EEJ 10 (2) (2020) 131 - 142 

 

 

English Education Journal 

 

http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej 

 

Structures and Functions of Lexical Bundles in Findings and 

Discussion Sections of Graduate Students’ Thesis 

 

Wahyu Dyah Nur Anis Wachidah, Sri Wuli Fitriati, Widhiyanto 

 

Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia 

 

Article Info 

________________ 

Article History: 

Recived 09 December 

2019 

Accepted  18 March 

2020 

Published  20 June 

2020 

 

 

________________ 

Keywords: 

Lexical bundles, 

structures and 

functions of lexical 

bundles, findings and 

discussion section, 

students’ thesis 

____________________ 

Abstract
 

___________________________________________________________________ 

Lexical bundles is a combination of words which consists of three or even 

more words that frequently occur together in particular registers. It is seen as 

an important aspect that should be mastered in order to create a qualified text. 

This study aims at analyzing the lexical bundles used in findings and 

discussion sections of graduate students’ thesis in terms of structures, functions, 

and the role of lexical bundles in forming coherence of the students’ texts. This 

study employs qualitative approach. The data are taken from 10 Chapter IV, 

Findings and Discussion of graduate students’ thesis. In the process of analysis, 

the researcher uses three instruments in the form of tables to collect and 

analyze the lexical bundles manually based on the structures of lexical bundles 

proposed by Biber, et. al. (1999), and the functions of lexical bundles proposed 

by Hyland (2008) framework. There are 74 lexical bundles found in the 

students’ texts. The findings reveals that first, the lexical bundles found in the 

students’ texts make use of all the twelve structural forms and the most 

dominantly used is structure type 4 other prepositional phrase (fragment); 

second, the lexical bundles found in the students’ texts serve all of the three 

functional types and the most dominantly used is text-oriented function and 

third, the lexical bundles found in the students’ texts have an important role in 

forming coherence of the texts. It indicates that the lexical bundles make use of 

two coherence items such as reference and transition signals. 

 

 

© 2020 Universitas Negeri Semarang 

 
Correspondence Address:  

Kampus Universitas Negeri Semarang, Kelud, Semarang, 50233 

E-mail: wahyudyah.naw@gmail.com 
 

p-ISSN 2087-0108 

e-ISSN 2502-4566
 



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132 

 

INTRODUCTION  

 

University students face different 

challenges when they enter academic world. 

They challenged to get their final projects or 

thesis at the end of their study and their articles 

to be published. The ultimate goal of teaching 

and learning English is communicative 

competence aiming at how students create texts 

in appropriate context. Since English become a 

foreign language for Indonesian people, there 

are some problems occur in the English 

language teaching and learning.  Frequently, 

most of the students feel difficulty in writing 

their final projects or thesis. They find the 

difficulties in producing a communicative 

writing and in utilizing an appropriate grammar 

and vocabulary. Most of the students did not use 

an appropriate sequence of word in writing their 

texts, so that their texts don’t make sense. 

Whereas, students should convey their intended 

meaning of their writing to the readers, so they 

get the points of their writing. In order to make 

it good as well as communicative competence, 

they should expand their ideas like experts and 

they need to learn certain sequences of word 

frequently used by established academic.  

One important component to achieve 

communicative competence is formulaic 

expressions which enable students to create 

natural and fluent in spoken and written texts. 

Formulaic expressions defined as a prefabricated 

word or group of words that mostly used by 

English native speakers in their daily 

communication (Celce-Murcia, 2007). It can be 

meant that formulaic expressions is a multi-word 

expression that commonly used by native 

speakers in written and spoken texts. Lexical 

bundles is one of formulaic expressions 

classification which frequently used in both 

spoken and written language naturally.  

The term “lexical bundles” was first 

defined by Biber et al., (1999) in the Longman 

Grammar of Spoken and Written English. They 

define that lexical bundles are recurrent 

expressions, regardless of their idiomaticity, and 

regardless of their structural status, simply 

sequences of word forms that commonly go 

together in natural discourse. The use of lexical 

bundles help writers to build the meanings in a 

text and making sense of certain registers 

(Hyland, 2008). It is seen as an important aspect 

that should be mastered in order to convey a 

communicative purpose and to create a qualified 

text either spoken or written language.  

