I/lg paper Original Paper Interlanguage, Simplified English and Two-Word Structures Kevin Ford Received: February 5, 2022 Accepted: February 26, 2022 Online Published: February 28, 2022 doi:10.22158/eltls.v4n1p46 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/eltls.v4n1p46 Abstract English is widely used as a Second Language. Papua New Guinea (PNG) in the 1990s (during my residence) had a population of approximately 4 million people who used slightly more than 800 languages. Many PNG people, through exogamy, have both a mother and a father language; they use Tok Pisin (a major dialect of Neo-Melanesian Creole English) for everyday communication outside their neighbourhood group; and they use English officially and for schooling. They are expert multilinguals. India is a vast, multilingual country with 427 languages, with English used officially and for education, and it is geographically remote from PNG. Both peoples were found to simplify English in similar ways, as an aid to learning the language, specifically by these means: - rule-generalization (disregarding exceptions) - giving a regular semantic basis to the prepositions (in, into, for, on etc.), which have a basis in regularity with reference to location, direction and time, but are, overall, highly irregular in Standard English (SE) - reducing the system of article determiners (the, a, zero) to the zero option - exploiting the use of two-word verb+preposition and verb+noun combinations like play up, play down, and do banking, do repairs, make_progress. This congruence implies systematic processes and a universal basis, suggesting that other learners could profit from this approach, with the further implication that this type of English is a true interlanguage. Keywords interlanguage, simplified English, two-word structures 1. Introduction 1.1 Facts of Language According to the Ethnologue, there are slightly more than 7,000 languages in the world. Language is an attribute of the human brain, but it is not part of us in the same way that body parts, for example, are part of us. There are not even two varieties of hand to compare with the range of differences seen in language. The study of individual languages over many decades has not yielded much beyond the realm of ethnography, explaining how humans live. There have been few insights into our understanding of mind or how humans think or know, or how, physically, language is acquired, stored and accessed. We assume that the brain’s currency is thought, and language is a window on thinking. We know that language relies heavily on memory, which is itself little understood. The human brain comprises some 100 billion neurones, but we do not understand how these neurones control language. The following writers have made significant contributions to our understanding of meaning and its range, but relating these insights to the 100 billion brain cells is impossible at present. Levin (1993), explains the pervasive role of analogy (words or phrases with similar meaning are likely to involve the same grammar), so that English verbs like say, claim, know, believe all use the assertive complement, he says, claims, knows, believes that X is a fact, because, in abstract terms, they share that semantic feature. Pinker (1999), on the fact that words which follow a pattern are managed by rules, while exceptions to rules are managed separately by the brain, as what he calls words. Pinker draws his evidence from the regular English verbs, like brake and their consistent variations brakes, braking, braked (and this type of verb is numerous, with several thousand examples), which contrast with the 120 or so irregular verbs, like break, cut and know with the inconsistent variant forms: breaks, breaking, broke, broken cuts, cutting, cut knows, knowing, knew, known. We note that non-standard dialects may also simplify such irregularities, like this: “The boy done good” (SE: “The boy did well”) “I seen him” (SE: “I saw him”), so that do has the alternative forms does, doing, done, and see has sees, seeing, seen, without the irregular forms did and saw. Sperber and Wilson (1986), on the significance of relevance to meaning (a different meaning of star, for example, is brought to mind depending on whether the context is Astronomy or Hollywood). Commonly quoted from Sperber and Wilson is the following transcription of a conversation: A. Would you drive a MerCEdes? B. I wouldn’t buy ANY expensive car, where the context, paying for a prestige car, overrides the specific meaning of drive. Historically, insights into how humans learn and control language have been made from studies of language impairment through trauma or surgery, from information about how languages change over time or through contact, and from studies of language acquisition. Creoles provide examples of new languages and are maximally simple and efficient, but actual languages remain complex because they are historically derived, loaded with the baggage of change-over-time. Humans have created new languages, and Esperanto and Neo, for example, were developed to be regular and easier to learn than natural languages and by this means to act as potential mediums of international communication. A significant, recent (2001), constructed language is Toki Pona (see Lang, 2014), which is noted for its small vocabulary (123 words), simple structure and ease of acquisition (30 hours, suggested). It was developed for philosophical and artistic purposes, but it demonstrates how language could have developed, based on simplicity (only 14 distinct sounds) and a large amount of ambiguity or polysemy, with reliance on immediate context to specify actual meaning. It represents the simplest functioning language. A language is a mental construct or concept, because no two people have or use exactly the same form of any language. The key to communicability, of course, is context, for language is intended to be used, and it is context which gives relevance and reality of meaning to spoken utterances or written sentences. It is because context is the final arbiter of meaning that language can tolerate so much vagueness and ambiguity. The development of science and improved access to knowledge stored in writing presupposes greater specificity, and English has responded by the development of unambiguous vocabulary and appropriate formal writing styles. Fundamental to any language is the need to disambiguate participants in so-called transitive sentences, we see them, they see us (I and we are called nominative and function as subject of a verb, me and us are the same words in the accusative case and function as object of a verb). English has five predicate structures, with the Copula predication having three alternatives, as follows. 5 predications in English Copula, qualifying (type 1): the dog (subject) was (verb) large (complement, qualifier). Copula, equative (type 1): the dog (subject) was (verb) a mastiff (complement, noun). Copula, adverbial (type 1): the dog (subject) is (verb) in the garden (complement, adverb). the lecture (subject) is (verb) tomorrow (complement, adverb). Transitive (type 2): the dog (subject) bit (verb) the man (direct object). Intransitive (type 3): the dog (subject) slept (verb). Ditransitive (type 4): the man (subject) gave (verb) the dog (indirect object) the bone (direct object), OR the man (subject) gave (verb) the bone (direct object) to the dog (indirect object). Complex-transitive (type 5): the man (subject) painted (verb) the house (direct- object) blue (object-complement). Languages differ in vocabulary, obviously, but the structure of their essential expressions varies only in limited ways. The following is a comparison of English (which is called Nominative-Accusative type) and Hindi (which is Split-Ergative type), where the English translation of the Hindi maintains the Hindi verb-final word order. English and Hindi are genetically related members of the Indo-European language family. English Hindi She (Nominative) is happy. She (Nominative) happy is. He (Nominative) is a dog. He (Nominative) dog is. He (Nominative) sees me (Accusative). He (Ergative) me (Accusative) sees. I (Nominative) see her (Accusative). I (Ergative) her (Accusative) see. I (Nominative) run. I (Nominative) run. She (Nominative) runs. She (Nominative) runs. English marks the subject of transitive and intransitive verbs with the same Nominative marker, whereas Hindi uses a different marker for each, and the transitive marker is called Ergative (“doing”). English uses pre-positions (in, into, of, on, to), which precede the noun or noun-phrase which they qualify, while Hindi expresses the same ideas with post-positions, which follow their noun or noun-phrase. 1.2 Making Language Specific The primary semantic divisions of words are taken to be: ideas, stuff (mass) and things (units). Ideas are themselves readily divisible into: processes (actions, happenings: DO), situations (states: BE), and attributes (or qualities: HAVE). These notions correlate closely with three English verbs, which exist as independent verbs and are also used as auxiliaries: DO, BE and HAVE. Within Systems, we find as a significant sub-group, words for fields of endeavour (sports, hobbies). Among Attributes, we can distinguish significant subsets of words for feelings, for afflictions and for colours, and these reflect aspects of our culture, our way of life. An important feature of vocabulary is polysemy, and this is itself a complex notion. It can be realised by words from different word-classes, e.g. homophones such as present (= current time) Qualifier, and present (= gift) Noun; or the same word in different semantic sub-groups, eg assignment as uncountable abstract Process (= assigning), and assignment as countable concrete Unit (= task assigned); hospital = Place (is in hospital), and hospital = Unit (two hospitals); or homophones with unrelatable semantic reference, eg hide = animal skin, hide = concealed observation post; game = system, game = hunted animals. The following exemplify the situation commonly found in dictionaries. cant1 slant, inclination cant2 a. whining, affected speech, b. monotonous/mechanical recitation, c. hypocritical, pious expression, d. argot, in-group vocabulary (underworld) jargon (respectable). Standard English (SE) encodes varying amounts of specificity by means of an expanded vocabulary, and this is in large part achieved through hyponymy, through the creation of technical vocabulary, and through metaphor. English is historically a Germanic language, related to Dutch and German, but through conquest has borrowed much from Norman French (which belongs to the Italic subgroup of the Indo-European language family), with the result that English has had access to two word-stocks (this kind of thing: Germanic, this sort of thing: Italic). The Indo-European language family has five major subgroups - Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Greek, Indo-Iranian, Italic. The English common marker for plural nouns (-s) is from French, and a high proportion of English vocabulary is of French or Italic origin. Traditional English (Germanic-type) plurals are retained as exceptions, like foot/feet, goose/geese, tooth/teeth. The commonest words (those heard most often) are from Old English (a, in, on, of, the, with, etc.) and the commonest suffixes, -ness, -ing. Hyponymy is the expansion of vocabulary by specialization, as the hyponym good is subdivided into specialist fields: pleasant, fine / moral, virtuous / competent, skilled / useful, adequate / reliable, untainted / kind, giving / authentic, real / well-behaved. Cultural change and the need for increased precision in the workplace have triggered a linguistic response, because language is flexible. The word billion was hardly used fifty years ago but is commonplace today, the result of inflation over time. The need for precision in science led to the development of the International Scientific Vocabulary (ISV), which is chiefly based on Latin and Ancient Greek roots and affixes (words like, autochthonous, bipedal, taxonomy, which are relatively unambiguous) and is a modern development. The need for syntax to argue logically and scientifically was met by the conscious adoption of Latin and Ancient Greek models, and these were enhanced by strategies of syntactic compression, which allowed more information to be squeezed into a single sentence by permitting a predication to be stated as a premise and then commented on or discussed. By these means, language has adapted to suit society’s changing needs. Metaphor means transferring the essence of meaning to a new context. Modern English comprises words for physical objects and substances (like stone and milk), but also has many words for ideas (like truth and power). The idea of “keeping animals” as in animal-husbandry can be transferred metaphorically to the idea of keeping a diary. English now has thousands of metaphorical expressions, and new metaphors can be created as the need arises by extension of a meaning to a new context. English is also a literary and professional language, and this means that writers and professionals are actively creating new connotations and word-combinations, like, weak signal propagation in Aviation Communication; propagation was previously used in farming and botanical contexts, as in plant-propagation. Traditionally, as spoken