 2014, p.129). Translation can offer a solution to overcome language gap in communication (Ismail & Hartono, 2016, p.2). Hence, PPSDM Migas translates IADC (International Association of Drilling Contractors) Workover Completion Manual from English to Indonesian to assist the Indonesian training participants in reading and understanding the manual. Hawkes in Bassnett-McGuire (1991, p.13) states that translation involves the transfer of meaning contained in one set of language signs into another set of language through the competent use of the dictionary and grammar. However, during the translation process of the manual, the grammatical differences between English and Indonesian are potential to arise distortion in meaning. The grammatical equivalence in translation requires a systemic approach to be aware of and keeping in mind the differences between the structures and the systems of the two languages (Slepovitch, 2011, p.123). Thus, the grammatical equivalence can be set up at any rank. Catford (1978, p.25-26) proposes rank- bound translation and unbounded translation including free translation, word-for-word translation, and literal translation. When the grammatical equivalence is not completed in the translation, the translation may change the language unit level of the source text to the target text. It means that there is rank shift or unit shift. In accordance with Catford, Machali (1998:16) categorizes two types of unit shift. They are upward rank shift and downward rank shift. Furthermore, there are also compound- complex sentences in IADC Workover Completion Manual. Oshima and Houge (2006, p.174) describe that a compound-complex sentence has at least three clauses (one dependent clause and two independent clauses). This sentence type employs coordinators, conjunctive adverbs, adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses. Thehe compound-complex sentence translation may result in some content changes that gave impact on the meaning even causes misunderstanding. In turn, it affects the translation quality. According to Larson (1984, p.490-501); and Nababan, Nuraeni, and Sumardiono (2012, p.50-52), the translation quality covers accuracy, acceptability, and readability. There are some previous studies related to this study. Sudirman (2016); and Afifah, Hartono, and Yuliasri (2018) focused on the grammatical equivalence. Their studies showed that the grammatical equivalence could be achieved although it was not absolute. Kamil (2014) and Siregar (2016) found that good characteristics of translation were achieved due to accuracy, clarity, and naturalness of the target language. Clarity closely relates to readability and naturalness tends to be acceptability. Widarwati (2015) and Ahsanah (2016) presented that a compound-complex sentence was not always translated to a compound-complex sentence. They also pointed that the compound-complex sentence translation gave impact to the accuracy, the acceptability, and the readability either integrated or not. Therefore, this study is implemented to evaluate the realization of the grammatical equivalence of English-Indonesian translation of compound-complex sentences in IADC Workover Completion Manual and to explore its relation with the translation quality assessed by the readers. METHOD This study is a descriptive qualitative study. It aims to explain the grammatical equivalence as well as to relate it to the translation quality of English-Indonesian translation of compound-complex sentences in IADC Workover Completion Manual. The subject of the study was 18 readers. They consisted of Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 281 15 target readers and 3 expert readers of the manual. The object of the study was the compound-complex sentences in both the English manual and Indonesian manual. In order to collect the data, the researcher used document, questionnaire, and interview. The document was used to collect the data of the compound-complex sentences. The questionnaire and the interview were completed by the readers to assess the translation quality. After collecting the data, the researcher analysed the data by identifying the grammatical equivalence and the translation quality. The analysis is based on Oshima and Hogue (2006), Catford (1965 & 1978); Machali (1998); Larson (1984); and Nababan, Nuraeni, and Sumardiono (2012). The researcher focuses on the data to achieve the objective and displayed those data to help her understand the findings then explains them. This is also followed by tabulating the percentage of the data result and interpreting the data analysis. Next, the conclusion is drawn. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Grammatical Equivalence Based on the documentation of the compound-complex sentences in IADC Workover Completion Manual according to Oshima and Hogue (2006), there are 106 compound-complex sentences in the English manual as the source text. The sentences are coded 1A to 106A. They are translated to Indonesian in the Indonesian manual. as the target text. The translations are coded 1B to 106B. Here is the example: 18A The viscosity of the fluid may increase to the point where the crystals plug the lines and the fluid becomes unpumpable. 