Furthermore, there are three reasons why 

the recurrent word combinations are significant 

for the development of academic writing skills; 

first, lexical bundles are usually repeated and an 

essential part of the structural material. Second, 

they are frequently used, lexical bundles are 

defining markers of successful writing. Third, 

these bundles are the combination of grammar 

and vocabulary, thereby lexicogrammatical 

underpinnings of a language (Coxhead & Byrd, 

2007 as cited in Ucar, 2017). 

Studies on lexical bundles structurally and 

functionally have been conducted by some 

researchers in spoken register, such as lectures, 

public dialogue, political speech, group 

discussions, and conversations (Aini, Faridi, & 

Fitriati, 2018; Cortes, 2009;  Darweesh & Ali, 

2017; Neely & Huang, 2013b) and in written 

register, such as research articles, students’ final 

projects, theses, dissertations, argumentative 

text, textbooks (Allan, 2017; Hyland, 2008; 

Islami, Fitriati, & Mujiyanto, 2019; Jalali, 2013; 

Kwary, Ratri, & Artha, 2017; Yang, 2017). 

However, there was a difference between the 

uses of lexical bundles structurally and 

functionally in the academic prose and 

conversation (Biber, Conrad, and Cortes, 2004). 

As the pioneer study, Biber et al. (1999) found 

that conversation and academic prose present 

distinctive distribution patterns of lexical 

bundles. They found that the most structural 

forms in conversation was lexical bundles that 

incorporate verb phrase fragment, while the 

most structural forms in academic prose was 

lexical bundles that incorporate noun phrase and 

prepositional phrase. In the next study, Conrad 

and Biber (2005) revealed that conversation 

tends to use more personal stance expressions, 

while academic prose use more referential 

expressions. 



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133 

 

Those previous studies found some points 

related to this study about lexical bundles. 

However, this present study is different from 

those previous studies. This present study 

focuses on analyzing written register, 

particularly Chapter IV, Findings and 

Discussion sections of graduate students’ thesis 

as the research object. Furthermore, this study 

also focuses on analyzing three, four, and five 

word bundles. The aims of this study are to 

analyze the use of lexical bundles in term of 

structures and functions and also their role in 

forming coherence in the findings and discussion 

sections of students’ thesis. 

 

METHOD 

 

This study employed qualitative study and 

designed as a discourse analysis particularly 

textual analysis, since the main data is in the 

form of phrases or clauses. This study focused 

on analyzing written form as the main data. The 

object of this study were Chapter IV, Findings 

and Discussion Section of students’ thesis of 

graduate program of English Language 

Education of Universitas Negeri Semarang. The 

researcher choose 10 data randomly and analyze 

the lexical bundles found in the students’ thesis 

as the primer data in this study.  

There are some steps conducted to gather 

the data. First, collecting 10 chapter IV, 

Findings and Discussion Section of graduate 

students’ thesis randomly from the library of 

UNNES and give a number for each text in 

order to help the researcher easily for the next 

process of collecting the data. Second, 

identifying all lexical bundles found and 

highlighting the data which contained any kinds 

of lexical bundles presented in the findings and 

discussion sections. Third, grouping all the 

bundles identified in each text and placing them 

into table based on the number of students’ texts. 

The bundles which appear at least three times in 

three to five texts are included as lexical bundles 

that will be analyzed. The last, collecting all 

bundles which categorized into lexical bundles 

and placing them into a table based on their 

structural forms and functional types. 

After the data gathered, the researcher 

conducted several steps to analyze the data 

manually. First, categorizing the structures of 

lexical bundles which adopted from Biber et al’s. 

(1999) study. Second, categorizing the functions 

of lexical bundles which adopted from Hyland’s 

(2008) study. Third, analyzing the role of lexical 

bundles in forming the coherence in findings and 

discussion sections of the students’ thesis. 