language, utterances are set in a context (which often is visible), and writing, in particular, radically changed the situation, in that the context became technical and not visibly obvious, and writing had to compensate and adapt. A striking feature of the meanings of non-technical words is their breadth of meaning and tendency to ambiguity. Human brains are comfortable using the same word with two meanings (carry-out, ring, sea/see, waste/waist, for example). Technical words, on the other hand, avoid ambiguity, and the formal styles they are commonly associated with traditionally require the more specific, single-word or Latinate equivalents of phrasal verbs (eliminate for get rid of, perform for carry_out). The editors of the Collins Cobuild Phrasal Verbs Dictionary noted that phrasal verbs, probably because they are used more commonly than their non-phrasal synonyms, and possibly because they belong to a productive subsystem, may lack a synonym as a close meaning-equivalent among the Latinate group (compare calm down with relax, for example). The implication is that speech is more common and less conscious than writing and is subject to change on the basis of natural forces (without human contrivance). Language began as an oral medium, perhaps 150,000 years ago, and much more recently, about 5,000 years ago, it developed a written medium, and literacy, once acquired and developed by use, becomes an essential component of our language repertoire. Literacy underlies much of modern culture and as such is continuously reinforced, making it virtually ineradicable. We think of learning language naturally in the oral mode, but we also learn or expand our language naturally by reading, at the stage when learning by reading has begun to overtake learning by hearing (and speaking). In order to appreciate the level of influence exerted by literacy, in addition to a speaker’s knowledge of language-in-context, consider the following passage which has been edited to show only the beginnings and ends of words spelled in the correct order. Can yuo raed tihs? Olny 55 plepoe out of 100 can. I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The pweor of the human mnid is phaonmnel. Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it dseno’t mtaetr in waht oerdr the ltteres in a wrod are, the only iproamtnt tihng is taht the frsit and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitil raed it whotuit a pboerlm. This is bcuseae the hmaun mind deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe, in its cxentot. Originally from: jacob.weinberg@gmail.com Note that the “research” mentioned has not been traced. The word stock of an oral language user is judged to be about 10,000 words, though compilations made over generations can increase this number. By comparison, a literate learner, through study, can develop a vocabulary of 30,000 word families, where word-family can imply a derivational and inflectional potential of three times 30,000 (sing, sings, singing, sang, sung, singer, singers). Literacy utilizes an extra sense - that of sight - in addition to hearing/speaking. Vocabulary assessments are available online from the University of Wellington, New Zealand, which is also a centre of vocabulary research: www.my.vocabularysize.com We have identified another context in which natural processes of language modification provide insights into the ways in which language operates. English is widely used as a mother tongue, but even more widely used as a so-called Second-language (L2). We have identified a Second language English which is used by two disparate and geographically separated populations, and which expresses a range of forms of increasing complexity, from the simplest and most regular to the equivalent of the First-language (L1) speaker variety. The differences (from the L1 varieties), which have arisen naturally and unconsciously, explain some underlying and essential principles of how oral-learners understand English. They also demonstrate two principles of acquisition. In order to create a grammar to manage any new language, learners will proceed gradually by concentrating on the most common/prevalent words and structures. Learners will seek to associate meaning differences with particular grammatical structures and they will rely on literal meanings. They cannot simply “learn by copying or repeating,” although learning involves some of this, because each language has a syntax or set of preferred structures, which correlate with specific meanings. Consider the form of questions, Did you say that? Where did they find the box? Some learners, at a beginning stage, may form questions by prefixing the word question to a declarative sentence, like: Question, you did that? (= Did you do that?). Mastering an unfamiliar language happens in stages over several years and usually involves some form of simplification initially. I have heard of learners, for example, practising the number/gender/case affixes of German in the early stages by attaching the forms to English words. Gradually, learners replace the English words with their German equivalents. English varieties can be described on two parameters - that of formality (the difference between formal and informal), and the distinction between oral and written. Formality can range from the strict wording of a formal invitation, judicial order or the like to the free expression of a Post-it note to a friend. Most formal varieties are written, but they may be spoken. An academic/professional conference presentation or an address to a Press Conference will usually be rehearsed to some extent and not delivered off the cuff, and the language will choose words and sentence structures to suit the formality of the setting. Halliday (1966) showed that English was undergoing a shift at the word and phrase level which was equivalent to compression at the syntactic level, by creating new compound words, joining two words to express a new concept. He cited evidence that noun was the dominant word-class, in terms of both frequency and productivity. Examples of modern compounds are the following: woman-beating cocaine-trafficker, mean-spirited cost-cutting, working-from-home tax claim, multi-choice offset claim methods, Media Transfer Protocol. As working lives have become more specialized, so has the language responded with word-compounding, and especially noun-compounding, as Halliday predicted. 1.3 Two-Word Expressions There is a further development in the use of especially oral English which is relevant to our thesis that English word-meaning increasingly relies on two-word structures. The following is a standard expression, the plane landed safely. When a more complex expression with a modifier or a qualifier is used, then it is customary to employ an alternative syntax, as follows, the plane made an emergency landing, where what we will call a general verb (make) governs a two-word noun-phrase. Using the earlier verbal syntax, we would expect something like, the plane landed in an emergency. What we find commonly now is that the general verb + noun syntax is dominant, so that the plane made a safe landing becomes the norm. Further examples are as follows. he suggested that we meet next Tuesday he made the (positive) suggestion that we meet next Tuesday. http://www.my.vocabularysize.com Then, given that the two-word construction (here, make a suggestion) has begun to dominate in spoken English, we find the following readily-used congeners: he made the suggestion that we hold the meeting on Tuesday. she cried, she had a good cry, she had a cry. she warned him, she gave him a stern warning, she gave him a warning. the University has appointed a new professor; the University has made two new appointments. the State will compensate the victims; the State will make additional compensation payments. they believe in an afterlife; they have two different beliefs. With reference to two-word expressions like make an appointment, make an arrangement, which are common in current everyday speech, this use of general verb + noun can be viewed as a simplification, and what we are calling New English copies this pattern. Before learning all the specific verbs of English, NE opts for the relatively small number of general verbs and concentrates on nouns, which are the words for things, stuff and ideas. An example of a specific verb is expose (wrongdoing), while the common, especially spoken, current expression is call out (wrongdoing). 1.4 Spoken and Written Language Written language lacks the immediacy or actuality of speech and does not provide expression for the intonation of speech. Instead, writing uses word-order and special syntax to express the meanings conveyed in speech by tone of voice. Any written style can be copied in speech. The most formal speech is heard in court-rooms, where accuracy and formality are important, and at academic conferences, where some speakers may commit their written paper to memory and present it verbatim. The reason for syntax is to make meaning, and the following state the important principles in the syntax-meaning relationship in writing. a. As a predication “says something about a topic,” English places the topic at the beginning of the sentence, and supplies the message, which is called the comment, in the rest of the sentence. (1) This / is my brother. He’s / an engineer. Topic Comment Topic Comment. b. The end of a sentence carries some extra importance, called endweight. The final constituent is the logical springboard to the next sentence, and hence the semantic prominence of endweight. Conversation provides obvious examples, as follows (endweight as semantic springboard is underlined). (2) John is going to Wewak on Thursday. (3) So he will miss judo training. (Inferred: judo is on Thursday) (4) On Thursday, John is going to Wewak. (5) Oh, I thought he was going to Madang. Madang and Wewak are large Provincial towns, equipped with airports, in Papua New Guinea. Much of what we describe about word-order change in English, therefore, will relate to whether we move constituents to the front (or topic) position (called “fronting”) or move them to the endweight position (called “backing”). Fronting. The effect of fronting is to bring constituents into topic position, often to imply that the information as given or known. Adverb-movement. Most adverbials can be brought from clause-final to initial position, to be included in the Topic, urging the reader to take the information for granted (in the following, topics and related thematic material are underlined). (6) He / drinks/ because he is unhappy S V A (7) Because he is unhappy // he / drinks A S V With (7), we are more inclined to accept as fact that he is unhappy. (8) William Dampier named New Britain in 1700. In 1884, Germany annexed the island and developed the copra industry. In 1919, the League of Nations placed New Britain and other German territories under a mandate to Australia. In (8), after the first mention of the date (1700), the fronted adverbials in Topic position (underlined) indicate the organisation of the information. Word-order changes - examples. Reversal of participants Type 1 The boss / was / the electrician (Copula) S V Cs Reverse: The electrician / was / the boss S V Cs Type 1 Plenty of fish / were / at the wharf (Locative) S V A Reverse: At the wharf / were / plenty of fish A V S Type 2 Active: The dog / bit / the policeman / this morning (Transitive) S V Od A Passive: The policeman / was bitten / by the dog / this morning (Reverse) S V A A Type 3 Active: The man / gave / the dog / the bone (Ditransitive) S V Oi Od Passive: The bone / was given / to the dog / by the man (Reverse) S V A A Type 5 Active: The man / painted / the house / blue (Complex-transitive): S V O Co Passive: The house / was painted / blue / by the man (Reverse) S V Co A Reversal does not apply to Type 3 sentences. Tough-movement is a process for fronting some objects, as seen in (11); (10) is a preliminary change. (9) To comply with the NCDC regulations / is / difficult. S V Cs (10) It / is / difficult to comply with the NCDC regulations. S V Cs (10) is an example of extraposition, a type of Backing which is explained below. (11) The NCDC regulations / are / difficult to comply with. S V Cs Emphatic fronting. When constituents are fronted with emphasis, the syntax marks this by reversing the order of subject and verb. A common example is the fronting of WH question words. (12) What / did / they / take? O S V If we do not front the WH word, then we do not invert: (13) They / took / what? S V O The inversion is a product of the fronting, not the question, as the following show. (14) Never / have / I / experienced / such vigorous opposition A+Emp S V O (15) At no time / did / I / acknowledge / their demands A+Emp S V O (16) Always / will / we / insure / this type of container A+Emp S V O (17) As they increase the attack // so / must / we / defend A (finite MOD clause) A+Emp S V MOD is an abbreviation for Modifying Clause, a syntactically connected group of words including a verb, which function as adverbial modifier. Backing. Information is expressed with endweight. Indirect_object_backing. Here, the indirect object adopts the preposition to and becomes adverbial in function. (18) The government/ gave/ the committee/ two options S V Oi Od (19) The government/ gave/ two options/ to the committee