ENGLISH FRANCA Academic Journal of English Language and Education DOI:10.29240/ef.v621.5242 - http://journal.iaincurup.ac.id/index.php/english/index pISSN: 2580-3670, eISSN:2580-3689; Vol 7, No 2, 2023, Page 423-436 Article info: http://journal.iaincurup.ac.id/index.php/english Received 24 April 2023; Received in revised form 10 July 2023; Accepted 24 August 2023, Avalaible Online 30 November 2023 Published by Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Curup on behalf of ENGLISH FRANCA: Academic Journal of English Language and Education. This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license Copyright (c) 2023 Author An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur¹, Agus Subiyanto² ¹ Diponegoro Univeristy, Semarang, Indonesia ² Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia Corresponding Email: fransiskainapaskawuwur@gmail.com TO CITE THIS ARTICLE AUTHOR (2023) “An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach”: Wuwur, F., & Subiyanto, A. (2023). An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach. ENGLISH FRANCA : Academic Journal of English Language and Education, 7(2). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.29240/ef.v7i2.8469 Introduction Language is one of the media used by humans to communicate. It can be seen when adults and children can communicate because of their natural abilities with other people. There are various English pronunciations and sounds that influence how speakers pronounce words. Since one sound can represent several pronunciations, language learners may need support learning to speak English fluently. However, native speakers usually speak words that speakers rarely encounter. They are proficient with the pronunciation without any effort to adjust to it. It is significantly different among non-native English speakers, particularly Indonesian students, who view English as a foreign language. Students do not utilize English as their formal language in school, college, and other formal situations. In school, English is taught exclusively for comprehension. Thus, students need to learn the correct pronunciation of every English word, despite being expected to speak English well outside the classroom. Students can acquire English pronunciation from their instructor, another person, or, ideally, from native speakers. They will attempt to emulate native speakers and receive further practice pronouncing foreign sounds appropriately. Students do not interact with native speakers, and students have extremely few opportunities to interact with native speakers. Students can Abstract. English students as second language learners must prioritize pronunciation. This study examines the pronunciation errors involved in the pronunciation of English consonants in Preschool Children (5 years), evaluates the analysis using a distinctive features approach based on Schane (1973), and discovers the possible factors that cause the errors. This study uses a descriptive qualitative approach. The data for this study came from listening to and observing the natural pronunciation of three Indonesian preschool. The writer analyzed the data, identified errors in children's pronunciation, classified, discovered, and concluded the data. As a result, most 5-year-old preschoolers make consonant pronunciation errors. Students mispronounce eight consonants. They are [tʃ], [ʤ], [θ], [s, [z], [ʃ], and [v]. The sound [tʃ] is changed by the sound [k], [ʤ] is changed by the sound [d], [θ] is changed by the sound [t], [ʃ] is changed by [s], and [v] is changed by [p]. Then, there is a [s] sound and a [z] sound when deletion occurs. Students also make articulation errors because some English consonant sounds do not exist in Indonesian, which is one of the factors that allows students to replace or change English sounds. Keywords: Pronunciation Errors, Distinctive Features, Consonants, Preschool Children cccccc http://journal.iaincurup.ac.id/index.php/english/index https://portal.issn.org/resource/ISSN/2580-3670 https://portal.issn.org/resource/ISSN/2580-3670 http://journal.iaincurup.ac.id/index.php/english mailto:fransiskainapaskawuwur@gmail.com http://dx.doi.org/10.29240/ef.v7i2.8469 Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 424 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) utilize recorded materials as a substitute, but not all teachers can afford to purchase alternative electronic devices, and only some schools contain electronic technology. The effect of Indonesia's several dialects complicates several issues. When learning a new language, one analyzes the linguistic components. There are three essential features of the language: phonology, lexicon, and grammar, in which phonology plays a significant role. Pronunciation is a component of language that is considered necessary. The importance of pronunciation in establishing speech intelligibility cannot be overstated. Mispronunciations generated by non-native English speakers contribute to some examples of misunderstandings in English-based communication. Much of this is due to the differences between the sound systems of English and other languages. Neither vocabulary nor grammar makes English learners wrong, but their pronunciation is in the communication process. Then, students of English as a second language must prioritize