18B Viskositas fluida dapat meningkat sampai ke titik di mana kristal mulai menggumpal dan fluida menjadi unpumpable. 18A that is translated to 18B consists of two independent clauses and one dependent clause. The independent clauses are “The viscosity of the fluid may increase to the point...” and “...the fluid becomes unpumpable”. They are combined by using the coordinator “ and”. The dependent clause is an adverb clause. It was “...where the crystals plug the lines...”. Translation is grammatically equivalent if there is no translation shift in its structure. It is in line with Catford (1965 & 1978). In term of the grammatical equivalence of the compound-complex sentences in the manual translation as the data in this study, Table 1 shows the data identification. Table 1. Grammatical Equivalence of Compound-Complex Sentence Translation Category of Equivalence Rank of Translation Number of Sentence (%) Grammatical equivalence Literal 74 (69.8) Non- grammatical equivalence Free 32 (30.1) Total 106 (100) It can be seen from Table 1 that 74 (69.8%) of 106 compound-complex sentences are grammatically equivalent. It means that the translations’ structures are equivalent, including the translations of coordinators, conjunctive adverbs, adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses. In addition, the translations are literal and no shifts, proven by the consistency of the sentence types as well as the number of the clauses presented in the following example: 47A Normally choke can have longevity, but the hydraulic pressure that reaches above 2.500 psi can shorten its age. Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 282 47B Normalnya choke dapat memiliki usia yang panjang, tetapi tekanan hidrolik mencapai di atas 2.500 psi dapat memperpendek usia. 47B is the translation of 47A. They are grammatically equivalent. Both of them are compound-complex sentences having the same number of clauses. Each of them has three clauses consisting of two independent clauses combined by a conjunctive adverb “but” and one adjective clause as the dependent clause by using subordinator “that”. Table 1 also shows that 32 sentences (30.1%) of 106 compound-complex sentences can not reach grammatical equivalence due to their free translations. It is affected by non- grammatical equivalence of the translations of the coordinators, conjunctive adverbs, adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses as well as their combinations, shown in Table 2. Table 2. Causes of Non-Grammatical Equivalent Compound Complex Sentence Translations Causes of Non- Grammatical Equivalence Number of Sentence (%) Translations of coordinators 11 (34.3) Translations of conjunctive adverbs 3 (9.4) Translations of adverb clauses 7 (21.8) Translations of adjective clauses 5 (15.6) Translations of noun clauses 2 (6.3) Translations of coordinators and adverb clauses 2 (6.3) Translations of coordinators and adjective clauses 2 (6.3) Total 32 (100) It can be seen from Table 2 that the translations of the coordinators (34.4%) contribute mostly to the cases of non- grammatical equivalence in this study. In addition, the translation of conjunctive adverbs, adverb clauses, adjective clauses, noun clauses, the combination of coordinators and adverb clauses, and the combination of coordinators and adjective clauses take part in the non-grammatical equivalence. Consequently, these lead to the translation shifts, based on Machali (1998), including upward rank shift, downward rank shift, and equal rank shift presented in Table 3. Table 3. Translation Shift of Non- Grammatical Equivalent Compound-Complex Sentence Translations Rank Shift Number of Occurrence (%) Downwar d Rank Shift Upwa rd Rank Shift Equal Rank Shift Dependent clause to phrase 8 (25) - - Independent clause to dependent clause 8 (25) - - Independent clause to phrase 4 (12.5) - - Independent clause elimination 2 (6.3) - - Dependent clause elimination 2 (6.3) - - Word elimination 1 (3) - - Dependent clause to independent clause - 2 (6.3) - Word to word - - 3 (9.3) Clause to clause - - 2 (6.3) Total 25 (78.1) 2 (6.3) 5 (15.6) Table 3 shows that the downward rank shift occurs in the translations of 25 sentences. They include the dependent clause and Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 283 independent shifts to phrases, independent clause shifts to dependent clauses, the eliminations of dependent clauses, independent clauses, and word. Example: 2A If this technique is applied, a small tank needs to be used, so a number of fluids do not enter into the formation. 2B Jika teknik ini yang diterapkan, tangki kecil perlu digunakan karena sejumlah fluida tidak masuk ke formasi. 