S V Od A A few verbs (like bring, buy, give, show, take) take two objects (called indirect and direct), and the indirect can be backed as shown. Extraposition. Sentences with shorter topics are easier to read and understand, and English has two ways of moving constituents (which may well be long) from topic position to the end of their sentence. a. The first method uses it to substitute for the extraposed element. (20) That oil prices should rise to the level set by OPEC/once/seemed/inevitable. S A V Cs (21) It/once/seemed/inevitable/that domestic oil prices should rise to the level S set S A V Cs Extraposed S by OPEC. (22) That the security guards did not inform the police earlier / is / strange. S V Cs (23) It / is / strange / that the security guards did not inform the police earlier. S V Cs Extraposed S b. We use the second syntax when the topic of the sentence is indefinite. Topics should be given or known information, and an indefinite topic sounds awkward. We use there to substitute for the topic, which is extraposed to the end of the sentence. (24) Several reasons for these problems / exist. S V (25) There / are / several reasons for these problems. S V Cs Note that there in (25) (we can call it there2) is different from the locative pronoun there (or there1), which means `in that place’. Note also that exist is required in place of be which cannot stand finally in this type of clause. Other sentences require different modifications. (26) Any changes in current policy / are / unlikely. S V Cs (27) There /are / unlikely /to be any changes in current policy. S V Cs Extraposed S Contrast. We use the cleft and pseudo-cleft constructions to add contrastive emphasis to a constituent. Cleft (applies to non-verbal constituents) (28) The pig / killed / the child / yesterday. S V O A (29) It / was / the PIG that killed the child yesterday. S V Cs (30) It / was / the CHILD that the pig killed yesterday. (31) It / was / YESterday that the pig killed the child. Pseudo-cleft (applies to any constituent) (32) The clan / wants / to lease land to developers. S V O (33) What the clan wants / is / TO LEASE LAND TO DEVELOPERS. (34) What the clan wants to lease to developers /is/ LAND. (35) Who the clan wants to lease land to / is / DEVELOPERS. (36) What the clan wants to do with its land/ is/ LEASE IT TO DEVELOPERS. Hyperbole Some forms of spoken and written language, especially popular daily newspapers, are prone to exaggerate. This emphasis attaches not to the facts of a report, but to its expression. Thus, slam and lay into are commonly used to mean criticise. Two-word qualifiers (adjectives), like rock-steady, cherry-red, or modifier + verb compounds, like unbelievably complicated, irrationally good-looking also add emphasis. 2 Facts of English 2.1 Second-Language English The analysis of Second-language English in India and Papua New Guinea reveals the same simplifications which enable learners to progress from simpler to more complex varieties, implying that this set of systems, which we call New English (NE), is a true interlanguage. The users are multilinguals, acquiring oral competence in several languages during early childhood, and often switching between three or four languages during each day as adults, if they spend their day in urban or mixed environments. The way these speakers develop competence, initially by simplifying the grammar and lexis, based not unexpectedly on frequency, shows how language is acquired as a second or subsequent language. Speakers simplify English by means of rule-generalizations, by applying literal meanings consistently to prepositions (that is, by regularizing the system’s semantics), by simplifying the article determiners to the zero option, and by using two-word (and sometimes three-word) combinations, which commonly comprise a general verb (be, do, get, have, make, take) followed by a noun (make an arrangement, have misgivings, make up a story, make up one’s face). Other strategies include analogical levelling, a form of rule-generalization. English has two structures which differ in form but which have the same semantic force: they call this plant “tulsi (basil)” and this plant is known as “tulsi.” NE simplifies by using the second structure, with as, exclusively: they call this plant as “tulsi,” and this plant is known as “tulsi.” It is Important to note that NE and SE are mutually intelligible and that NE represents a scale of variation, as NE users adopt features of SE and especially the exceptions to generalisations, such as learning that the plural form of crisis is crises. When we listen to someone speak, we want to understand their message, not check how grammatically they speak. Speech is spontaneous compared to the studied, conscious nature of writing. 2.1.1 Complement Sentences The simplifications, as might be expected, include rule-generalizations so that, for example, the assertive/non-assertive distinction in Standard English (SE) Noun-Phrase Complement sentences is neutralized, with the result that NE in its most basic form uses only the non-assertive to do structure: SE, assertive: she announced that she will extend the moratorium. SE, non-assertive: she told them to extend the moratorium. NE, assertive: she announced to extend the moratorium. NE, non-assertive: she told them to extend the moratorium. This implies that the L2 speakers do not recognize the meaning difference between assertive and non-assertive. It is arguable whether L1 speakers recognize the difference and rather learn that that-complements follow a specific set of verbs (like, say, think, know, believe, etc.). Over time, speakers acquire the -ing non-finite complement structure, used initially with for to express purpose: she planted maize for harvesting in the summer. This is subsequently extended in range to include non-purpose uses: he liked organizing the festivities. Lastly, the finite, assertive that-complement is brought into use: he said that the preparations were complete. 2.1.2 Prepositions Standard English uses more than 200 prepositions (my data list includes 224 prepositions: 92 single-word prepositions (in, of, on, from, etc.) and 132 complex forms (like because_of, by_virtue_of, in_regard_to), to form combinations with verbs and adjectives (give in = submit, happy about the new baby, big on programming), to express location in time and space (at night, in front of the gate), and to explain relationships (a person with an opinion, the back of the bus). The English prepositions lack consistent meanings beyond the literal, locational senses (on the table, under the table, inside the box, etc.), and this places a heavy burden on learners to remember which preposition to use in context. NE simplifies by applying consistent meanings to prepositions, based on the locational/temporal and literal meanings (including, for example, for = for a purpose, for a reason, for a benefit or loss). We draw attention to the variations in the choice of preposition, which is often unpredictable in SE, but predictable (meaningful) in NE, e.g., NE: apprise X about, comment about, communicate about, disclose about, elaborate about, express about, inform about, lament about, lash out about, mention about, open up about, report about, reveal about, state about. SE: ask about X, divide X among, separate X from, forward X to, meddle with X. Unfortunately for foreign learners, English prepositions are also used in combination with other words beyond their basic meanings. For example, we can say, literally, the book is on the table, and we can also say, we rely on you, where rely on does not reflect location, even metaphorically. We describe such a usage as idiomatic (the words do not bear a literal or a metaphorically related meaning). We also use prepositions to introduce complements (words connected to verbs), like to, on, of, from and with in these examples. I gave John the book # I gave the book to John. she sprayed the seats with disinfectant # she sprayed disinfectant on the seats. he drained the water from the sink # he drained the sink of water. In analyzing language, the brain will be sensitive to frequency of occurrence and will seek to isolate a pattern and its meaning (consistency of meaning and use). Over its long history, SE has developed uses for prepositions which break the traditional pattern-meaning relationship. Commonly, SE also introduces ambiguity into what begins as a literal combination of verb plus adverb. Thus, run out means “move from inside to outside by running.” It is then normal practice for a language to employ run out idiomatically (with an unrelated meaning, which creates ambiguity), in the case of English, to mean “deplete.” What we find as a result is that New English firstly discovers meanings and patterns (we call it regularity in grammar), and subsequently adds the anomalous forms (which we call irregularity or exceptions or idioms in grammar), but before acquiring SE oddities, NE will regularize them. The data below show that SE is irregular, while NE seeks regularity by consistency of meaning (of the preposition). Where NE employs the single preposition for, SE uses nine different prepositions (and these do not include for!). The formula of presentation undelines NE, e.g., NE for / SE of. The data are drawn from a corpus of some 6,000 phrases and sentences, and about 500 words and shorter phrases, which were collected from browsing the English-medium Indian newspapers during August to November, 2020. NE and SE are mutually-intelligible and co-exist comfortably. redesigning looks and marketing for / of its SUVs approached High Court for / about alleged eviction by their son compatible for / with Dell arrested management officials from / of both factories sell their produce with / at proper rates landlord in / through whose property pipeline passes court files were served to / on him yesterday will be informed about / of timing complain against / about this illegal fish sale shipping corridor in / along the coast is delaying decision to / of our longstanding demand who was present for / at that meeting at frightening frequency / with frightening frequency FOR for / of dislike for / of X fear for / of somebody disregard hope habitat a gate offence attraction process enabler mainstay forecaster means chief guest convict (vb. capacity marketing a notice assure X for security starved for customers seating capacity possibility for fatalities for / to an example leave X applicable challenge hindrance dedicate aspire conducive dangerous invite issue cards ban entry beneficial consent a boost inspire X lend a hand liable mandatory open X challenge accessible invitation a pest administer anesthesia for / to a patient brought their own food for / to the meeting proceed (for doing) / (to do) offer X (for doing) / (to do) ready (for doing) / (to do) services (for doing) / (to do) urge X (for doing) / (to do) for / about be concerned contact X intimation do anything question X speak up cautious for / with charge X (for misconduct) credit X catch red handed compatible for / at be present (for a meeting) guest (for a ceremony) for / from bar X for an exam / from an exam for / in raised the ceiling for sanction of new works take on China for a war for / on for display a ban for any airlines carrying more than five cases have no mercy for poor farmers for / before, until, to 18 months left for Assembly elections. The following exemplify the consistency of the meaning of the preposition on in NE, in comparison to SE. ON Note that SE has two uses of on, and they actually sound different. Consider the difference between the following: sip on (a drink), continue on (doing it). The examples cited are like the first pattern, where on is always unaccented. In the second pattern (continue on, etc.), on is always accented in addition to the verb. on / about clear on X a letter on X complain contact X (cf. also for / about) to guide X clue discussion discoveries opinion adamant mislead information remark question rumours positive serious vigilant a video approach High Court speak educate films story say positive on / of awareness inform X on / of Y patrol idea glance ignorance coverage experience explanation data work scrutiny details assessment biopic on / for accountability on X scheduled on X date (in the future) charge on using campaign on benefits meeting was fixed on (for 18 December) on / to remit X on Y blind on X add X on Y leave it all on God objection on X tax demand on Tata injury on his legs agree on amendments inflow of capital on industrial sector reply to messages sent on their phones on / with encounter on X on a clean slate on / in confidence on X diet low on X hang X on a tree stab X on his neck invest on securities on official capacity do X on my name on basket, car, boat, canoe, newspaper, field, zone (fire) controlled on time (in time) on line of duty (in the line of duty) on / at on request of X on behest of X pelt stones on X bought on auction on a site, place, location, side on / against crimes on women violence on X accusation on X take action on X decisions on Government commit rape on X on / nil avoid on X clarify on X check on emphasize on compromise on decide on give up on ply on stress on reject on sip on reveal on Idiom: on top priority (as a top priority) Complement: reluctant on banning DG (reluctant to ban DG). SE encodes a further complication with