pronunciation. Therefore, this pronunciation plays a vital role in speaking ability. The diversity in phonological qualities, especially in the vowel and consonant levels of every ethnic group in the world, is a challenge that makes learning English pronunciation difficult for students. Although English is taught in school, most children frequently make errors in hearing, speaking, reading, and writing, for example. Phonology is automatically tied to pronunciation, making the writer willing to take up the topic in pronunciation research, especially in phonology. Students, particularly children, experience the sounds of language in their surroundings as part of language acquisition. The first stage is to master the child's vocabulary, as the process of acquiring language begins at birth. As a natural component of speech development, all children, from infants to school-aged children, will make errors with their speech sounds as they learn to talk. It is a highly complex speaking skill, and children require much practice to master it. A phonological error occurs when a child substitutes one sound for another. This pattern is referred to as a phonological process. When children seek to utter words, including sounds they cannot pronounce, they will replace simpler sounds with later-developing ones they cannot pronounce. Therefore, the writer is interested in selecting preschoolers with a tight connection to phonological processes, especially in the English pronunciation of Preschool Children (5 years old). Thus, the errors discovered by the writer can be evaluated using the distinctive features approach based on Schane's (1973). Up to now, there are several previous studies that have been dealt with pronunciation errors made by children and students. First, a research entitled "Pronunciation Errors Committed by Palestinian Students at An-Najah National University: An Analytical Approach" was written by Jabali, O., M. & Abuzaid Y., J. (2017). This study identifies mispronounced English consonants by Palestinian Arabic speakers. It also examines Palestinians' English errors. There are 20 An-Najah National University undergraduates' English is recorded to identify problem consonant sounds. The study found that /p/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /ɹ/, and /ŋ/ are problematic. Second, the research entitled "Analisis Kesalahan Fonologis Bahasa Mandarin Oleh Mahasiswa D3 Bahasa Mandarin Universitas Jenderal Soedirman" was written by Supriadi, N. (2014). This study examines Chinese pronunciation errors by Jenderal Soedirman University D3 students. The data was processed using transformational-generative phonology and a speech analyzer tool. Aspirated consonants were pronounced without aspiration, while post-alveolar consonants were pronounced frontal alveolar. The phonological system discrepancy between Chinese and Indonesian, and Chinese and Javanese as respondents' mother tongues, causes the pronunciation inaccuracy. Third, research entitled "Pronunciation Errors Made By Senior High School Students In Speaking Performance” was written by Adila, S., & Refnaldi (2019). This study tests 352 students' consonant pronunciation. This study randomly selected 64 students. Percentages were used to evaluate the pronunciation test, questionnaire, and interview records. Two percent of speech is consonant. (1) There are six types of consonant sounds made by students' speaking performance: Alveolar (38.18%), Interdental (34.65%), Alveo-palatal Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 425 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) (12.20%), Labiodental (11.81%), Velar (1.79%), and Bilabial (1.38%); (2) Factors that cause students to make pronunciation errors in speaking performance include their mother tongue (81.25%), less use of English in daily life (66.67%), and unchallenging lessons (56.25%). Then, speaking errors include six consonant kinds and many alveolar sounds. Students needed more practice pronouncing consonant sounds to avoid misunderstandings. Fourth, research entitled "Phonological Processes In Language Acquisition By Children Of Three Years Old" was written by Purba, H., S., R (2016). This observational case study was performed with the subject's parents over three months (Indonesian children aged three years). In Indonesian children's acquisition of phonology, the Fis Phenomenon occurs. The results showed that R, A, and F had problems acquiring the sound [r] during phonological acquisition. Also, phonological processes include assimilation, substitution, and syllable structure, with the absence of vowel neutralization, vocalization, labial assimilation, and voicing. Besides that, all topics speak fis. It shows that phoneme perception precedes phoneme production. Fifth, research entitled "Phonological Processes Applied by Students of English Language and Letters Department of Maliki State Islamic University of Malang" was written by Rosyidin, K. (2016). This research examines the phonological processes used by English Language and Letters students at Malang's Maliki State Islamic University. It is performed by examining the processes' types, frequency, and application methods. Two dominant forms of phonological rules, including reciprocal assimilation and dissimilation, were discovered more often when the speaker utters fast speech. Although