Fourth, interpreting and explaining the use of 

structural forms and functional types of lexical 

bundles found in the findings and discussion 

section of graduate students’ thesis and the role 

of those bundles in forming coherence of the 

texts. The last, describing the findings based on 

the three research problems in present study and 

discussing the findings by presenting some 

relevant theories. 

 

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 

  

 Based on the results of analysis, I found 

74 lexical bundles occurred in 10 of chapter IV, 

findings and discussion sections of graduate 

students’ thesis. The 74 bundles found would be 

analyzed based on their structures and functions, 

and their role in forming coherence of the 

students’ texts.  

 

Structures of Lexical Bundles in Findings and 

Discussion Sections of Graduate Students’ 

Thesis 

Biber et al. (1999) categorize the structural 

forms of lexical bundles in academic prose into 

twelve. Accordingly, I found that those 74 

lexical bundles occurred can be identified into 

twelve structure categories of lexical bundles. 

The analysis of structural forms of lexical 

bundles would be presented in the following 

table: 

 

 

 

 



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Table 1. Structures of Lexical Bundles in Students’ Texts 

Structures of LBs Lexical Bundles 

Type 1: Noun phrase with of-phrase fragment Both of the 

The result of 

The role of 

The findings of 

The analysis of 

The examples of 

The use of 

The relation consists of 

This part consists of 

The mean score of the 

Type 2: Noun phrase with other post-modifier 

fragments 

The relation between 

The text is below 

Type 3: Prepositional phrase with embedded of-

phrase fragment 

In terms of 

In front of the 

In the form of 

In the case of 

In this context of 

Type 4: Other prepositional phrase (fragment) According to the 

As a result 

Based on the  

From the data  

In line with  

In this case 

In this section  

According to example above  

By looking at the 

From the analysis results 

For example in the 

From the result of 

In the following table 

In the same time 

On the other hand 



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Type 5: Anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective 

phrase 

It showed that  

It means that 

It is different from 

It was supported by 

It was indicated that 

It was found that 

It was related to 

It is found that 

It refers to the 

It showed from the 

It can be concluded that 

It can be seen that 

It can be said that 

It can be indicated that  

Type 6: Passive verb + prepositional phrase 

fragment 

Is divided into 

Can be identified as 

Can be used in 

Can be seen in 

Can be shown in 

Type 7: Copula be + noun phrase/adjective 

phrase 

Is one of 

Type 8: (Verb phrase +) that-clause fragment The researcher found that 

The result showed that 

The researcher showed that 

The data showed that 

That would be achieved by 

That would be done by 

That focused only on the 

Type 9: (Verb/adjective +) to-clause fragment Can be used to 

Can be related to 

To be able to  

To refer to the 

Type 10: Adverbial clause fragment As can be seen in 

Type 11: Pronoun/noun phrase + be (+…) There were only 

There was a  

There were no  

There is no  

There are some  

There is a   

There are a lot of 

There is significant different between 

This is in line with 

Type 12: Other expressions Such as the 

 



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As can be seen in table 1 above, the most 

dominant structural form of lexical bundles in 

findings and discussion sections of students’ 

thesis is structure type 4 other prepositional 

phrase (fragment). It is found that there are 15 

lexical bundles appeared for type 4, such as 

according to the, based on the, from the data, in 

this case, in this section, according to example 

above, etc. These bundles can be identified in a 

formula prepositional + phrase fragment. The 

second structural form that mostly occur is type 

5 anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective phrase 

which consists of 14 lexical bundles such as the 

bundles it was supported by, it was indicated 

that, it was found that, it was related to, it is 

found that, etc. These bundles are used report 

the writer’s kind of stance related to studies. 

The next structural form is the lexical 

bundles that incorporate noun phrase with of-

phrase fragment, which symbolized as type 1 

and it consists of 10 lexical bundles such as the 

bundles both of the, the result of, the role of, the 

findings of, the analysis of, the examples of, etc. 

