419 EEJ 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 English Education Journal http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej The Realization of Metaphor Types in Green’s The Fault inOur Stars (2012) Ayu Dewi Fatimah , Hendi Pratama, Dwi Rukmini Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia Aticle Info ______________ Article History: Accepted 09 May 2022 Approved 04 July 2022 Published 15 September 2022 ______________ Keywords: Metaphor, Novel, Contemporary Theory of Metaphors ______________ Abstract ___________________________________________ Metaphors deal with transferring words to other words by comparing the similarity of its meaning. This study investigated the realization of metaphors and their relationship among the four types in the novel. Lakoff and Johnson; Lakoff and Turner mentioned four metaphors; those are structural metaphors, orientational metaphors, ontological metaphors, and image metaphors. These metaphor categorizations are mentioned in the Contemporary Theory of Metaphors (CTM). The researchers conducted a linguistic analysis of text as the method. To collect the data, the researchers used MIPVU (Metaphor Identification Procedure Vrije Universiteit) in The Fault in Our Stars by John Green. The metaphors which are found were analyzed based on classifications as they are used in the novel. In this study, there are 367 metaphors found in the novel; those are 56 structural metaphors, 40 orientational metaphors, 222 ontological metaphors, 36 image metaphors, and 13 compound metaphors. The most used metaphor in the novel is Ontological metaphor because it has more general specification than other metaphors. The compound metaphors are found based on the relationship of the four types. They are used together to strengthen, clarify, support, complete, and continue each other. The results presented that all of the metaphors are mapped in a proper way. It means they have compatible concepts transferred. Thus, this result can be used by the learners as supporting words to raise the learners' quality of speech.  Correspondent Address: Kampus Pascasarjana Unnes, Jl. Kelud Utara III Semarang 50237, Indonesia E-mail: ayudefa09@gmail.com p-ISSN 2087-0108 e-ISSN 2502-4566 Ayu Dewi Fatimah, et al. / English Education Journal 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 420 INTRODUCTION Metaphor is a set of experiences from there on creating meaning out in the world (Gordon, 1978). The meaning can represent the experience that is perceived. The actual meanings are conveyed implicitly. The words used to express metaphors are analogical words, where the words have similar situations with the comparison. Metaphor's grammatical items are capable of making the interlocutors or the readers imagine the locutors' or authors' thoughts in different ways. Metaphors are known as mediators in understanding ideas because they use more familiar references to help us understand abstract concepts that are difficult to be known (Boyd & Bailey, 2009) Metaphors are commonly used in the novel; thus, the study is focused on investigating the realization of metaphors in the novel and the relationship among the four types of metaphor in the novel. Steen (2011) explained the renew theory from Conceptual Metaphors Theory (CMT) which is called the Contemporary Theory of Metaphors (CTM) by Lakoff (1993). The CTM mentioned the addition of metaphors categorization by Lakoffand Johnson (1980); Lakoff and Turner (1989). It has a more detailed paradigm. Lakoffand Johnson (1980); Lakoffand Turner (1989) mentioned four metaphors; those are structural metaphors, orientational metaphors, ontological metaphors, and image metaphors. Structural Metaphors are abstract metaphorical conceptsstructured in terms of some other concept. They typically involve multiple individual linguistic expressions that evoke some aspect of the metaphor (as opposed to more restricted frozen metaphors which usually occur in only one expression). This metaphor has a source domain and a target domain. The target domain is transferred in a structured and sharp concept. Orientational Metaphors give concepts spatial orientation by associating an abstract knowledge area with some aspect of experiential knowledge grounded in how human beings understand their orientation in physical space, i.e. up vs. down, front vs. back, etc. If the metaphor is explained with posture, erect posture represents positive emotions, while drooping posture goes with sadness. Moreover, not all erect are happy emotional and dropping are sad but there is also a metaphor that explained other emotions. Ontological Metaphors have a relation between abstract concepts and experiences, such as events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., in terms of our experience with actual physical objects and substances in the real world. Ontological metaphors have a physical world entity in the source and activity or idea in the target. Later Lakoff and Turner (1989) redefined ontological, by specifying the physical and behavioral attributes of human beings, animals, plants, natural objects, and artifacts. Image Metaphors are a new category introduced by Lakoff and Turner (1989) which was used in this research. Theymap images onto images, which means that they do not map concepts onto concepts, but only the structure and visual attributes (e.g., color, shape, curvature) of a conceptual domain onto the structure and visual attributes of another domain. So, this metaphor concept does not affect others' utterances. It gives a clear, sharp, and detailed description of something (Hurford et al., 2007; Ibáñez & Hernández, 2011) The researchers had observed from the other