it differs from the previous studies that the writer refers to, there are similarities where this research and previous studies have the same field, in the field of education. In addition, similarities were also made to students' and children's pronunciation errors. However, previous research has only focused on errors. On the other hand, some specialization and novelty distinguish this research from previous studies. The theory used is the theory of characteristics, which previous research did not use. The research subjects analyzed by the writer are children aged five years who will produce different results because this research focuses on pronunciation that contains specific consonants. Therefore, through this research, the writer focuses on three points: 1) Identifying the errors in children's pronunciation, 2) Analyzing the analysis using a characteristic technique based on Schane (1973), and 3) Discovering the possible factors that cause preschool children's English pronunciation errors. As in Schane's (1973) framework, phonological processes are utilized as study strategies to explain changes in the rules of spoken English sound production. Schane (1973) has established three characteristics: (1) major class, which is utilized to distinguish between consonants, vowels, and semi-vowels; consonants (+/-cons), syllables (+/-sil), and sonorants (+/-son) are the three features (2) the way of articulation, with five sounds based on the pronunciation; continuance, delayed-release, sonorous, nasal, and lateral, and (3) the articulation site that has two characteristics; anterior and coronal. This theory reveals that there are units smaller than phonemes and these smallest units have different characteristics. This distinguishing characteristic identifies the smallest unit in sound analysis. Then, Noam Chomsky put forward a new linguistic idea, generative theory, in 1957. He first proposed this generative grammar in a book entitled Syntactic Structure (Sampson, 1980). At first, this generative theory studied the language at the grammatical level. Over time this is known as transformational grammar, also called transformational-generative grammar. This transformational grammar assumes that the emergence of language variations is based on the transformation process and that language generalization is made worldwide. Thus, there are universal rules in the form of language patterns in the human mind. One of the studies on transformational grammar is about phonological rules in generative phonology. Based on the generative theory, among others, the system of rules related to sound and meaning, the phonetic representation of a language, the process of sound Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 426 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) changes, and the assumptions underlying sound changes. There are two concepts in generative phonology; deep structure and surface structure. Deep structures are denoted by //, while surface structures are denoted by []. Deep structure is a language pattern in the human mind, while surface structure is a variation of language that appears in its concrete form. This transformation process (phonological rules) links the deep and surface structures. Therefore, it can be concluded that the phonological process, which changes a language's sound, is the scope focus of generative phonology. It explains the process of changing the sound that occurs. Theoretical Framework As in Schane's (1973) framework, phonological processes are utilized as study strategies to explain changes in the rules of spoken English sound production. Schane (1973) has established three characteristics: (1) major class, which is utilized to distinguish between consonants, vowels, and semi-vowels; consonants (+/-cons), syllables (+/-sil), and sonorants (+/-son) are the three features (2) the way of articulation, with five sounds based on the pronunciation; continuance, delayed-release, sonorous, nasal, and lateral, and (3) the articulation site that has two characteristics; anterior and coronal. This theory reveals that there are units smaller than phonemes and these smallest units have different characteristics. This distinguishing characteristic identifies the smallest unit in sound analysis. Then, Noam Chomsky put forward a new linguistic idea, generative theory, in 1957. He first proposed this generative grammar in a book entitled Syntactic Structure (Sampson, 1980). At first, this generative theory studied the language at the grammatical level. Over time this is known as transformational grammar, also called transformational-generative grammar. This transformational grammar assumes that the emergence of language variations is based on the transformation process and that language generalization is made worldwide. Thus, there are universal rules in the form of language patterns in the human mind. One of the studies on transformational grammar is about phonological rules in generative phonology. Based on the generative theory, among others, the system of rules related to sound and meaning, the phonetic representation of a language, the process of sound changes, and the assumptions underlying sound changes. There are two concepts in generative phonology; deep structure and surface structure. Deep structures are denoted by //, while