This structure is aimed to identify a variety of 

abstract qualities and identification of amount. 

The other structure is type 11 pronoun/noun 

phrase + be (+…) which consists of 9 lexical 

bundles such as the bundles there were only, 

there was a, there were no, there is no, there are 

some, there is a, etc. These bundles in this form 

are used to inform packaging purposes and to 

link information that follows.  

Structure type 8 (verb phrase +) that-

clause fragment which consists of 7 lexical 

bundles such as the bundles the researcher found 

that, the result showed that, the researcher 

showed that, and the data showed that, type 3 

prepositional phrase with embedded of-phrase 

fragment which consists of 6 lexical bundles 

such as the bundles as a result, in terms of, in 

front of the, in the form of, in the case of, and in 

this context of, which is used to show logical 

relations. Type 6 passive verb + prepositional 

phrase fragment which consists of 5 lexical 

bundles such as the bundles is divided into, can 

be identified as, can be used in, can be seen in, 

and can be shown in, which is used to marks a 

locative. Type 9 (verb/adjective +) to-clause 

fragment which consists of  4 lexical bundles 

such as the bundles as can be used to and can be 

related to, which is aimed to identify previous 

findings or known information.  Type 2 noun 

phrase with other post-modifier fragments which 

consists of 2 lexical bundles such as the relation 

between and the text is below, which is used to 

identify relationships among entities. 

Then, it is found only 1 lexical bundles 

occurred for each of type 7 copula be + noun 

phrase/adjective phrase such as is one of, type 

10 adverbial clause fragment such as as can be 

seen in, which used for deictic reference to other 

discourse segments. The last is type 12 other 

expressions which only consists of such as the. 

In conclusion, the results of this study 

revealed that type 4 other prepositional phrase 

was the most frequently used lexical bundles in 

findings and discussion sections of graduate 

students’ thesis structurally.  It is in line with the 

finding of the previous studies carried out by 

Arani, Jalali, and Moini (2015) and Ucar (2017). 

They carried out a study on lexical bundles in 

research articles which found that the largest 

structural category of lexical bundles in research 

articles was other prepositional phrase.  

 

Functions of Lexical Bundles in Findings and 

Discussion Sections of Graduate Students’ 

Thesis 

Hyland (2008) proposed three functional 

types of lexical bundles, they are research-

oriented, text-oriented, and participant-oriented. 

The findings showed that from the total 74 

lexical bundles found in the students’ texts, there 

are 28 lexical bundles classified as research-

oriented, 34 lexical bundles classified as text-

oriented, and 12 lexical bundles classified as 

participant-oriented. It can be said that the most 

functional type of lexical bundles appeared in 

findings and discussion sections of graduate 

students’ thesis is text-oriented. The analysis of 

functional types of lexical bundles would be 

presented in the following table: 

 

 



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Table 2. Functions of Lexical Bundles in Students’ Texts 

Functions of Lexical Bundles Lexical Bundles 

Research-oriented 

Location In front of the 

In the same time 

In this context of 

Procedure The role of 

The use of 

It was supported by 

Quantification Both of the 

Is one of 

There were only 

There was a  

There were no 

There is no  

There are some 

There is a   

There are a lot of 

The mean score of the 

Description In line with 

The findings of 

The analysis of 

The examples of 

Such as the 

For example in 

It was related to 

The relation consists of 

This part consists of 

This is in line with 

There is significant different between 

That only focused on the 

Topic  - 

Text-oriented 

Transition signals On the other hand 

Resultative signals As a result 

It showed that 

The result of 

From the analysis results 

From the result of 

It was indicated that  

It was found that 

It is found that 

It showed from the 

The data showed that 

The researcher found that 

The result showed that 



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The researcher showed that 

Structuring signals From the data 

In this section 

It means that 

In the following table 

It refers to the 

The text is below 

To refer to the 

It is different from 

It can be concluded that  

It can be said that 

It can be indicated that 

It can be seen that  

Framing signals According to the 

Based on the 

In this case 

In terms of 

The relation between 

According to example above 

In the case of 

In the form of 

Participant-oriented 

Stance features To be able to 

That would be achieved by 

That would be done by  

Engagement features Is divided into 

By looking at the 

Can be identified as 

Can be used in 

Can be used to 

Can be related to 

Can be seen in 

Can be shown in 

As can be seen in 

  