2A is a compound-complex sentence consisting of 3 clauses (2 independent clauses and 1 dependent clause) and translated to 2B as a complex sentence consisting of 3 clauses (1 independent clause and 2 dependent clauses). The translation shift is due to the translation of one of the independent clauses as a dependent clause (adverb clause). Besides that, as being shown in Table 3, there are 2 upward rank shifts (6.3%). They are the shifts of the dependent clauses to independent clauses as follows: 67A On the tubing side, as reservoir fluid is displaced from the tubing by completion/ workover fluid, the hydrostatic pressure increases and the tubing pressure decreases. 67B Di dalam tubing terisi fluida reservoir di dorong ke atas dengan menggunakan completion/workover fluid, tekanan hidrostatik akan naik dan tekanan permukaan pada tubing akan turun. 67A is a compound-complex sentence consisting of 3 clauses (2 IC and 1 DC). It is translated to 67B in the type of a compound sentence consisting of 3 clauses (3 IC). There is the shift of the adverb clause to an independent clause. It causes its translation not grammatically equivalent. However, the translation of the clause containing the coordinator is grammatically equivalent. Table 3 also presents that the translation shifts of 5 sentences happens in the same unit level. The following example represents this case. 3A During this test, several points should be observed, the mud in the well must be clean to ensure that there is mud in the well. 3B Pada saat pengujian ini, beberapa titik harus di observasi, lumpur di dalam sumur harus bersih untuk meyakinkan lumpur yang ada dalam sumur. 3A and 3B are compound-complex sentences having 3 clauses (2 independent clauses and 1 dependent clause). The shift in the clause level happens in the translation due to the translation of the noun clause to the adjective clause. The noun clause in ST “...that there is mud in the well.” is translated to the adjective clause in TT “...yang ada dalam sumur”. Translation Quality This part explains the translation quality of the compound-complex sentence translations of the manual from English to Indonesia and the effect of the grammatical equivalence to the translation quality. The researcher focuses on 3 criteria according to Larson (1984) and Nababan, Nuraeni, and Sumardiono (2012). They are the accuracy, the acceptability, and the readability. The questionnaire of the translation quality was completed by 15 training participants as the target readers and 3 approved instructors of IADC as the expert readers. The researcher took the means of the scales of each classification. Accuracy The accuracy deals with the conformity degree of how the content of source text is translated to the target text correctly. Table 4 shows the translation accuracy given by the readers. Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 284 Table 4. Translation Accuracy Category Number of Occurrence (%) by Target Readers Number of Occurrence (%) by Expert Readers Accurate 12 (11.3) 47 (44.3) Less accurate 94 (88.7) 59 (55.7) Inaccurate 0 (0) 0 (0) Total 106 (100) 106 (100) According to the target readers, there are 12 accurate translations (11.3%) and 94 less accurate translation (84.7%). However, based on the expert readers’ assessment, the accurate translations are 47 (44.3%) and 59 (55.7%). Therefore, several translations that are considered as the accurate translations by the expert readers are less accurate for the target readers. The researcher provides the example as follows: 13A The trend of increase in background gas or gas connection can be viewed at the time of drilling is going on, but it must be considered carefully as an indication of the increase in formation pressure. 13B Kecenderungan naiknya background gas atau connection gas dapat dilihat pada saat pengeboran berlangsung, tetapi harus diperhatikan dengan seksama hal tersebut sebagai indikasi naiknya tekanan formasi. 100A BOP consists of four hydraulic rams driven with minimum 10.000 psig working pressure, there are also some old CTU operating with 5.000 psig working pressure. 100B BOP terdiri dari empat rams yang digerakkan secara hidrolik dengan tekanan kerja minimum 10.000 psig, beberapa CTU lama ada juga yang beroperasi dengan tekanan kerja 5.000 psig. According to the target readers and the expert readers, 13A-13B is accurate, but 100A- 100B is not accurate. Both of them are grammatically equivalent. However, the translation of the technical term in 100A “...hydraulic rams...” to 100B “...empat rams yang digerakkan secara hydraulic...” causes a meaning distortion because to the words of “digerakkan” and “bergerak” had the different meanings in Indonesian. Furthermore, there are also some translations that get the different assessment by the target readers and the expert readers. 74A-74B is one of them. 74A It is therefore very important that this type of simple calculation be done prior to unsetting or retrieving these valves, so that an appreciation of the potential danger is made, and an action plan prepared. 