surface structures are denoted by []. Deep structure is a language pattern in the human mind, while surface structure is a variation of language that appears in its concrete form. This transformation process (phonological rules) links the deep and surface structures. Therefore, it can be concluded that the phonological process, which changes a language's sound, is the scope focus of generative phonology. It explains the process of changing the sound that occurs. Materials and Method Research design is a crucial part of the study's overall methodology. A research design is a strategy for gathering information and assessing it. Research design is defined by the stages involved in data collection, analysis, and interpretation (Cresswell, 2013). The writer used a descriptive qualitative approach in this research methodology. The goal of a qualitative research approach is to get an understanding of a phenomenon from the viewpoint of humans in their natural environments. The emphasis is on providing a detailed verbal description of the event rather than a numerical one to better comprehend and analyze it. In addition, errors in pronunciation found in EFL preschool children (5 years old) were analyzed and interpreted descriptively using a qualitative study approach, focusing on the usage of words, not numbers. The data for this research came from listening to and observing the natural pronunciations of three Indonesian children in preschool. They are Olive, Jesin, and Christopher, all five years old. Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 427 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) In addition, all three of the children are now involved in preschool. The writer enrolled in a reading education program at one of the institution courses in Pontianak. In addition to concentrating on writing and speaking abilities, particularly English reading skills, this institution proposes a reading program that demonstrates how letters join to create the same sound and gives students control over their reading development. This teaching technique requires three primary abilities: sound sensitivity (phonemic awareness), sound system (phonics), and letter-sound combination. Therefore, this subject is significantly relevant to this research. Through this, the writer wants to determine if students' pronunciation of English words reveals a phonological errors. Furthermore, the writer wants to analyze the pronunciation errors discovered in the theory of distinctive features based on Schane's (1973) theory. The writer collected the research data from the pronunciation of five-year-old preschool children. During the two meetings, the three students were given sixty-seven (67) different nouns to use in their vocabulary throughout the data collection process. The writer chooses the nouns as the material in the children's pronunciation according to the pronunciation of English vowels and consonants, which are nouns that are included in the number of English vowels. There are twelve vowels, such as /I:/, /I/, /e/, /æ/, /ǝ/, /ɜ:/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/, /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /u:/ , /ʊ/. Then, there are two types of vowels in English, where there are long vowels and short vowels. Then, English has twenty-four consonants, which are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [h], [t], [tʃ], [dʒ], [m], [n], [ŋ], [l], [r], [w]. The instructor then gave each of the three students instructions on pronouncing the words, and they were to follow those directions strictly. Audio recordings were made of the students' pronunciation to help the writer identify and classify the errors. The collected data is processed descriptively within a regulated and described framework. Based on the collected data, the instrument used for this study is the official website of the Oxford Learner's Dictionary (https://oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com), which serves as a reference for correct pronunciation in accented North American English, where it is English is the most commonly used. The website allows the writer to type IPA symbols through a software application at https://software.sil.org/ipahelp2-1/. Then, in supporting the writer's research, the writer describes the sounds of spoken language through a set of symbols; the writer uses an Interactive IPA chart, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), accessed via https://www.ipachart.com/. The writer analyses the data and identifies the errors in children's pronunciation through recorded audio. Finally, the writer analyzes the data using Schane's (1973) notation symbol theory by identifying and classifying. After that, the writer draws conclusions based on these findings. Results and Discussion Results Errors found in English pronunciation of Preschool Children (5 years) This study was intended to find the pronunciation errors of 5-year-old preschool students, where three students collected the data. Students' pronunciation is recorded using audio and played back several times to get accurate data. After transcribing the data into an International Phonetic Alphabets, it was carefully analyzed. This study only focused on English consonant sounds. Then the errors were calculated. The table below shows the errors and the total number of