As can be seen from table 2 above, the 

first functions of lexical bundles is research-

oriented. The findings showed that there are 28 

lexical bundles which categorized into research-

oriented. This type is functioned to help writers 

to structure their activities and experiences of the 

real world (Hyland, 2008, p. 13). Furthermore, 

the researcher found three bundles such as in 

front of the, in the same time, in this context of 

categorized as location research-oriented, three 

bundles such as the role of, the use of, it was 

supported by categorized as procedure, ten 

bundles such as both of the, is one of, there were 

only, there was a, there were no, there is no, etc., 

categorized as quantification, and twelve 

bundles such as in line with, the findings of, the 

analysis of, the examples of, such as the, for example 

in, it was related to, etc., categorized as 

description. The bundle in the same time as 

location research-oriented indicate time. By 

using this bundle, the writer tried to explain the 

exact time of something happened in the 

research or the real world. The bundle the use of 

as procedure research-oriented explained about 

the step of a process. By using this bundle, the 

writer tried to explain the step of process in 



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conducting something in the research. The 

bundle there are some as quantification research-

oriented was used to describe a quantity of 

something. By using this bundle, the researcher 

tried to explain the quantity of scores or 

frequency as a result of the research analysis. 

The bundle the findings of showed a description of 

how the findings or the results of the research. 

By using this bundles, the researcher tried to 

describe the findings of the research being 

conducted. 

The second functions of lexical bundles is 

text-oriented. The results showed that there are 

34 lexical bundles which categorized into text-

oriented. This type concerned with the 

organization of the text and its meaning as a 

message or argument includes (Hyland, 2008, p. 

13). Moreover, the researcher found one bundle, 

it was on the other hand which classified as 

transition signals, thirteen bundles such as as a 

result, it showed that, the result of, from the analysis 

results, from the result of, it was indicated that, etc., 

classified as resultative signals, twelve bundles 

such as from the data, in this section, it means that, 

in the following table, it refers to the, the text is below, 

etc., classified as structuring signals, and eight 

bundles such as according to the, based on the, in 

this case, in terms of, the relation between, etc., 

classified as framing signals. 

The bundle on the other hand as transition 

signals text-oriented is used to establish additive 

or contrastive links between elements. By using 

this bundle, the writer contrast two arguments in 

the research. The bundle as a result as resultative 

signals is used to mark inferential or conclusion 

of the findings. By using this bundle, the writer 

describe the inference or the result of the 

research being conducted. The bundle it can be 

concluded that as structuring signals is used to 

make a conclusion about something. By using 

this bundle, the writer tried to make a 

conclusion of particular topic related to the 

research. The bundle in the case of as framing 

signals is used to situate arguments of 

something. By using this bundle, the writer 

situated the arguments by specifying the case of 

the topic. 

The final functional type of lexical 

bundles is participant-oriented. The researcher 

found that there are 12 lexical bundles which 

categorized into participant-oriented. This type 

focused on the writer or reader of the text 

(Hyland, 2008, p 14). The bundles of this type 

consists of to be able to, that would be achieved by, 

and that would be done by which categorized into 

stance features participant-oriented and nine 

bundles such as is divided into, by looking at the, 

can be identified as, can be used in, can be used to, can 

be related to, etc., categorized into engagement 

features. The bundle to be able to as stance 

features is used to indicate possibility or ability. 

Meanwhile, the bundle can be used to as 

engagement features is aimed to show 

information that has been known. 

In conclusion, the results of this study 

showed that text-oriented is the most functional 

types of lexical bundles appeared in findings and 

discussion sections of graduate students’ thesis. 