studies. There are no or very few studies of metaphor that focused on metaphor in semantics. Mostly the other researchers conducted metaphors in translation studies. They used Newmark’s theory (2008) in (Olynyk, 2014). For example, study conducted by Musolff (2012); Bratož (2014); Krisnawati (2014); Gómez (2015); Raffaelli and Katunar (2016); Li (2016); Utkina (2016); Oktaviani et al. (2018); Lovihandrie et al. (2018); Shabitah & Hartono (2020); Angelia (2020). They conducted study metaphors on discourse, but they did not focus on semantic analysis. Some of the researchers used spoken discourse as the object. They are Aritonang (2014); Aradi (2014); Skorczynska and Ahrens (2015); Ivanovic (2017). This study also used the renew theory. So, it is enticing for the researchers to study the use of metaphors. This study aims to explain the four metaphors realized in Green's novel (2012) and the relationship among the four types of metaphors. The researchers would like to take the topic of metaphor to facilitate the learners in studying metaphor. METHODS Qualitative research is used in this study. The data are derived from a novel; hence, this study conducted a linguistic analysis of text as the method. The researchers would like to find out the metaphors Ayu Dewi Fatimah, et al. / English Education Journal 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 421 in the novel which is a written text. The metaphors found were analyzed based on the classifications as they are used in the novel. The type of data in this study is a document, that is, the novel entitled The Fault in Our Stars by John Green (2012). This study used a novel as the object of research within 25 chapters and 170 pages. To collect the data, the research used MIPVU (Metaphor Identification Procedure Vrije Universitet). MIPVU is a procedure used to identify metaphors in a discourse that is developed by Steen et al. (2010). This procedure has 6 steps. Over step 2, the researchers got the entire metaphor datum. The datum that was found is labeled as indirect metaphor and direct metaphor. The researchers are involved in all of the research processes, including arranging the instruments, collecting the data, analyzing, and interpreting the data. The secondary instruments used in this study are notes and are formed in tables. The procedures used by the researcher include some steps that are mentioned by Creswell (2009); Creswell (2014) those are organizing and preparing the data; re- reading the data; representing; interpreting; examining multiple levels; and creating a matrix RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The researchers found all four metaphor types are written in the novel. Some of the metaphors are used together to complete each other in an utterance. There are 367 metaphors. The study has 56 structural metaphors, 40 orientational metaphors, 222 ontological metaphors, 36 image metaphors, and 13 compound metaphors. Using the MIPVU procedure, mostly the researcher got direct metaphors in which the word is used directly. For the metaphor word that is used indirectly, the researchers should look for the more basic meaning of it. Results of Structural Metaphor The novel has 56 structural metaphors. There are 43 structural metaphors labeled as direct metaphors and 13 structural metaphors labeled as indirect metaphors. Structural metaphors deal with systematic and defined concepts transferred. The researchers got that John used clear and sharp words to draw what he meant expressly. Structural metaphor has a domain correlation between the source domain and the target domain. The target domain is usually structured concepts. Example 1 C2P15S4 I was a bit of a Victorian Lady, fainting-wise. Structural metaphor transferred a concept into another concept based on systematic correlation. 'I was a bit of a Victorian Lady' is a structural metaphor. There is a domain correlation between the source domain and the target domain on the utterance. I was a bit of Victorian Lady, … Source domain Target domain The target domain above has a structured concept. The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The novel showed that Hazel tries to keep her manners by hiding her illness. Even though she felt so hurt, she thinks she should be a Victorian lady. Example 2 C7P9S6 “Then I am a cancer-fighting machine,” I told him. “I am acancer-fighting machine,…' is called a structural metaphor. The target domain refers to the structure concept. It is defined sharply. The abstract concept is structured into another concept in an easy way for readers to understand. ThenI am a cancer-fighting machine Source domain Target domain This utterance is said by Hazel. She compared herself with a machine which is corresponding to her condition. Hazel did her repeat activities at the hospital, like staring at acoustic ceiling tiles, watching television, sleeping, in pain, and wishing for time to pass. So, she called herself a cancer-fighting machine. Something that did activities over and over again until it is broken. Based on the theory, structural metaphor has a structured concept as target domain and source domain. The researchers have found the metaphor in the novel. All structural metaphors have a target domain and source domain. For example, 'I'm a grenade'. The utterance has a defined concept. It has a source domain and a structured target domain. I am a grenade, … Source domain Target domain The writer tells Hazel is the suck of her life. Her mother wants Hazel to be a woman, have friends, and dates a boy, but Hazel does not want to do that, with her limited life, she wants to spend it with her parents. Ayu Dewi Fatimah, et al. / English Education Journal 