prepositions in that a verb may govern an object without requiring a linking preposition, while the equivalent noun derived from the verb (called a nominalization) requires a preposition. Consider the following examples, which exemplify SE. VERB NOMINALIZATION X baptised Y X’s baptism of Y X paid Y X’s payment to Y X redeployed Y X’s redeployment of Y X emphasized Y X’s emphasis on Y X interfered with Y X’s interference with Y X depended on Y X’s dependence on Y X emerged from Y X’s emergence from Y X avoided Y X’s avoidance of Y. In situations where the SE verb uses no preposition while the nominalization does, NE will introduce regularity of patterning by using the preposition with both forms, as follows (NE forms). VERB NOMINALIZATION X avoided on Y avoidance on Y X emphasized on Y emphasis on Y X objected on Y objection on Y X revealed on Y revelation on Y. Again, because NE uses prepositions with real meaning, the pattern is consistent, while in SE the patterning is only partial because of historical changes. The following examples highlight the literal-based logic of NE compared to SE. I am burden for my family (I am a burden on my family) not to use objectionable words against rival candidates (not to use objectionable words about rival candidates) Disciplinary Enquiry against officers (Inquiry into the officers) to bring many more laurels for India (to bring many more laurels to India) police traced him at Vasai hospital (police traced him to Vasai hospital) information was leaked in social media (information was leaked on social media) was wrong on Law to pass this order (was wrong in Law to pass this order) talk about news from ground (talk about the news on the ground) filed complaint for trespassing into his property (filed a complaint for trespassing on his property) evidence on its effectiveness (evidence of its effectiveness) fake prescription of psychotropic drugs (fake prescription for psychotropic drugs) in protest for inefficiency displayed by the police (in protest at the inefficiency displayed by the police) not convinced with assurances (not convinced by assurances) will spend Rs.200 crore for this project (will spend Rs.200 crore on this project) there is no alternative for cultivable land (there is no alternative to cultivable land) has been present for every inspection (has been present at every inspection). A difference can occur where SE connects the preposition to a preceding word, while NE connects it to a following word. Thus, in SE (traced him to a hospital), to relates to trace, while in NE (traced him at hospital), at modifies hospital. Note also the following, where SE uses the preposition to link relevant and past, while NE treats in (the) past as a phrase: NE they are relevant in past SE they are relevant to the past and similarly: NE remittances received in these companies SE remittances received by these companies. The essential functions of prepositions in English are to indicate location and direction (in space and time) and to express relationships, and different cultures may express these concepts in different ways. Compare the following, for example. NE on a car, canoe SE in a car, canoe in a list, register on a list, register on site, side, end at a site, side, end since years for years for future in the future throughout duration for the duration post death after death in night at night / during the night under process in process under limelight in the limelight get under my nerves get on my nerves sans permission without permission. 2.1.3 Possession SE makes a difference in the “possessor + possessed” construction between two forms, the woman’s bag and the front of the house. The traditional explanation is that animates or closely associated possessors use the apostrophe form, while inanimates use the expression with of. NE neutralizes the difference by using the of expression exclusively, as follows. all major issues of Goa (all Goa’s major issues) who opposed to extension of service of Naik (who opposed Naik’s extension of service) on social media platform of CM’s office (on the CM’s office social media platform) India is foremost strategic ally of France (is France’s foremost strategic ally) to carry forward political legacy of his father (his father’s legacy) vehicle went out of control of the driver (the vehicle went out of the driver’s control) divert attention from real issues of the youth (from the youths’ real issues) a pigeon injured with the string of a kite (injured by a kite’s string) the narration of Laura (Laura’s narration). 2.1.4 Article Determiners The semantic distinction definite/indefinite is not recognised universally or obligatorily marked in languages (as negative is obligatorily marked, for example), and a language can mark such distinctions optionally or where there is a need to disambiguate (like optionally reduplicating nouns to mark plurality in Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Melayu). Learners can simplify their target language by omitting such marking without impairing comprehension, by relying on context to disambiguate. In the terse style of the old-style telegrams, articles were omitted as a matter of course without loss of intelligibility. A language is flexible enough that a speaker/writer can make a mistake and use the wrong word, and the listener/reader will correct the mistake in their mind, e.g. mistakenly saying a_coagulated_cable instead of a_coaxial_cable, because the context will help to specify the intended meaning. SE Article Determiners belong to a larger substitution class, as follows; see also Lyons, 1999, whose survey points to definieness being an areal feature of languages, suggesting that after the marking of definiteness arose, it was copied by neighbouring groups, presumably for its utility value. DETERMINER DEFINITE REFERENCE (count, mass and uncount nouns) Referring: Interrogative: proximate remote general general Demonstrative: singular this that the which plural these those the which Possessive: my, his, her, its, our, your, their whose INDEFINITE REFERENCE (singular count nouns only) a(n) any some each every no. The distinctions drawn by the articles in English (a, the and zero-article) are viewed as a Hierarchy of Relevance, which presupposes the following semantically-based classes of word: Uncountable noun (Ideas like: collapse, peace, flexitime, midday) Mass noun (Stuff (chalk, rain, tofu) Countable noun (Units: eagle, mouse, suitcase or Instances of Ideas: an emotion, a memory, an argument or Types or Measures: a glass, a cream, a flour). At_the_lowest_level of the Hierarchy, only Countable nouns in the singular carry a mark, a, an. All other forms, including plural countables and mass nouns, carry no mark (schools, mice, rain). These nouns are non-specific (e.g. any schools, any mice or any rain) and are the lowest ranked on the Hierarchy because they are concepts or generalities and the least definite, real or relevant to us. The_second_step in the Hierarchy is to make any of the types of word specific or relevant to us. We make all word types (uncount, mass, singular and plural) definite by adding the preclitic article the (the collapse, the chalk, the glass, the glasses, etc). Note that uncount ideas, by the addition of the, become instantiated and real, e.g. the memory of last year’s Office Party. The_third_step in the Hierarchy is to recognize the definiteness of titles, because names and titles do not require an article (they use the so-called zero article). Historically, England has been a monarchy, and part of its tradition was to have its own hierarchies designated by titles (Sir, Lord, Duke, Prince, Princess, etc., and in the uniformed services, General, Colonel, Inspector, etc.). These titles are already specific enough and render articles redundant. In the modern era, large corporations, official agencies and the like, have received the recognition of Capital Lettered Names or Acronym Names to make them distinctive in print (Honda, Gillette, Boeing, UNESCO, WHO). Like proper-names, none of these takes any article, except to denote an example or variety (like, a Boeing or a Honda, but not normally *a UNESCO or *a WHO, because these names have no product). Note that the may be used when speaking certain names (like, the World Health Organization or the United States of America / the USA). We can also use the articles with names, if there is a need to distinguish two people with the same name, as in, the John I know lives in Wales. The_fourth_step in the Hierarchy is to recognize those words which are closest to us, the things we call possessions, like my hand, your phone, our car, their cat, your sister. Individuals decide what is included in this set, which has an affinity to the class of inalienables in some other languages, like the words for body parts and family members. NE_Determiners. NE simplifies by employing the zero-article across the board. NE respects capital letters, but simplifies by eliminating the possibility of using the with any word beginning with a capital letter, UN, but never the UN, USA, but never the USA. The use of Possessive determiners for possessions is also recognized in NE, but the non-specific/specific distinction is mostly replaced by the use of no marker, or else the is used in obvious environments, as in cases where a noun is post-qualified: the bird in (the) cage, the tunnel in Himachal. Omission of an article does not interfere with communication or comprehension. The following are examples of article use in NE. Names, Titles Gandhis have to come out of their bubble (the Gandhis) news reports on Herald (in the Herald (newspaper)) received in US bank accounts of X (in X’s US bank accounts) issued in wake of Supreme Court judgement (in the wake of the Supreme Court judgement) Malabar tree nymph (butterfly) won the vote (the Malabar) was in ICU on ventilator (was in the ICU on a ventilator) five women born in Congo (in the Congo). Zero article this is nonsensical averment (a nonsensical) facilitated procurement of drugs (the procurement) he first came into limelight (into the limelight) bring women on equal footing with men (on an equal footing) to assess what should be age of marriage (be the age) at best of times, Indian roads are chaotic (at the best of times) is crucial for connecting station near Aizawl (connecting the station) will not shy away from walking extra mile in Goa (the extra mile) divert attention from real issues of the youth (from the real issues) to answer questions in offline mode (in the offline mode) aviation industry has been hit hard (the aviation industry) no safe plan for coming in office (coming to the office) help to drive innovation avenue across the State (drive the innovation avenue). Other examples include words and phrases referring to numbers and quantities. more than one and half dozen (and a half) since last three days (since the last) in order to beat coronavirus down, there are few things we have to do (are a few things) total 45.98% students (a total of 45.98%) And similarly with expressions of location. at centre of road (at the centre of the road) and 5 MP front camera in middle (in the middle). 2.1.5 Two-word structures A significant feature of NE is its preference for, even reliance on, two-word structures, and analysis of oral and less formal varieties of SE shows a predominance of two-word combinations in modern usage. Modern English has come to express meaning firstly in compound nouns (activewear) and nominalizations (direction-finding), compound verbs (to paddle-board), and compound qualifiers (hand-crafted, lamentably small), and secondly in combinations of verb + noun (make a recommendation) and verb + adverb or preposition (take in the idea (= understand the idea), the so-called phrasal verbs. NE exploits these structures as a means of simplifying SE. Among phrasal verbs, the commonest adverbs are up, down, out, on, off, and the first three are used to form the so-called SE telic aspect (meaning do to completion). Thus, we find the following pairs in SE. Non-telic Telic wrap wrap up fasten fasten up drink drink up write write up fold fold up cover cover up tear (paper) tear up cut cut up cut (tree) cut down (tree) track track down wear wear out bleed bleed out dry dry out. In respect of Levin’s semantic determination, consider the following subset of SE telic forms in SE. cut up carve up chop up dice up divide up mince up slice up and the NE non-telic set: advertise for agree for assure for call for demand for justify for order for plead for prescribe for propose for recommend for request for search for seek for urge for. Note that up in SE is ambiguous and has other meanings - literal, metaphorical and idiomatic, as follows. Literal: he pulled the rope up (higher) Metaphor: she traded her car up (bought a more expensive car) Idiom: their (lottery) numbers came up (were successful). The telic / non-telic distinction is subtle enough that most speakers of English are unaware of it. The reason for this is probably the confusion created by ambiguities. Thus, wrap up literally means to enclose as a parcel or packet telicly, but wrap up is also used idiomatically and non-telicly to mean to end or finish something, like an event. In the European and North American winters, people learn to wrap up well (= wear warm clothes). NE, in its basic form, does not acknowledge the telic opposition, and