It means that the students concerned with the 

organization of the text and the argument of the 

research includes. It is in line with the finding of 

the previous studies carried out by Amirian, 

Ketabi, and Eshaghi (2013), Arani, Jalali, and 

Moini (2015), Chen and Baker (2010), Gungor 

and Uysal (2016) and Jalali (2013). They found 

that text-oriented were most frequently used in 

the academic prose. In this case, the academic 

prose is in form of students’ texts and research 

articles. 

 

The Role of Lexical Bundles in Forming 

Coherence of Graduate Students’ Thesis 

 As a result of analysis, the researcher 

found 29 bundles of the total 74 occurrences 

bundles that identified as coherence in findings 

and discussion sections of graduate students’ 

thesis. The researcher found two coherence 

devices in the students’ texts, such as reference 

and transition signals. There are 17 bundles 

categorized into reference, such as in this context 

of, it was supported by, this part consists of, it was 

related to, this is in line with, it showed that, etc. 

Structurally, those lexical bundles can be 

identified as structure type 3, type 5, type 1, type 



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11, and type 4. Then, functionally they can be 

classified into research and text oriented. 

 Besides, there are 12 bundles 

categorized into transition signals, such as in the 

same time, in front of the, for example in, such as the, 

on the other hand, as a result, etc. Structurally, 

those lexical bundles can be identified as 

structure type 3, type 4, type 12, type 2, type 5, 

and type 10. Then, functionally they can be 

classified into research, text, and participant-

oriented.  

 According to analysis results, it can be 

concluded that lexical bundles have an 

important role in forming coherence in findings 

and discussion sections of graduate students’ 

thesis. It can be seen from the analysis of 

structures and functions of lexical bundle in the 

students’ texts which has relation to coherence 

devices.   

 

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

 

Based on the analysis and discussion of 

this present study, some conclusions can be 

drawn. Conclusions in this study are about the 

use of lexical bundles structurally and 

functionally and their role in forming coherence 

in findings and discussion section of graduate 

students’ thesis.  

First, the twelve structural forms of lexical 

bundles in academic prose which proposed by 

Biber et al. (1999) are used by graduate students 

in writing their thesis. Furthermore, structure 

type 4 other prepositional phrase (fragment) was 

identified as the most structural forms of lexical 

bundles used in the students’ texts for specifying 

a particular discourse context, identifying 

particular location, and contrasting two 

arguments or events presented. 

Second, the three functional types of 

lexical bundles which proposed by Hyland 

(2008) are used by graduate students in writing 

their thesis. In addition, the most functional type 

of lexical bundles used in students’ texts is text-

oriented. Which means that the students 

concerned with the organization of the text and 

the argument of the research includes.  

Third, the use of lexical bundles have an 

important role in forming coherence of the 

students’ texts. It can be seen from the analysis 

of structures and functions of lexical bundles in 

the students’ texts which has relation to 

coherence devices, that is reference and 

transition signals. 

The conclusions explained above lead the 

researcher to provide some suggestions. For 

EFL learners, this study may give additional 

source about the structures and functions of 

lexical bundles as one of formulaic expressions 

in writing texts, especially in findings and 

discussion section of students’ thesis. This will 

help students to create a coherence text and 

achieve a communicative purpose of the text. 

For English teachers, this study could participate 

as the additional knowledge for educational 

material. Then, it may contribute to be used as a 

reference in teaching word arrangement, 

especially for structures and functions of lexical 

bundles in order to create a qualified text in the 

process of teaching and learning English. As we 

have found that lexical bundles could make 

writers more natural in writing their texts.  

Furthermore, this study still has 

weaknesses since the researcher only used one 

expert judgment to verify the validity of the data, 

therefore the interpretation might be biased. In 

addition, since this study only focuses on the use 

of lexical bundles in written discourse especially 

in findings and discussion section of students’ 

thesis. Therefore, further researchers might 

conduct such topic and find out more about 

lexical bundles in different parts of students’ 

thesis except findings and discussion section or 

in different registers, it could be in spoken or 

written form. 

 

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