74B Oleh karena itu sangat penting bahwa jenis perhitungan sederhana ini dilakukan sebelum unsetting atau mengambil katup tersebut, sehingga dapat mengantisipasi terhadap potensi bahaya, dan rencana tindakan bisa disiapkan. In this translation of 74A-75B, non- grammatical equivalence occurs. However, it does not affect the accuracy of the translation assessed by the expert readers. In contrast, it causes meaning distortion for the target readers. Based on the interview result, the non- grammatical equivalence does not make any meaning distortion for the expert readers due to their educational background and experience as long as the technical terms are correct and the topics are appropriate with their specialty. On the other hand, the target readers mind it. To overcome this problem during the training, they ask the questions to the instructors in the class or investigate the English manual for the confirmation. Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 285 Acceptability Acceptability refers to whether the translations are natural and in accordance with the grammatical rule of Indonesian. The assessment result of the translation acceptability by the readers is in Table 5. Table 5. Translation Acceptability Category Number of Occurrence (%) by Target Readers Number of Occurrence (%) by Expert Readers Acceptable 0 (0) 49 (46.2) Less acceptable 106 (100) 56 (53.8) Unacceptable 0 (0) 0 (0) Total 106 (100) 106 (100) Based on the target readers’ assessment, all of the translations are less acceptable (100%). After having the interviews with 3 training participants as the representatives, it is concluded that the less acceptable translations are due to the use of formal Indonesian. Therefore, the translations sound not too natural for them. On the other hand, the expert readers determine 49 acceptable translations (46.2%) and 56 less acceptable translations (53.8%). The explanation is in details with the examples below: 22A Nitrile Rubber (synthetic compound) is used for type of drilling mud with oil base materials (oil base mud), temperature is between -200F to 1900F, identified in red with the code letter "NBR" or "S". 22B Nitrile Rubber (synthetic compound) dipergunakan untuk jenis lumpur pengeboran dengan bahan dasar minyak (oil base mud), temperatur antara -200F sampai 1900F, diidentifikasikan dengan warna merah dengan kode huruf “NBR” atau “S”. Although the translation of 22A-22B is grammatically equivalent, the target readers suppose this translation is less acceptable, but the expert readers find it acceptable. The use of formal Indonesian is rather strange and not too natural for the target readers but natural and familiar for the expert readers. In this case, equal with the accuracy discussion, the educational background and experience play a role. 73A The amount of fluid accidentally bled from the well must be determined (or at least estimated), and the bubble should be allowed more time to migrate. 73B Jumlah cairan yang sengaja di keluarkan dari sumur harus ditentukan (diperkirakan), dan gelembung gas dibiarkan bermigrasi. This translation of 73A-73B meets the grammatical equivalent but it is assessed as a less acceptable translation by the target readers and the expert readers. Based on the interview result, the target readers expose the use of Indonesian formal, whereas the expert readers suggest the diction. The word “...bermigrasi” was less acceptable in the clause “...gelembung gas dibiarkan bermigrasi.” Readability Readability is about how easily the translations can be read and understood by the readers. In general, the readers confirm that they need more than one time to read the compound-complex sentence translation in the Indonesian manual to understand the sentences. Then, they assess the readability as being presented in Table 6. Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 286 Table 6. Translation Readability Category Number of Occurrence (%) by Target Readers Number of Occurrence (%) by Expert Readers High readability 1 (0.9) 43 (40.6) Medium readability 105 (99.1) 62 (59.4) Low readability 0 (0) 0 (0) Total 106 (100) 106 (100) There are two readability categories in the sentences by the target readers and the expert readers. Nevertheless, the numbers of the data for each category are different. The target readers find only 1 translation (0.9%) having high readability and 105 translations (99.1%). The expert readers ensure that 43 translations (40.6%) are highly readable and 62 translations (59.4%) are in the medium readability. The followings are 3 examples of translations. Each of them, in turn, represents a highly readable translation (40A-40B) by the target readers and the expert readers; a translation considers to have high readability (84A-84B) by the expert readers, but medium readability by the target readers; and a translation of medium readability (99A-99B) by the target readers and the expert readers. 