consonants made by 5-year-old Indonesian preschoolers in pronouncing consonant sounds. Table 1. Types of consonants and the total frequency No. Error Frequency 1. Voiceless postalveolar affricate - [tʃ] 20 2. Voiced palato-alveolar affricate – [ʤ] 19 3. Voiceless dental fricative – [θ] 10 Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 428 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) 4. Voiceless alveolar fricative – [s] 9 5. Voiced alveolar fricative – [z] 7 6. Voiceless postalveolar fricative – [ʃ] 3 7. Voiced labiodental fricative – [v] 2 Total 70 Based on the data identified and analyzed by the writer, there were seventy (70) five- year-old preschoolers' pronunciation errors in the three students. From the table above, there are seven types of consonants found in the students' pronunciation errors, such as the sound [tʃ], [ʤ], [k], [θ], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [v]. Thus, there are twenty (20) Alveolar Palate Fricative sounds - [tʃ] as the dominant pronunciation mistakes made by students. This sound can be known as a voiceless alveolar palate fricative. Even though most students recognize these sounds, they have only heard them in the context of classroom instruction. Students mispronounce it because the sound does not exist in Indonesian phonology. For example, the term "child" is often pronounced as [ʧaɪld] but is pronounced [taɪld]. The students prefer to pronounce [t] or [k] instead of the [tʃ] sound. Students had problems with the voiced post-alveolar affricate with nineteen out of the total, which is written as [ʤ]. This consonant is the one that has the second highest number of pronunciation errors. In this case, students typically pronounce [ʤ] as a [j] or a [d], or they do not even speak it at all. For example, the students tend to mispronounce the word "stage," which should be pronounced as [steɪd], which should be pronounced like this [steɪʤ]. It may occur if the students cannot recognize or use the sound [ʤ] in their regular communication. In the sound [θ] or what is known as a voiceless dental fricative. Students make a total of ten pronunciation errors. In pronouncing the sound [θ], the students tend to replace it with the sound [t]. For the word "thief," where students pronounce it like this [θif], students should pronounce it like this [tif]. The mispronunciation of the sound [s] appeared in as many as nine frequencies, where the students mispronounced this voiceless alveolar fricative sound. In this consonant [s], the students tend to omit the [s] sound when it appears as an ending when pronouncing it. For in the word "box," where students should pronounce it like this [bɒks], but the [s] sound is omitted to become [bɒk]. Another pronunciation error is in the [z] sound. This sound, known as a voiced alveolar fricative, has as many as seven frequencies that students mispronounce. It happens because the students tend to change the sound [z] to [j] or eliminate the [z] sound so that it makes it easier for them to pronounce it. As with the word "jeans," students pronounce it like this [ʤinz] whereas students should pronounce it like this [ʤin]. Besides that, in the voiceless postalveolar fricative sound, or what is known as the consonant [ʃ], there are also three frequencies where the students pronounce it wrong. The students pronounce more [s] but the [ʃ] sound, as in the word "ship." Students pronounce it like this [sɪp], where it should be pronounced like this [ʃɪp]. Then, the last there is the consonant [v], or what is known as the voiced labiodental fricative. This consonant is the least occurring consonant, which amounts to only two when the students pronounce it wrong. In pronouncing the sound [v], the students tend to replace it with the sound [p]. The word 'van' has the sound [væn], but the students pronounce it like this [pæn]. Analysis of English pronunciation errors in Preschool Children (5 years) Based on the grouped eight consonants, the writer below analyzes each consonant and constructs it using Schane's (1973) distinctive feature theory. First of all, mispronunciation of the sound [tʃ] from the word ‘church’ can be explained based on the distinctive features of a word from [tʃɜːrtʃ]. It changed due to a change in pronunciation by the students to [tʃɜːrk]. The rule explains that a voiceless postalveolar affricate [tʃ] with the Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 429 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, -ant, +cor, +del rel] changes to a consonant sound [k] or known as a voiceless velar stop with the characteristic [ -syll, +cons, -son, -ant, -cor] and occurs at the final position. These two sounds raise the tip or blade of the tongue towards the teeth, the alveolar area, or the palatal area. The change in sound can also be seen in a feature manner, which involves a more extended contact area between the articulators that are said to be distributed. Then, there is a delayed release in the [tʃ] sound. It distinguishes the affricate from other non-continuant sounds, especially the [k] sound. It can be illustrated as follows: ‘church’ [tʃɜːrtʃ] → [tʃɜːrk] tʃ k -syll -syll +cons +cons -son -son # -ant -ant +cor -cor Figure 1. The [tʃ] and [k] sound illustration Then secondly, the mispronunciation of the sound [ʤ] from the word ‘stage’ can be explained