we find that the phrasal and non-phrasal forms are used interchangeably. chart new courses chart out new courses watch numbers rise watch numbers rise up draw action plan draw up action plan pick books pick up books are crying for attention are crying out for attention claims are still pouring are still pouring in search culprits search for culprits handed three floors handed over three floors officials handed over summons to her mother / officials handed a summons to her mother digital video recorder was stolen away / digital video recorder was stolen is about self-reliance or cutting down imports / is about self reliance or cutting imports urged them not to object the project / urged them not to object to the project rock carvings tampered by miscreants / rock carvings tampered with by miscreants. NE also adds an adverb to verbs which do not add one in SE, by analogy of meaning (recall Levin’s semantic determination). NE waive off charges SE waive charges whittle funds down whittle funds supplies, dwindle down supplies, dwindle give in details give details clear off doubts clear doubts move on to Bengal move to Bengal (= relocate) venture out to Delhi venture to Delhi will lease out these premises will lease these premises breathe in fresh, clean air breathe fresh, clean air settled down in Delhi settled in Delhi settle out dispute settle dispute unsafe to move around freely unsafe to move freely block their entrance and trap them in (block their entrance and trap them) before he reaches into any forest (before he reaches any forest) unless these norms are eased up (unless these norms are eased). NE gives priority to the literal meanings of adverbs used in phrasal combinations. Consider these examples with down. get down (SE alight, get off) beat down (SE flatten) shoot down (SE ditto) come down (SE ditto, literal) cut down tree (ditto) chop down tree (ditto) trample down (ditto) swoop down (ditto) close down (ditto) burn down (ditto) prices, die down (fall) pen down words (pen words). But also, metaphorically, hand down sentence (pronounce). Compare these NE examples of out. put out (to pasture) help out (SE help) leave out (outside) map out (SE map) send out (SE send away) spread out (SE spread) shift out (SE relocate) lease out (SE lease) bring out (SE reveal) sell out (SE sell) fly out (SE fly away) give out (SE give) go out (outside) start out (SE start) strain out waste cry out (SE cry) drain out water voice out (SE voice) weed out impurities read out (SE read) pull out (SE rescue) list out (SE list). The left column exemplifies literal uses of out, while the right column exemplifies out being used redundantly, because NE often “regularizes” single-word verbs by making them 2-word structures. The latter may exist in SE as telic aspect structures. The verb carry out is probably the most common of the phrasal verbs with out and it is ambiguous - with a literal meaning and also an idiomatic meaning, in the sense of perform, and NE users regularly conflate these different-in-SE forms. 2.1.6 Analogical levelling, the case of As A further example of this application of analogy is the use of as after verbs of naming and the like. SE uses as with relatively few verbs, like act and treat, but not with verbs like name, promote, impersonate, as follows. SE she acted as chairman he treated the man as an equal she named him the winner he was promoted captain she impersonated the manager. NE, on the other hand, employs as in a large number of cases where the function and meaning are similar (analogous) to the first set, as follows. he had previously impersonated as Council officer she named him as winner he was declared as persona non grata recently declared as Covid deaths calling this act as proud moment. Through analogical levelling, the list of verbs requiring as in NE is extensive (note that the following list is not exhaustive). This implies, drawing on Pinker’s conclusions, that as is a pattern/rule, with a meaning-form relationship, so as predicted by Levin, all analogous (with similar meaning) NE words will be followed by as. announce appoint brand call conceptualize consider declare dedicate deem denote designate dub elect elevate employ find identify impersonate inaugurate label name play pose promote recognize register remain set term treat. Note also these expressions. deny X as false rule X as suicide will die as Indian look at X as Y suspect it as fraud set X as deadline charge X as spreading false news comment (about X) as … employed as water bottle seller and would earn 8% commission made safety and cleanliness as its unique selling proposition have their goal as stopping coal transportation be certified as Blue Flag beach hailing Sanskrit as best language for computer programming will be upgraded as mail or express trains changed Vagator beach name as Sunburn Beach which had its NATO reporting name as “careless” has been attributed as natural remedy (has been described as a natural remedy). 2.1.7 Focus SE can highlight words by using an accompanying focus word, as in the following where the focus word is italicized. I like the presentation especially. I especially like the presentation. I certainly like it. I, for one, like it. I myself like it. NE, in India, commonly uses the last form with -self. we will move ahead from Chandigarh itself. will keep the patient here itself. find jobs here itself. put their skills to use in Goa itself. from early June itself. participated in the election process there itself. sources said that he himself would be part of the celebration. 2.2 Evidence from types of English 2.2.1 Papua New Guinea English In Papua New Guinea (PNG), I was shown that there is a difference between learning a language naturally, by listening and speaking, and learning a language deliberately, as in a language-learning group, formally and usually by both oral and literate means (see Krashen, 1987, 1988). PNG people could acquire spoken fluency naturally in a new language within two years. I analyzed PNG English and was intrigued by my findings. English, because of its long literate tradition, is loaded with unnecessary complexity. If I was asked to suggest simplifications, then PNG English already incorporates them. Take the example of gender and tag questions. Learners acquiring English by listening and speaking will encounter the range of tag questions like, it has arrived, hasn’t it? we don’t like that one, do we? she will be coming, won’t she? I couldn’t have done that, could I? he’s happy, isn’t he? they should pay, shouldn’t they? where the tag encodes three grammatical facets: the opposite polarity to the premise, a copy of the first (or only, if single) modal or auxiliary verb from the premise, and the same gender as the premise. PNG English simplifies all the possible combinations of the three facets to a single form, isn’t it? The tag only needs to be a tag, essentially, so a single form is the least that is required to satisfy the meaning. The additional, native-speaker complexity of variation in gender, modal and alternating polarity is superfluous and serves no purpose for meaning in the modern context. English in fact also has single-word alternatives, like right?, or short phrases, do you agree? Grammatical gender is now very restricted in English, and cultural shifts show it increasingly to be an embarrassment. The first recent change forced by culture was the introduction of Ms, because the opposition of Mrs/Miss (married/unmarried female) had become outmoded and was awkward, especially in professional life and the workplace. The male/female distinction was bequeathed by the earliest Indo-Europeans. It existed in Ancient Greek, Latin and Sanskrit, and exists today, though with restrictions, in modern languages. There are, moreover, still many gender-different words (man/woman, boy/girl, father/mother, boar/sow, ram/ewe etc.) and male/female specific suffixes, like -é/-ée, -en/-enne, -er/-ess, -eur/-euse, -oir/-oire, -ix, which represent a strong historical French influence. The three ancient Indo-European languages for which we have records (Greek, Latin, Sanskrit) employed elaborate concord systems based on gender and case (differences of grammatical function: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative), only vestiges of which are found in English among the pronouns. Thus, English has I, me, mine (nominative, accusative, genitive cases respectively), and the nominative pronoun is used with the generalized verb form shall, will, have, can, would etc., thou, thee, thine (now only found in old, written texts, along with the nominative concording verb form, shalt, wilt, hast, canst, wouldst etc.), he, him, his (masculine gender, with the nominative again used with shall, will, has (historically hath), can, would etc.), she, her, hers (feminine gender, used with shall, will, has (hath), can, would etc.), it, it, its (neuter gender, used with shall, will, has (hath), can, would etc.), we, us, our (used with shall, will, have, can, would etc.), you, you, yours (used with shall, will, have, can, would etc.), they, them, theirs (used with shall, will, have, can, would etc.). We are easily persuaded that thou, thee, thine fell out of use because these forms are more complex and were replaced by the simpler, plural you series. Historical change in language is often driven by the preference for simplicity, and hence the naturalness of the single tag question form in PNG English. The modern Indo-European languages retain only remnants of the historical elaborate concord systems, and the languages on the geographical periphery (Russian, Hindi, Bangla) retain the most. There is a Russian linguistic joke which quips that a “poor” (= less well-educated) older person could starve to death if they are unable to remember the dative plural of the word for bread. The significance of this is that the more obscure or less commonly used concording or grammatical forms are reinforced by reading and by literate-based learning, and that non-literates will tend to lose them. Similarly, thou, thee, thine in English are retained in older printed forms of the Bible and mostly restricted to these contexts. England is home to very many spoken dialects, and sixty or so years ago, thou, thee, thine were the norm in certain areas, and this may still be the case, especially among older speakers. Another obvious historical shift in English is the expression of compounded numerals, where certain spoken dialects still retain the pattern four and twenty, five and twenty, etc., while Standard English has adopted the simpler pattern twenty-four, twenty-five, etc. The Bugis of Sulawesi in Indonesia famously distinguish five genders (masculine, feminine, neuter, and two transgenders), while gender in modern English has become more restricted and often now uses their in place of his/her where possible, even to the point of conflicting with grammatical nicety. Chair or chairperson is preferred to chairman, and fisher to fisherman, and the like. The male/female gender distinction, therefore, certainly serves no useful purpose in tag questions, and PNG English not only recognizes that, but eradicates it. Without the restraining influence of writing, meaning trumps grammar. That SE, and especially formal, written English, preserves old-fashioned vocabulary has been obvious enough that the Plain English Movement has been active in encouraging writers to avoid “gobbledygook, jargon and legalese.” Professional groups like lawyers have long responded to criticism of legalese by suggesting that technical terms and expressions are required for precision, while the proponents of clear expression have shown that this is not necessarily true. In the Times of India of 07 January, 2022, Arghya Sengupta writes on page 10 that India continues to draft laws and their amendments in legalese when Britain, which bequeathed this convention to India, has ceased to follow its tenets but rather now drafts laws in plain English. Plain English is not the same as the Simplified or Regularized English which we describe, but draws attention to an aspect of it, namely the continued use of outdated expressions like hereunder and Latin words like suo motu in specialized contexts. The semantic opposition assertive/non-assertive in English is marked several ways, and it is not a simple correlation of a single grammatical form with a single meaning or reference. In English, the assertive/non-assertive opposition underlies the difference between the finite, sentential complements (assertion: he said that_she_had_done_it, versus non-assertion: he wanted her_to_do_it). A different semantic force underlies the so-called telic aspect (non-telic: he wrapped the parcel, versus telic: he wrapped the parcel up, meaning he did it completely / he completed doing it). These meanings relate to Aikhenvald’s (2004) evidentials, being akin to notions of factuality, which have fundamental relevance in oral (non-literate) societies, as linguistic reinforcement of the credibility or truth-value of information. English now mostly uses the range of adverbs to mark the assertive/non-assertive opposition (certainly, definitely, obviously versus maybe, possibly, reportedly etc.), and has elaborate forms of citation in formal writing. 