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 422 So, the writer transferred Hazel into a grenade, a small bomb that easily explodes with a little friction. It is the same with the theory by Lakoff and Turner (1989) that one structural metaphor concept is expressed structured and sharply defined concept, as "argument is war" mapping. Krisnawati (2014) also finds that 'goals are gold' is a metaphorical linguistic expression in the soccer game news, but she does not mention the metaphor categories specifically. Results of Orientational Metaphor Through the novel, the researchers got 40orientational metaphors. There are 28orientationalmetaphors labeled as direct metaphors and 12orientational metaphors labeled as indirect metaphors. Orientational metaphor associated the abstract concept with the concept of experiential concept in human beings' understanding of physical space. It could be up vs down, front vs back, in vs out, etc. If the metaphor is explained with posture, erect posture is represented with positive emotions, while drooping posture goes with sadness. Moreover, not all erect are happy emotional and dropping are sad but there is also a metaphor that explained other emotions. Example 1 C3P16S1 So, I excused myself on the grounds of pain and fatigue, as I often had over the years when seeing Kaitlyn or any of my other friends. 'the grounds of pain and fatigue' explain the level of her feeling that related to the word 'grounds'. It has the concept of spatial orientation in physical space that is down dimension. Hazel tolerates her pain and fatigue, truly, it always hurt her. She tries to accept all parts of herself because there is nobody can help her through her cancer. Example 2 C2P12S4 Maybe he brought home a different girl every night to show her movies and feel her up. 'feel her up' represents the concept of spatial orientation by connecting abstract feeling with experienced feeling. 'up' feeling usually deals with a positive feeling. 'up' here means that he (August) wants to make the girl happy, cheerful, and fun by showing her movies, even though, Hazel does not know whether it is true or not. It is called an orientational metaphor. The researchers found the orientational metaphors in the novel deal with physical space for up vs. down, out vs. in, and on vs. off. Based on Lakoff and Turner's theory (1989), orientational metaphor gives abstract concepts with some aspect of experiential concepts grounded in how human beings understand their orientation in physical space, i.e. up vs. down, front vs. back, etc. For example, ‘I’m on a roller coaster that only goes up'. 'up' is part of physical space. It has meant a positive attitude by August. August takes a positive perspective on his life although he has osteosarcoma. The entire abstract concept of his life is represented by 'the roller coaster' and the experiential concept in physical space is known by 'up'. This example was also found in the other study by Angelia (2020). She found it as a metaphor, but she studied translation strategies. So, she did not explain the category of the metaphor and the analysis in detail. On the other datum, the researchers got the other data that used nonphysical space. It is mentioned in words bright, light, shine, losing, ground, silence, and little. All of those words include in the experiential concept. The words make the readers easy to understand what implied meaning of the metaphors. For example, 'I felt so little in the backseat for some reason’ expresses how Hazel's feeling, she feels down caused of August's demise. The word 'little' just explains something abstract to something real that Hazel feels. It gives the concept of spatial orientation by using down dimension Results of Ontological Metaphor The ontological metaphor in the novel was found in 222utterances. There are 174 structural metaphors labeled as direct metaphors and 48 structural metaphors which are labeled as indirect metaphors. Ontological metaphor gives a structure of metaphor between abstract concepts and experiences such as emotions, activities, events, actual physical objects, etc. Later, Lakoff and Turner (1989) add more to the definition of ontological. They specified the physical and behavioral attributes of human beings, animals, plants, natural objects, and artifacts. In the novel, the metaphor is found mostly used in emotions, activities, animals, and natural objects. Example 1 C1P2S3 Depression isa side effect of dying. 'A side effect of dying' is called an ontological metaphor. Dying does not have side effects. It just draws how the patient's experience or emotions. The experience merges with the patient's mind, so it concretes something abstract with experience. Nobody knows when they will get died. Depression Ayu Dewi Fatimah, et al. / English Education Journal 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 423 might cause by other factors of mental health. Hazel feels this emotion because she has cancer which can make her die. So, she relates depression with dying. Example 2 C1P2S6 …, who agreed that I was veritably swimming in a paralyzingandtotally clinical depression, … Hazel has suffered caused of her cancer. It is expressed by the word 'swimming' that include in the ontological metaphor. It is represented by actual physical words in the real world. 