40A Drilling spool, choke and kill line are required on the installation of blow out preventer equipment that has function for control line on circulation during equipment deterrent wild bursts; the channel controller serves to kill the kick. 40B Drilling spool, choke line dan kill line diperlukan pada pemasangan peralatan pencegah semburan liar, berfungsi untuk saluran pengendali pada sirkulasi mematikan kick. Although the translation of 40A-40B is non-grammatical equivalent, the readers approve it as a highly readable translation. This is confirmed in the interview that the shift of the compound-complex sentences (long sentences) into the shorter sentences often make the readers read and understand more easily. 84A Referring to the Decree of Minister of Mining and Energy No. 03P/123/M.PE/1986 on Special Technical Personnel Certification on Oil and Gas Mining and Effort of Geothermal Resource, it is stated that the business implementation of oil and gas mining needs high technology, therefore, it needs special personnel whose competency fulfills the demand of technology development. 84B Sesuai dengan Keputusan Menteri Pertambangan dan Energi No.03P/123/M.PE/1986 tentang Sertifikasi Tenaga Teknik Khusus Pertambangan Minyak dan Gas Bumi dan Pengusahaan Sumber Daya Panas Bumi disebutkan bahwa pelaksanaan usaha pertambangan minyak dan gas bumi memerlukan penerapan teknologi tinggi sehingga diperlukan tenaga teknik khusus yang memiliki kemampuan dan memenuhi tuntutan perkembangan teknologi. In terms of definitions and regulations that are familiar to the expert readers, the translations are readable for them, such as in 84A-84B. In contrast, the target readers, who also work in the same field but in the different level with the expert readers, find the translation as the translation having the medium readability. The reason they convey is they need more effort to focus on reading the long compound-complex sentence translation although it is grammatically equivalent. Santi Oktaviani, Djoko Sutopo/ EEJ 8 (3) 2018 279 - 289 287 99A At the time of tubing removed from the well, the pressure will increase on the motor so that the spinning reel will pull tubing up. 99B Pada saat tubing dikeluarkan dari sumur, tekanan pada motor reel akan bertambah sehingga reel akan berputar menarik tubing ke atas. This translation of 99A-99B completes the grammatical equivalence but the readers find it in the medium readability. After having interviews with the readers, it can be concluded that the content of the sentence on the translation requires the readers to read more than once to understand them. It is about the operation that is important for their job, including their safety. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION From the research findings and discussion, the researcher can conclude that out of 106 English compound-complex sentences that are translated into Indonesian, 74 (69.8%) of them are grammatically equivalent and 32 (30.1%) of them are not grammatically equivalent. Regarding the grammatical equivalent translations, it means that the translations’ structures are equivalent, including the translations of coordinators, conjunctive adverbs, adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses. In addition, the translations are literal and no shifts, proven by the consistency of the sentence types as well as the number of the clauses. On the other hand, 32 non- grammatical equivalent translations are due to their free translations. They are caused by the non- grammatical equivalence of coordinator translations (11 sentences), the conjunctive adverb translations (3 sentences), the adverb clause translations (7 sentences), the adjective clause translations (5 sentences), the noun clause translations (2 sentences), the combination of the coordinator and the adverb clause translations (2 sentences), and the combination of coordinator and adjective clause translations (2 sentences). This leads to the translation shifts. There are 25 downward rank shift (78.1%), 2 upward rank shift (6.3%), and 5 equal rank shift (15.6%). Furthermore, the translation quality analysis summarizes that there are 3 criteria for the translation quality assessed in this study by the target readers and the expert readers. They are accuracy, acceptability, and readability. According to the target readers, there are 12 accurate translations (11.3%) and 94 less accurate translation (84.7%). However, based on the expert readers’ assessment, the accurate translations are 47 (44.3%) and 59 (55.7%). Based on the target readers’ assessment, all of the translations are less acceptable (100%). On the other hand, the expert readers determine 49 acceptable translations (46.2%) and 56 less acceptable translations (53.8%). The target readers find only 1 translation (0.9%) having high readability and 105 translations (99.1%). The expert readers ensure that 43 translations (40.6%) are highly readable and 62 translations (59.4%) are in the medium readability. This could be seen that for the target readers, the grammatical equivalence influences those 3 criteria. For the expert readers, the grammatical equivalence only affects readability. This difference is due to the educational background and experience. 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