based on one of the words from [steɪʤ], and the students change it to [steɪd]. So, it can be said that this rule explains that the voiceless postalveolar affricate [ʤ] with the characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, -ant, +cor, +strid] turns into a consonant sound [d] or is known as a voiced alveolar stop. with the traits [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, +cor, -strid] appearing in the final position. Both of these sounds are affected by how the release of a stream of air produces a hissing sound. It can be illustrated as follows: ‘stage’ [steɪʤ] → [steɪd] ʤ d -syll -syll +cons +cons -son -son # -ant +ant +cor +cor +strid -strid Figure 2. The [ʤ] → [d] sound illustration Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 430 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) In the third, the mispronunciation of the voiceless dental fricative or the consonant [θ] from the word ‘thief’ can be explained based on one of the words of /θif/, and the students change it to /tif/. So, it can be said that this rule explains that the voiceless dental fricative [θ] with the characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, +cor, +cont] turns into a consonant sound [t] or is known as a voiceless alveolar stop with characterize [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, +cor, - cont] appearing in the starting position. Both these sounds are influenced by how sound is produced, whether by the free flow of air in the oral cavity. This can be illustrated as follows: ‘thief’ [θif] → [tif] θ t -syll -syll +cons +cons -son -son # +ant +ant +cor +cor +cont -cont Figure 3. The [θ] → [t] sound illustration The fourth consonant, a mispronunciation of the voiceless alveolar fricative or the consonant [s], from the word ‘box’, can be explained based on one of the words [bɒks], but the [s] sound is omitted to become [bɒk]. So, it can be said that this rule explains that voiceless alveolar fricative [s] with the characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, +cor, +cont], is deleted, and the sound [k], which is characterized by [-syll, +cons, -son, -ant, -cor, -cont], pronounced at the end of a word. It happens because of the place feature, where the sound is produced by lifting the tip or the alveolar area. Then, the sound is generated from the alveolar area to the front of the oral cavity. In addition, it is also related to the manner in which the free flow of air produces sound in the oral cavity. It can be illustrated as follows: Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 431 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) ‘box’ [bɑːks] → [bɑːk] s k -syll -syll +cons +cons -son Ø -son # +ant -ant +cor -cor +cont -cont Figure 4. The [s] → [k] sound illustration Fifth, the mispronunciation of voiced alveolar fricative or consonant [z] from the word ‘jeans’ can be explained based on one of the words from ʤinz/, but the sound [z] is omitted to become /ʤin/. So, it can be said that the rule explains that the alveolar fricative sound [z] with the characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, -nasal, +ant, +cor, +cont] is omitted, and the sound [n], which is marked with [±syll, +cons, +son, +nasal, +ant, +cor, -cont], pronounced at the end of a word. It also happens because of the manner feature, about how sound is produced by lowering the velum and allowing air to flow through the nasal cavities. Besides that, it also affects how the sound is produced with relatively free airflow. So, this can be illustrated as follows: ‘jeans’ [ʤinz] → [ʤin] z n -syll ±syll +cons +cons -son Ø +son # -nasal +nasal +ant +ant +cor +cor +cont -cont Figure 5. The [z] → [n] sound illustration Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 432 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) Sixth, the mispronunciation of voiceless postalveolar fricative or consonant [ʃ] from the word ‘ship’ can be explained based on one of the words from /ʃɪp/, but the students change it to /sɪp/. So, it can be said that the convention explains that the sound [ʃ] with the characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, -ant, +cor, +cont, +voice] is replaced by a voiceless alveolar fricative [s], which is marked with [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, +cor, +cont, -voice], pronounced at the beginning/initial of the word. It happens because it affects how sound is produced from the alveolar area to the front of the oral cavity. In addition, this also affects how the vocal cords produce sound in vibration. Thus, it can be illustrated as follows: ‘ship’ [ʃɪp] → [sɪp] ʃ s -syll -syll +cons +cons -son -son # -ant +ant +cor +cor +cont +cont +voice -voice Figure 6. The [ʃ] → [s] sound illustration Then, the mispronunciation of the other last consonant in voiced labiodental fricative or consonant [v] from the word ‘van’ can be explained based on one of the words from /væn/, and the students change it to sound [p], so it looks like this /pæn/. Thus, it can be said that the rule explains that the sound [v] with the characteristics [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, -cor, +cont, +voice] is replaced by a voiceless bilabial stop [p], which is marked with [-syll, +cons, -son, +ant, -cor, -cont, -voice,], pronounced at the beginning of the word. It happens