2.2.2 Indian English When I analyzed the English used in India, both conversationally and in English-medium newspapers, I discovered that it was the same, structurally and to a large degree lexically, as PNG English. India is home to 427 languages (according to the Ethnologue), the fourth largest number for any country (Indonesia has 742 and Nigeria 516 languages). I have witnessed Indian village children (with Konkani as mother-tongue) aged 3 to 6 learn oral Hindi and oral English naturally from cartoons on TV. Cartoons use simplified, short expressions and make their meaning obvious with clownish antics and exaggerated responses and reactions, and by using repetition. New English conveys meaning by emphasizing four different two-word structures, all of which are used in SE, as in the following NE examples. a. two cases have shown up during the lockdown (phrasal verb) b. and do employment-generation of the youth (general verb do + specific noun, which is here a two-word compound ) c. bread-making activities (specific noun + classifier noun) d. do not appreciate and realize the plight of others (repetition). 2.2.3 Standard English In order to understand a word’s meaning in Standard English, we regularly (though not necessarily) need at least two words - the word in question together with either the word following or the word preceding, a two-word combination. For me, this completes the circle to explain why NE, which I consider to be the actual interlanguage discussed in the abstract in language-learning theory, is to an increasing extent based on two-word structures. The Indian and PNG varieties of English developed unconsciously by assimilating the principle that many English word meanings require two words for specification. The following are examples of the principles underlying this promotion of two-word structures. English has the following word-family: invade invades invading invaded invader invaders invasion invasions invasive invasively. The meaning of each word is obvious to those who know English, as is the semantic relationship of the set. Closer inspection, however, reveals that the final pair differ from the rest in usage, and that it requires a second word to make this difference specific, as follows. The army invaded their territory. *The species invaded their territory. This is an invasive species. *This is an invasive army. Invoking the semantic parameter of literal-to-metaphorical, we can collocate invasive with army, as in: an invasive army of locusts. Now, army is used metaphorically, with its scope restricted to the notions of organized and powerful because of the limiting force of locusts. We see that the original word-family, therefore, comprises two subsets, with invasive and invasively having non-literal or metaphorical meaning only. Similar correlations of literal and metaphorical meaning are the following. Literal Metaphorical browse vegetation browse books, browse the Internet grapple with a wrestler grapple with a problem a gushing fountain a gushing testimonial open a box open negotiations shred paper shred reputations smoulder (of fire) smoulder (of repressed anger) tarnish a metal tarnish a reputation wean a baby of milk wean farmers of subsidies wrestle with an opponent wrestle with a new language / a decision. A further example is seen in the word overturn, which is used literally to mean upset, causing spillage, as in he carelessly overturned the bucket and spilled the water. The same word can be used metaphorically, as in the Parliament overturned the legislation, meaning repealed or nullified. The two meanings are easily distinguished when the second word is provided, overturn a bucket versus overturn a law. The related noun turnover is used literally to mean a food item, a single piece of pastry with a fruit filling, where the pastry is turned over the filling to enclose it, as in an apple turnover. Metaphorically, turnover means the volume of money transacted by a business, as in the company had an annual turnover in excess of two million dollars. Again the two meanings are easily distinguished with two-word listings, apple turnover versus annual turnover. This eases the problem of definition, which is often cumbersome. It also underlines the two-word prevalence (or, as we suggest, preference). A further method of simplifying a language is to use a limited number of what we call general verbs, like be, come, do, get, give, go, have, keep, make, put, take, throw, turn, and combine them with multiple nouns. Thus, instead of learning many nouns and many verbs, the process can be simplified. In fact, one of the differences between technical or professional writing and everyday speech in English is precisely this modification, so we find expressions like get ahead, get going, get it ready, get a move on and many more, or make an appointment, make a difference, make an amendment, make a change, etc, which are common in speech but restricted or repressed in formal and technical writing. 2.2.4 Dictionary Meaning Listing in groups of synonyms and, if appropriate, antonyms, can be an aid to reading, and through reading, as a means of extending vocabulary naturally. The actual meaning will be specified by the context of reading. This is based on the belief that we do not (or most people do not) remember definitions, but we instead spread meaning over a range of neurone-clusters, a vague notion about which I cannot at present be more specific, because meaning is not unitary. The entry for the word put as a transitive verb in the American Heritage Dictionary, for example, lists 15 meanings, and strong is listed with 21 meanings, depending on the word it qualifies (strong drink, strong character, strong woman, strong diplomatic ties, etc.). 2.2.5 Idioms The question of the representation of meaning (for the dictionary-maker) is whether metaphors are separate entries or not. Idioms are definitely separate entries where the meaning is not intuitively obvious from knowledge of the literal meaning. Generally, tradition has favoured separate entries for metaphors, except in cases like with the verb welling, where liquids and emotions share a joint entry. Metaphors can be treated as single entries along with literal meanings in a dictionary aimed at higher-literates, provided learners are made aware of the range of relationships. Metaphors, therefore, can be intuitively decoded with practice, through learning and awareness. That different speakers of the same language have different grammars and especially different dictionaries, is demonstrated by the following example. It may, on reflection, be self-evident that a person’s language evolves (or grows and develops) over a lifetime. Thus, one may recognize the following as ambiguities, so that they require separate dictionary entries. draw: he drew a paper from the file, he drew breath draw: he drew a map of the garden. buckle: the beam buckled under the weight buckle: he buckled up (= he fastened his seat-belt). The standard dictionaries, however, consider the first pair to be varieties of a single meaning, thus requiring just one, comprehensive dictionary entry. In this case, draw (with a pencil) exemplifies one instance of the general, comprehensive meaning, to change position by moving or pulling. The American Heritage Dictionary (AHD) thus employs a single entry for draw, with 22 transitive uses (or senses) and 11 intransitive senses, depending on the word(s) in the immediate context. Similarly, buckle is a single entry with two transitive and four intransitive senses. The published dictionaries are, therefore, comprehensive repositories of a language, and individuals encode personal varieties of these, which sometimes vary considerably from the ideal. Note also cases like the qualifier thought-provoking, where there is no corresponding verb + noun combination to provoke thoughts, or ever-changing, where there is no corresponding verb to ever-change. Potential ambiguity is often resolved by structural or grammatical difference, so that steel, a Mass noun, can hardly be confused with the verb steeling (he steeled himself to do it), or tick, transitive and tick, intransitive: she ticked the right boxes / the clock ticked monotonously. Writing can also emphasize difference, like I brought him aboard / I brought him a board. Obvious examples of ambiguity are demonstrated among the phrasal verbs (exemplified further below). Many times, English uses the same two- or three-word combination both with a literal meaning and with a different, idiomatic meaning. Thus, let on is used literally in sentences like, the conductor let them on the bus (= allow to board). The same combination is used idiomatically in, she let on that the meeting would be postponed (= reveal). The literal and idiomatic uses are easily distinguished by semantic context and also by the grammar, because idiomatic let on governs (is followed by) a finite, noun-phrase complement introduced by that. More similar in syntax, but far apart in meaning, are the two forms carry out. The literal meaning is to transfer by carrying (she carried the parcel out to the car). Idiomatically, the same combination means perform a task and abide by (as in: he carried out the instructions to the letter). Again, this tendency to ambiguity must reflect how the brain stores and accesses language, and is similar to the contrast drawn by Pinker (1999) between what he calls words and rules. In computer-speak, a word may be said to open a folder in the brain in which multiple files can be stored. Memory-experts tell us that new informtion can be recalled more reliably when it is attached to a network which is already established in the memory. So, the stops on a journey, for example, are more easily recalled when each is attached mentally to one member of a cycle of body parts, such as a cycle of foot, lower-leg, thigh, etc. The principle is that when we recall the body part, we will more easily recall its attachments as well. Words used in actual conversation benefit from having immediacy of reference and relevance (and the interlocutors are available to probe and question, if necessary). In such circumstances, the exact meaning is not required. A glance at English idioms reveals many which are quaint or even anachronistic, like bite off more than one can chew, flog a dead horse, it rings a bell or wipe the slate clean. These forms are useful because their meaning is nonspecific and because they describe their literal meaning obviously or graphically. They are akin to formalized structures, like cartoons, in that they make their general meaning obvious. English now also employs words and phrases which no longer have literal interpretations, like be in the offing, set sail, make headway, take the wind out of his sails, which relate to the era of sailing ships. 2.2.6 Two-Word Preferences in Modern English Linguists say that language is always changing, but imperceptibly. The changes which Halliday noticed arose in response to changes in the structure of society. Language is a highly flexible medium, because meaning and structure are both flexible forms. This flexibility is in turn related to imprecision, the ability to vary as required according to context. Creative writing exploits this flexibility by innovating, by forming new collocations (she tipped him a firm gaze as she sidled by) and new derivations (acted out the exercise routine religiously every morning). Halliday’s own often-quoted example of the new compounding of his time was railway booking-office clerk, which can be compared to current forms like the following. bird-diversity-conservation blame-game body-dysmorphic-disorder bomb-removal-activities book-deal brain-engagement brain-imaging-study brand-image bucket-list business-investment-climate business-trip-expense bus-surfing cancel-culture cancer-cure-crusade can-do spirit carbon-accounting cardiac-arrest cardio-workout career-arc career-trajectory care-package case-positivity-rate cash-in-hand-payments cat-and-mouse-strategy cause for despair cerebral-jousting chain-collision champagne-socialist charm-offensive child-abuse Child Services child-support citizen-assembly civil-liberties civil-unrest claw-back-mechanism client-confidentiality-obligations click-and-collect climate-activist climate-politics cocaine-trafficking-sting-operation cognitive-restraints cold-chain-transport-device commercial-traffic-spaces compliance-burden compliance-control Comprehensive-Strategic-Partnership (CSP) concrete-evidence concrete-structures condom-sex conspiracy-theory constituency-surgery consumer-demand consumer-durables consumer-pyramid-household-survey (CPHS) controls-notification-process coral-reef-restoration-technology-development corporate-social-responsibility counter-culture counter-narcotics-efforts courtesy-title Covid gloom Covid-19-reformed-work-world creature-comforts crime-sting critical-race-theory (CRT) crop-substitution-projects crunch-talks crypto-hotspot cultural-appropriation culture-shock damage-control-exercise data-blindness. English, of course, has had compound nouns for centuries, but they are more numerous now. Pre-qualifying nouns when compounded in English are constrained to be singular in form, as in the following. making gloves nominalizes as glove-making telling stories story-telling parade of cats cat-parade food for dogs dog-food consultants in hospitals hospital-consultants. One feature of some new compounds is to break this convention: drinks event, credentials