'swimming' is literally a word that is used for pool, water, etc., but, here 'swimming' is used for expressing how to suffer Hazel is. People usually do swimming full of water, but Hazel is full of paralyzing. Throughout the novel, ontological metaphor is the most used by the writer. There are 222 data on ontological metaphors. It is mostly used because ontological metaphor has general specifications than other metaphors. The researchers found that the writer mostly used the object as represent concepts. Ontological metaphor deals with a metaphor that conceptualized events, activities, emotions, and ideas of an abstract concept into something that has physical characteristics. Later Lakoff and Turner (1989) redefined the physical objects specifically; they added behavioral attributes of human beings, animals, plants, natural objects, and artifacts. For example, for idea conceptualization, 'A side effect of dying' is called an ontological metaphor. Dying does not have side effects. It just draws how the patient's experience or emotions. The experience merges with the patient's mind, so it concretes something abstract with experience. Hazel feels this emotion because she has cancer which can make her die. So, she relates depression with dying. It is got from the patient's idea. For other data, ‘I was veritably swimming in a paralyzing and totally clinical depression', is included in activities conceptualization. Hazel has suffered caused of her cancer. It is expressed by the word 'swimming' that include in the ontological metaphor. It is represented by actual physical words in the real world. 'swimming' is literally a word that is used for pool, water, etc., but, here 'swimming' is used for expressing how to suffer Hazel is. People usually do swimming full of water, but Hazel is full of paralyzing. It is also found by Angelia (2020), who looked for the translation strategies in metaphor in the same novel. She said that the utterance content refers to a girl who is depressed because of her illness. Results of Image Metaphor The researchers found 36 image metaphors in the novel. There are 26 structural metaphors labeled as direct metaphors and 10 structural metaphors labeled as indirect metaphors. Image metaphor is used as visual attributes and structure of the concept, not maps of another concept. So, this metaphor concept does not affect utterances. It gives a clear, sharp, and detailed description of something. This metaphor was added by Lakoff and Turner (1989). Example 1 C1P4S3 We all sat in a circle right in the middle of the cross, where the two boards would have met,... The two boards had represented as image metaphors, where the metaphor explains the utterance before. Hazel tells how her Support Group description, a group that she does not want to be there. She feels it like in hell. Example 2 C4P8S17 A sparkling addition to the series. The utterance ‘A sparkling addition to the series maps the visual attributes of a sparkling onto the series addition. It uses the visual attribute of texture. August tells there is a good addition to the book that Hazel's read. He wants to give a spoiler to Hazel. August uses the word 'sparkling' to draw something good, funny, etc. John (2012) rarely used image metaphors. Image metaphor gives the attribute for the concept. The attributes can be, color, shape, curvature, action, or texture. It does not influence the target concept, but it makes the target concept obvious and sharp concept. So, what the writer meant is delivered to the readers. For the example data, the utterance 'a slithering eel of insidious intent' maps the visual attribute of a slithering eel onto insidious intent. It uses the visual attribute of action. The image metaphor here maps Hazel's imagination if the tumor spread into her bones and then bored the holes into his skeleton. By the image metaphor, the readers easily imagine what the writer wants to tell. Image metaphor is the new theory by Lakoff and Turner (1989), so the researchers did not find other studies which used this metaphor. Results of Relations among the Four Types of Metaphors Some of the metaphors are written together. They support each other. The researchers got 15 metaphors that used two metaphors together in an Ayu Dewi Fatimah, et al. / English Education Journal 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 424 utterance. There are 9 utterances that used the same metaphors together and 6 utterances that used different metaphors in an utterance. Example 1 C6P20S19 I’m a grenade and at some point I’m going to blow up, ... "I'm a grenade' is part of the structural metaphor. The utterance has a target domain and a source domain. It is a sharp concept and maps what Hazel means to say. A grenade is a small bomb thrown by hand that, burst violently and noisily as a result of rapid combustion, decomposition, pressure, and another process. This grenade represents Hazel herself. Within a little touch, she might explode. 'I'm going to blow up' include in the ontological metaphor. A human cannot explode; something that can explode is like a bomb, grenade, etc. The words grenade and explode have linkages. Both of these words connect with each other. Hazel is a grenade and sometimes can explode time by time. She may do something dangerous, get mad, and others, because of her cancer. Example 2 C12P58S9 We should team up and be this disabled vigilante duo roaring through the world,… 'We should team up' include in the orientational metaphor. The metaphor used physical space that is 'up'. This utterance has a positive emotion. 