because it affects how the free flow of air produces sound in the oral cavity. Thus, it can be illustrated as follows: Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 433 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) ‘van’ [væn] → [pæn] v p -syll -syll +cons +cons -son -son # -ant +ant -cor -cor +cont -cont Figure 7. The [v] → [p] sound illustration The possible Factors that Cause Preschool Children’s English pronunciation Addressing the causes of pronunciation errors in 5-year-old preschoolers, the author discovered that differences in the consonant sound systems of Indonesian and English had the most significant impact. This occurs because the sound characteristics of the native language, in this case Indonesian, differ from English, making it difficult for Indonesian speakers to pronounce English. The Indonesian language contains 21 consonants and five vowels, while the English language has 24 consonants and 12 vowels. Therefore, there are factors involved in students' pronunciation errors. In the pronunciation of the sound [tʃ] from the word ‘church’, which is changed to [k] at the final of the sound position because the students are unfamiliar with the letter, as the affricative consonant sound [tʃ] neither occurs at the final of a word nor have that sound in Indonesian. So, the students generated the replacement of the sound [k]. This is similar to the pronunciation of the sound [ʤ] from the word ‘stage’, which changes to the sound [d] at the final position where the affricative consonant sound [ʤ] does not occur. In addition, the pronunciation of the [θ] sound from the word ‘thief’ at the initial position was changed by the students to the [t] sound because the fricative consonant sound [θ] does not appear in any Indonesian words. Thus, the Indonesian phonological writing system does not employ these sounds. The sound [z] from the word ‘jeans’ is then deleted into the sound [n] at the final position. The fricative consonant sound [z] does not appear at the final position in Indonesian. In contrast, the fricative sound [s] from the word ‘box’ is likewise deleted to become the stop sound [k] because of an articulation error in which the final position of the sound is deleted. Students modify the pronunciation of the sound [ʃ] from the word ‘ship’ to [s]. As previously stated, the sound [ʃ] does not exist in Indonesian; hence students have difficulty pronouncing it. This also correlated with the students' change in the pronunciation of the [v] sound from the word ‘van’ to the [p] sound. Therefore, the replacement sound that the students changed became [p]. Conclusion Based on the findings and discussion in the previous section, it can be concluded that five-year-old preschool students have made several phonological pronunciation errors in Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 434 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) consonant sounds. There are seventy total pronunciation mistakes made, and seven consonants have pronunciation errors made by students. They are [tʃ], [ʤ], [θ], [s, [z], [ʃ], and [v]. The sound [tʃ] is changed by the sound [k], [ʤ] is changed by the sound [d], [θ] is changed by the sound [t], [ʃ] is changed by [s], and [v] is changed by [p]. Then, there is a [s] sound and a [z] sound when deletion occurs. Seven consonants with sound pronunciation errors are analyzed using distinctive features to be understood in detail, especially in terms of major class, the way of articulation, and the articulation site. Related to the factors that allow students to replace or modify English sounds because some of these English consonant sounds are unavailable in Indonesian, students also make articulation errors. Acknowledgement The writer would like to express her gratitude for the outstanding support she received to publicize her research. The writer is also grateful to her highly acclaimed alma mater and the lecturer who supervised her research for their help and guidance. In addition, the writer would like to express gratitude to the three preschool children for their willingness and consent to participate as subjects in this research study and to the instructors who made this research possible. Furthermore, the writer would like to thank the supervising lecturer who provided invaluable support and assistance throughout this research and her regarded university of higher education. In order to ensure the completion of this research accurately and appropriately, the writer needs to stay true to suitable academic standards and guidelines. The writer also would like to thank the editor and reviewers who provided valuable feedback on this research. References Adila, S., & Refnaldi (2019). Pronunciation Errors Made By Senior High School Students In Speaking Performance. Journal of English Language Teaching, 8(3). Alzinaidi, et al. (2019). Diagnosing Saudi Students' English Consonant Pronunciation Errors. Arab World English Journal, Vol.10 no.4 pp.180-193. 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DOI: https://doi.org/10.24952/ee.v4i01.1190. https://doi.org/10.24952/ee.v4i01.1190 Fransiska Inapaska Wuwur & Agus Subiyanto, 2023 An Analysis of Consonant Pronunciation Errors by EFL Preschool Children (5-Years-Old): Distinctive Features Approach 436 | V o l . 7 , N o . 2 , 2 0 2 3 ( 4 2 3 - 4 3 6 ) EMPTY PAGE