'Team up' refers to cooperating, and collaborating. So, they can 'roaring through the world'. The utterance 'roaring through the world' is called an ontological metaphor. The word 'roar' is usually used for animals, but here they want to prove to people, to the world, that they are fabulous. Two of the metaphors relate to each other. The researchers found the relation between the four types of metaphors in the novel. She got two metaphors used together in an utterance. Both of the metaphors used are complete and support each other. It can be strengthened, clarify, and carry on the first metaphor. For example, for the compound metaphor that has a carry-on function, the utterance ‘I’m a grenade and at some point, I’m going to blow up,’."I'm a grenade' is part of the structural metaphor. The utterance has a target domain and a source domain. It is a sharp concept and maps what Hazel means to say. A grenade is a small bomb thrown by hand that, burst violently and noisily as a result of rapid combustion, decomposition, pressure, and another process. This grenade represents Hazel herself. Within a little touch, she might explode. 'I'm going to blow up' include in the ontological metaphor. A human cannot explode; something that can explode is like a bomb, grenade, etc. The words grenade and explode have linkages. Both of these words connect with each other. Hazel is a grenade and sometimes can explode time by time. She may do something dangerous, get mad, and others, because of her cancer. For the compound metaphor which has strengthened function, the utterance ‘they’re made of me as surely as my brain and my heart are made of me’.'They're made of me' and 'my brain and my heart are made of me' are called structural metaphors. Both of them have clear concepts. They also have source domains and target domains. The second metaphor is used to support the first metaphor. To make sure that her illness is already part of herself like her brain and her heart. Figure 1. Diagram of Metaphors Types in the Novel Based on the figure 1 above, mostly metaphors found in the novel are ontological metaphors which got 222 utterances. The second place is occupied by structural metaphors. It got 56 utterances in the novel. The next is orientational metaphors which have 40 utterances in the novel. The fourth is placed by image metaphors. They have 36 utterances. Compound metaphors have the last position. They rarely mention in the novel with 13 utterances. From all of the metaphors found, the researchers mostly got the metaphors data in MRW direct. So, the researchers did not need to look for the basic of the meaning from the metaphor words. There are some studies related to the topic of this research. Angelia (2020) conducted the same novel but she focused on translation strategies. She used Larson’s theories on figurative language. Krisnawati (2014) investigated cognitive on metaphor fulfills in newspaper discourse. She used conceptual 0 50 100 150 200 MRW direct MRW indirect Ayu Dewi Fatimah, et al. / English Education Journal 12 (3) (2022) 419-426 425 metaphor theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). MIPVU procedures as the data collection. This study has some similarities with this recent study but the researchers used the renew theory of conceptual metaphor that is contemporary metaphors. Then, Lakoff and Turner (1989) added new metaphor that is image metaphors. The theory used in this study is Lakoff & Johnson (1980); Lakoff & Turner (1989)’s theory which classified the metaphors which found in the novel. They mentioned four metaphors, that is, structural metaphors, orientational metaphors, ontological metaphors, and image metaphors. The theory by Lakoff (1993) called the Contemporary Theory of Metaphors (CTM) was also used in this study. The previous studies are mostly used Conceptual Metaphors Theory (CMT) which first proposed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), but CTM is a new paradigm which rarely used. Therefore, this study implied the novelty one. Built upon the results, the researchers have some suggestions for educators, especially in English education, future researchers, and readers. For educators, the result can contribute to the development of metaphor theories in semantic studies. It can be used as supporting teaching materials in the teaching and learning process, especially in semantic classes. For future researchers who conduct similar studies on metaphors, the result can be used as a reference. They can expand the function of the metaphors type based on Lakoff and Johnson (1980); Lakoff and Turner (1989). For readers, the result can be used by the media users as supporting words to raise the users' quality of speech. It also can be used by thelearners as supporting teaching materials in learning English, especially in semantic classes. CONCLUSION Based on the results and the discussion above, there are 367 metaphors found in the novel The Fault in Our Stars by John Green (2012). The study, then, presented the answers to the research problem. The researchers found 56 structural metaphors. All of the structural metaphors found have a structured concept as target domain and source domain. There are 40 orientational metaphors in the novel. The researchers discover the orientational metaphors in the novel deal with physical space and nonphysical space. For the physical space, the words used are up vs. down, out vs. in, and on vs. off. While other data that used nonphysical space mentioned in words bright, light, shine, losing, ground, silence, and little. For the ontological metaphor, the researchers got 222 data. Ontological metaphor is the most used metaphor in the novel. It is mostly used because ontological metaphor has general specifications than other metaphors. The finding showed that the writer mostly used object as representation concept. Image metaphors are rarely used by the writer. There are only 36 image metaphors. Image metaphor gives the attribute for the concept. The attributes are color, shape, curvature, action, and texture. It does not influence the target concept, but it makes the target concept obvious and sharp. 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