forgery, emissions-reduction, go-to civil-rights lawyer, weapons-grade plutonium, weapons system, welfare mutual-obligations system. Traditionally, the above forms might have been distinguished in writing as possessives by the use of the apostrophe, as weapons’ system, as also seen in forms like a week’s time or women’s refuge. My observation is that this orthographic nicety no longer obtains, except among higher-level literates. In hospitals, we used to find registrars, consultants, nurses, patients and so on, whereas now we have Pediatric Registrars, Consultant-Physicians, Nursing Teams with Team Leaders, Personal Care Assistants (PCAs), Social Welfare Teams, Mental-health Caregivers and Hospital Administrators who refer to Patients as Revenue Streams. The modern expressions are more specific and they are all compounds. Few contexts dictate new ways of naming and referring. It is not simply a case of out with the old and in with the new, rather, it is a fresh way of envisaging the world, and this takes a new form: 2-word structures where the second element is a general word akin to the classifier nouns found to a limited extent in most languages, but used systematically in languages like Thai, Burmese, and Chinese dialects. SE examples are as follows. burrowing networks, flight networks, patronage network gateway service provision, railway safety provisions grievance redressal mechanism, authentication mechanism mouse activity, insider-trading activity, bomb-removal activities non-crime hate incident, post-immersion incidents baiting issues, signature issues, anger issues, prestige issues, co-occurrence issues, kidney-related issues, road issues employment opportunities, vaccine-supply opportunities extremist material, relief materials heartwarming Woolworths act, incredible check-out act, post-game photo act, white-collar high-wire act airline industry, foreign-student accommodation industry airline industry expectations, shareholder profit expectations brand exposure, infection exposure, risk exposure back-office functions, supply-process functions minority share position, trade-balance position drinks event, flowering events, salmon mortality event, life events, ambulance no-show events, bullfighting events disease burden, cost of living burden scooter crime wave, antisocial-behaviour wave negative-image attitudes, young-voter attitudes mouse plague, domestic violence plague core hurdles, processing hurdles retail complex, low-cost housing complex, cinema complex gunshot, screen shot, snapshot, screen grab Covid-care facilities, quarantine facility, mental-health facility workplace toxicity, food-additive toxicity vaccines rally, stock-market rally student placement, product placement value system, disc-operating system, weapons system union approach, zero-tolerance approach household-name company, road-construction company foot work, spade work, programming work bar-code, postal code, QR code, zip code scrap-yard, shipyard, schoolyard beachside, dockside, kerbside, harbour-side, poolside, supplyside comfort zone, pollution-free zone, relaxation zone black hole, blow hole, pinhole, plug hole recruitment process, manufacturing process, planning process computer centre, Covid-care centre, distribution centre recruitment drive, energy-efficiency drive marketing plan, survival strategy, eviction tactics employment policy, vaccination policy, immigration policy stakeholder engagement, public-sector employee engagement industry innovations, family-court mediation innovations policy guidelines, immigration-processing guidelines safety procedures, same-day surgery procedures design services, retail services, banking sector services project management, stakeholder management, yield management supply-chain operations, finance operations, credit and payment operations, research-based operations medal targets, rollout target, sales targets name-brand jobs, finance-sector jobs, paint job the spy trade, the wholesale trade, the flesh trade renewables tsunami, narcotics tsunami, patients tsunami vaccine rollout, vehicle rollout, income-tax refund rollout brand awareness, series-uptake awareness in-person church services, recruitment services word-of-mouth traffic, walk-in interviews, passing trade seat-sharing arrangement, airline code-sharing arrangements bobbing syndrome, acquired immune-deficiency syndrome, nodding syndrome, sudden infant-death syndrome, and further examples with classifying words like, narrative, procedure, process, device, scheme, unit, and more. 2.2.7 Further examples of compounding Two-part, patterned uncount nouns. These are selected examples only, as this is an open ended process. appointment-scheduling asset-stripping blame-shifting body-building coach- building coral-bleaching data-crunching double-jabbing drive-by-shooting face- timing fare-gouging fat-shaming flag-waving flight-testing horse-trading muscle- build-ing one-upping paddle-boarding price-gouging problem-solving railroading ribbon-cutting vaccine-plugging wing-clipping back-formation back-translation circumlocution co-education crop substitution habitat-restoration hazard-reduction property-valuation hypercorrection non- inclusion over-extension performance-evaluation radio-detection self-deprecation spontaneous-coronary-artery-dissection (SCAD) wage-stagnation fore-limb-abnormality brain-laterality robot-functionality species-dissimilarity habitat-sustainability liberation-theology room-occupancy upper-atmosphere-telemetry employee-confidence student-attendance style-correspondence childhood-disillusionment vocation-adjustment neighbourhood-vandalism differently-abled-person-tourism brain-surgery credentials forgery garden-topiary air-conditioner-amperage clutch-slippage infant-dyslexia adult-insomnia city-centre-infrastructure supermarket-expenditure problem-analysis kidney-dialysis syllable-epenthesis machine-hydraulics plant-hydroponics evidence-dismissal gender-reversal visa-application-disapproval competition-horsemanship intern-mentorship school-child-misbehaviour student-rancour roof-top-solar. Many more examples of compounding are found in English, but space limitations preclude their inclusion here. 2.2.8 General Verbs A significant feature of the Standard English vocabulary is the large number of two-word or three-word structures which employ a small number of what are referred to as general verbs. We list 29 verbs here, with the 15 commonest in boldface (be, break, bring, come, do, draw, fall, feel, get, give, go, have, hit, hold, keep, let, look, lose, make, play, pull, put, run, see, set, show, take, throw, turn), which are used in phrases like take responsibility, keep an appointment. The verbs which occur in the most combinations are listed below. The number following the verb indicates the number of lines of examples in the entry, and underlining marks synonyms or partial-synonyms of higher-order verbs, like receive, which is a synonym of get. Words enclosed in parentheses indicate that these words are not selected to be the lemma or primary representative of their word family (see Bauer & Nation, 1993). Lemma-status is assigned according to the hierarchy of preference: Mass-noun Uncount-noun Qualifier Modifier (Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction) Count-noun. The data base from which these statistics are drawn, is a personal file of over 100,000 English words and phrases which have been classified according to their Category (Noun, Verb, Qualifier, Modifier), and then either according to their their morphology, words like: airworthy airyfairy almighty (angry) antsy (arty) artsy(-fartsy) awry backwoodsy (baggy) (balmy) bandy barmy batty bawdy beady beastly (beefy) (beery) (beefy) (bendy) (billowy) biscuity (bitey) bitty (blackly ironic) bleary (blingy) blokey bloodthirsty (bloody) blotchy blowsy (bluesy) (blurry) - which are Patterned Adjectives ending with the suffix -y, or classified according to their semantics, like: activewear aftershave airspace airtime A4 animal-feed antivenom astroturf (atmosphere) babygear babywear backfill backup badland barware bathroomware beancurd bedrock beetroot bergamot beta-amyloid biochar - which are Unpatterned_Compound_Mass_nouns. Based on these classifications, English has more than 180 subclasses of words (consider the patterns of suffixes listed in the Appendix). The largest sets of General Verbs are: 1. BE (643) GET (195) HAVE (413) MAKE (248) TAKE (186) 2. COME (74) DO (101) GIVE (133) GO (127) HOLD (51) KEEP (85) PUT (116) 3. BREAK (28) BRING (38) FALL (29) FEEL (27) PLAY (28) PULL (28) RECEIVE (22) RUN (37) SEE (25) SET (30) SHOW (32) THROW (24) TURN (33) (total: 25 verbs) 4. CALL (14) CARRY OUT (= perform) (17) CAUSE (17) CUT (15) DRAW (18) FACE (18) FIND (16) HIT (22) LAY (15) LEAVE (17) LET (21) LIVE (13) LOOK (24) LOSE (22) OPEN (14) PAY (18) PROVIDE (20) PUSH (14) RAISE (14) SEND (13) SPEAK (14) STAND (18) STAY (15) STEP (13) WORK (22) (list = 25 verbs) 5. (10-12) BLOW BUILD CATCH DISPLAY DROP EXPRESS GAIN GRANT GROW ISSUE LEAD MAINTAIN MEET MOVE OFFER PICK PLACE STICK STRIKE SUFFER THINK UNDERTAKE USE (list = 23 verbs) 6. (8-9) ACT CARRY CLOSE CREATE DELIVER DRIVE EXPERIENCE FOLLOW KICK KNOW REMAIN SEEK SERVE SHOOT START TALK WALK WEAR (list = 18 verbs) 7. (6-7) ACCEPT ADD ALLOW BEAR BEAT BECOME BEGIN CAST CHANGE COMPLETE CONDUCT EAT ENTER ENTERTAIN ESTABLISH EXHIBIT FIGHT FORM HEAD IMPOSE JUMP KNOCK MOUNT NEED PASS REACH READ RECOGNIZE SAVE SELL SHAKE SINK SOUND SPARK SPILL SPREAD STOP TELL WIN (list = 39 verbs) 8. (5) ANNOUNCE ANSWER APPLY ARRANGE ASK BACK BECOME BUY COUNT CRACK CROSS DEVELOP DEAL ENJOY EXPOSE FILL GROW HANG LEND RIDE ROLL SAY SHUT SIT SLAM SPEND SWEEP UNDERGO WASH WIND (list = 30 verbs; grand-total = 160 verbs). 2.2.9 Phrasal Verbs Standard English, and particularly spoken English, can access more than 3,000 two-word, and sometimes three-word, phrasal verbs, where the verb is followed and modified by up to 47 different particles, which may be prepositions (put X behind Y) or adverbs (fall out). Again, general verbs can be distinguished - 38 verbs verbs which occur in multiple combinations and form a productive system in modern English. The 47 particles (prepositions and adverbs) are listed alphabetically as follows. aback about above across after against ahead along among apart around as aside at away back before behind below beneath between beyond by down for forth forward from in into of off on onto out over overboard past round through to together towards under up upon with without. The 38 general verbs are as follows. break bring call cast come cut do fall get give go hang hold keep kick knock lay lie live look make move pass play pull push put run send set sit stand stay stick take talk throw turn. For exemplification, we list the two-word and three-word combinations used with the verb put, a total of 35 different forms and 83 different meanings: put X about (3 meanings) put X above Y put X across (2 meanings) put X around (2 meanings) put X aside (3 meanings) be put at put X away (5 meanings) put X back (7 meanings) put X back into Y put X back on put X before Y (3 meanings) put X behind Y/oneself (2 meanings) put X by put X down (16 meanings) put X down as Y put X down to Y put X forth put X forward (4 meanings) put X in (18 meanings) put in for X put X into Y (13 meanings) put X off (7 meanings) put X on (23 meanings) put X on to Y (3 meanings) put X out (22 meanings) put X out of Y put X over Y (3 meanings) put X past Y put X through Y (9 meanings) put X to Y (4 meanings) put X together (6 meanings) put X towards Y put X up (12 meanings) put X upon Y (4 meanings) put X up to Y put up with X. Phrasal combinations (of verb with preposition or adverb) are a productive subsystem of English words, and the following SE examples have been copied from actual text. hoped to get a matching tattoo with her sister is serving out a 30-year prison term aisles blocked off in supermarkets fed up of the attorney’s questions urged for calm laying waste to Florida’s wildlife slapped back at a media troll after being grassed on by a Covid busybody when they stepped down from the Royal Family and not resort back to a credit card while decorations go up to celebrate the holiday season awarded the man with compensation a live-export ship which docked into Darwin. Samples of the commonest General Verbs (BE GET HAVE MAKE TAKE) and their associated Phrasal Verbs in SE. BE (643) BE equative a, the burning question, being X transgenders competing, being a bad joke being a bad lot being a bad move being a battle to the death not being a bed of roses being a blessing in disguise being a boon, a bonus, a benefit, an advantage, a friend to X being a born listener, talker, loser being about time X person, being a brick being a burden (to X) being a-can-of-worms being a cascade-effect being a castle in the sky being a Catch 22 situation being a close-run thing the police force, being a complete joke being a (bit of a) concern being a creature of habit being a crying shame being a cut above the rest being a dark horse being a defining image of X/the coming of Spring being a defining moment, a standout moment, a defining photo that, being a different story X a situation, being a disgrace being a doddle, a piece of cake being a doormat being a drag on X being a drop in the bucket, in the ocean being a duel to the death being a (serious) embarrassment (to X) being a far cry from X/his luxurious lifestyle being a feather in one’s/X’s cap being a part (of X), a nuisance, a curse (to X) being a hit with X being a hot potato being a job after Y’s own heart Phrasal verbs are not traditionally listed with BE (like be in/out, be up, be with it). GET (195) getting a break getting/taking a breather getting, receiving advice getting a foot in X place, in the door getting a grip (on X/oneself) getting ahead of oneself getting a job getting a jolt, shock getting along well getting a move on getting, receiving an allocation getting a new look getting a pasting (not) getting a regular water supply getting, gaining a reputation, a name, fame, notoriety getting a rise out of X person getting around a barrier, regulations getting, receiving a salary increase, a rise getting a shot getting a shot (at X) getting, receiving a shot in the arm getting a surprise getting a taste of X/what her life is like getting (X’s) attention getting a vaccination getting away with X behaviour, it (= avoid penalty, criticism) getting a word in edgeways getting back on one’s feet getting back out there getting back to normal, on track, into focus getting behind X/the players (not) getting beyond X/the first chapter getting bored with X getting by (and hopefully moving on) getting/having cold feet (about/over X) getting confirmation of X/the escape getting cosy (with X) getting coy with X getting dolled up (for X) getting down to brass tacks getting down to X/a task getting even with a person(s) getting going getting greedy a mission, a task, getting hairy getting hands on (with X) getting help, assistance, support from X getting high getting hitched getting hold of X/an idea getting home (quickly, by X time). GET - PHRASAL VERBS get about (= be mobile, roam) get above X/oneself (= assume airs of superiority) get across X/idea, meaning (= transmit, explain) get after X person(s) (= pursue X) get ahead (= succeed) get along (= cope, manage) get along (= depart) get along with X person(s) (= have a friendly relationship with X) get around (= be mobile, roam) get (a)round X/a problem, obstacle (= avoid, bypass X) get (a)round to X (= do X after a delay) get at X/item (= access X) get at X/secret, idea (= access, discover X) get at X (= criticise, treat X unkindly) be got at (= be suborned, undermined) get away (= depart, go on holiday, escape) get away from X/person(s), habit (= change, avoid X) get away with X/behaviour, action (= avoid responsibility for X) get back (= retire, return to position) get X/person(s), object(s) back (= return X to position) get back X/one’s breath (= pause) get X person(s) back, get back at X person(s) (= retaliate) get back into, to X/activity (= resume X) get back to X person (= resume contact, resume connection with X) get behind (with X/activity) (= lag, be behind schedule) get behind X person(s) (= support X) get beyond X/activity (= advance as a development of X) get by (= manage to survive) get by X/obstacle (= cope with, pass X) get down (= move to a lower position) get down from X/chair, ladder (= step off X) get X/person, item down (= lower X) get X/food down (= swallow) get down X/dictation, speech (= write X) X/concern, get Y down (= X, make Y unhappy) get down to X/activity (= begin X seriously) X person(s), transport, get in (= arrive) get in X place (= enter) get X/item, goods in (= bring X inside) get X/crops in (= harvest and store X) get X/supplies in (= buy and bring X home, to base) get X person in (= bring expert, tradesperson to one’s premises) political party, candidate, get in (= be elected) get in X/sport, activity (= make time for X) get X/a word in (= succeed in speaking in a group discussion) get in on X/activity (= take part in X) get into X/place (= enter X) get into X/activity, habit (= begin, be involved in, be interested in X) get into X/organization, school (= join X) get into X/clothes (= put on X, fit into X) X/something, get into Y person (= X, cause Y to behave unusually) get in with X person(s) (= become friendly with X) get off (X/table, bed, bus, ship) (= dismount, remove oneself from X) get off (from X/work, a responsibility) (= be free (of X)) get X/person(s), item(s) off (to Y place) (= send/take X (to Y)) get off X/land, premises (= leave X) get off X/telephone (= cease using X) get X/a stain, mark off (Y/one’s skin, a surface) (= remove X (from Y)) get off (X/person) (= cease touching X) get time off (= have leisure-time) get off (with less/no penalty) (= be subject to less/no penalty) get X off (with less/no penalty) (= arrange that X is subject to less/no penalty) get off X/the subject, theme, topic (= communicate irrelevantly) get off to X/bed, sleep (= go to bed, begin to sleep) get off on X/a matter (= be excited by X) get off with X person (= begin romantic association with X) get on X/bicycle, bus, horse, wall (= mount, board X) get on X/the telephone to Y (= telephone Y) get X/clothing on (= dress oneself in X) get on X/committee, radio programme, TV programme (= participate in X) get on (= succeed in one’s career) X/person(s), get on (= X, be aging) X/time, get on (= X, be passing, with a deadline approaching) get on at X person(s) (= criticise X) get on for X amount (= almost reach X amount) get on to X/theme, topic (= begin communicating on X) get on to X person(s) (= communicate with X) get onto X/information, person(s) (= discover X) get on with X/activity (= begin, continue, make progress doing X) get on with X person(s) (= have a friendly relationship with X) get out (of X place) (= leave (X)) get X out (of Y place) (= assist X to leave) get X out of Y/situation, trouble (= assist X out of Y) get out (and about) (= roam) get X/item(s), dirt, stain out (of Y/container, place) (= remove X) get out X/item (= make X available, publish X) get out X/words (= manage to utter X) X/news, word, get out (= X become known) get out of X/organization, responsibility (= avoid X) get (X/batsman, player) out (= end X’s innings) get X/item, information out of Y person(s) (= obtain X from Y) get out of X/habit, doing Y (= cease X) get over X/illness, shock, bad experience (= recover from X) get over X/problem (= manage X) not get over X/problem, surprise (= not believe, not accept X) get X/idea, suggestion over/across (= transmit the meaning, relevance of X) get over (to X place) (= reach X) get X/matter over (and done) with (= complete X) get round X/persons() (= persuade, flatter X) get round X/a (race-)course (= complete, finish X) get through X/a task (= complete X) get through X/an unpleasant experience (= survive, endure X) X/idea, get through (to Y) (= Y understand X) get through (by telephone) to X (= contact X (by telephone)) get through (to X place) (= reach (X)) get through X/examination, stage (= pass, achieve X) get through X/money, resources (= use X completely) X/law, get through (= be approved) get to X place (= reach X) X matter, get to Y (= affect Y) get together (= meet) get X/things, matters, money together (= assemble, gather X) get oneself together (= control one’s feelings) get up (= rise from lower to higher position, get out of bed) get X up (= move X from lower to higher position, get X out of bed) get up to X place (= travel, visit X) get up X/an event, a meeting (= organise X) get (oneself) up (in a uniform, a garb) (= dress up (in X)) get up to X/activity, behaviour (= do X) get with X/it (= become aware of X/recent events) HAVE (413) HAVE possess (an item, an object, a behaviour, a feeling, a mood, a time, a talk, a conversation, a thought process, a duty/responsibility) having, getting, receiving a bad call having a (serious) affect on X/education having a, no backbone having a bad attitude (towards X) having a bad moment having a bad name having a basis in fact having a/no/significant bearing on X/an election, a story, an idea having a belief, view, opinion having ability, potential, talent having a bit on the side having a blonde moment having, going into a bolthole, a (place of) refuge, a place of sanctuary, a safe place having a brush with death, with controversy having a busman’s holiday having a blackout having a blow-up having a bounty on one’s head having a brush with death having a busman’s holiday (not) having a care in the world, the universe having a/the/no chance, a/the/no opportunity having a change of heart having a close relationship (not) having a clue, any idea (about X) having a (clear, guilty) conscience (about, over X) having a crew-cut having a crush on X having a delusion(s) having, hold a discussion(s) (with X) (about/over Y)/having/hosting/arranging/mounting/scheduling a course, a discussion (with X) (on Y), a meeting, a seance, a gathering, a parliament, a talkfest, a convocation, a lecture, a seminar, a tutorial having a duty, an obligation, a responsibility having, expressing, showing, displaying, exhibiting X/a mood, a feeling, a sinking feeling, a sense of (dis)respect, allegiance, friendship, conviction, devotion, compassion, mercy, anger, enmity, resentment, belligerence, hatred, disregard, arrogance, decorum, good manners, (in)tolerance, amazement, wonder, indignation, a rictal grimace of X emotion having a duty, an obligation, a responsibility. HAVE X attribute/ accent acclaim acumen age animus aplomb appeal appetite area aspect atmosphere bad-taste bathos beat benefit bias biorisk bite blemish bounce bravado bravura breed brio build bulk cachet caliber camber carte blanche caste cess character charisma charm cheer class climate clout cold-comfort colour conceit `content context contrast copyright cost cover craft credit cruise-control cuisine culture-shock custom dash dazzle debt décor decorum degree desire discipline disguise disinterest disrepute disrespect distrust drag dress drift drive éclat ego elan enterprise error esteem excise expertise eyesight faith fame face face-value fame fate fatigue fault fear feel felicide fight finesse firepower flair flutter force force-majeure foresight forethought form format fortune freehold free-speech free-will gender genius get-up-and-go give glare glitter glitz gloss grace grade gravitas greed grip guile guilt gusto habeas corpus habit habitat hauteur heart heat hindsight (horse/man/motor-)power hue hygiene ill-health ill-repute impact impetus import impulse indiscipline input insight Instacringe instinct intellect intellisense intent (interest) intrinsic-value ire karma know-how knowledge kudos largesse leeway libido life lifestyle lift loft longsight low-self-esteem luck lustre machismo (magic) manner mass merit mettle mien might mind misfortune mistrust mode momentum mood morale mufti mystique mythos needle nerve nous octavo office oomph opprobrium order origin overhang pace pallor panache par parallax parvovirus pathos pedigree perfect-pitch phase physique pitch pizzazz place pluck plumb poise pomp power prestige price principle promise prowess pull punch purchase purpose purview race range rank reach realpolitik reason regard renown repute resolve resource respect respite result rhythm ride right right-of-way rigor-mortis (flight-)risk rooftop-solar room routine sang-froid savoir-faire savvy scale scatter schmalz schtick scope self self-doubt self-control self-discipline self-doubt self-esteem self-interest self-respect self-restraint self-will self-worth sense sex-appeal shade shape shelf-life shine shortsight size skill slack sleight-of-hand slip slope sloth smell space span sparkle speech speed spirit splay spleen spread spring spunk stamina (high/low) status staying-power stigma stimulus stretch style superstrength (swagger) sway sweep system tact taint talent tare taste technique temper tempo tenor tense thirst thrust tilt timbre tint title tone topspin torque touch transgender trust turnover type umph unwisdom value verve vim virtue voice voice-control volume will willpower wisdom wit worth yield zeal Zeitgeist zest zing HAVE X feeling/ abandon alarm anger angst anguish awe bad-blood bliss bonhomie burnout marriage/pandemic/parent-burnout camaraderie chagrin comfort concern contempt déjà vu delight desire despair discomfort discontent disdain disgust dislike dismay disquiet distaste distress doubt dread duress ennui esprit-de-corps fatigue fear fright glee gloom goodwill grief guilt hate hatred heartache heartbreak hope horror hunger hurt ill-will ire joie-de-vivre joy love lust malaise mirth misgiving mistrust nausea odium opprobrium outrage pain panic peace-of-mind pique pride rage rapport regret relief relish remorse reserve resolve revenge shame shock shtick sorrow spite spleen strain stress (surprise) tedium terror thrill toothache top-dollar torment tristesse triumph trust unease uninterest unrequited-love wanderlust woe wonder wrath HAVE, SUFFER FROM X affliction/ acne ADHD ague AIDS angina anthrax antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) ascites ASD (autism-spectrum disorder) asthma backache bad-breath battle-fatigue bellyache bends beriberi blight blue-flu borderline-personality-disorder brain-fog BSE bungalow-leg cabin-fever cancer canker carcinoma caries chicken-pox chikungunya cholera ciguatera colic congenital-heart-defect (CHD) crabs cradle-cap cramp croup cystocele delirium dengue(-fever) diabetes (diarrhoea) disease distemper (dropsy) DTs dyspnea earache Ebola eczema edema emphysema encephalocele enterocele fatty-liver-disease fever (flu) frostbite gangrene glaucoma goitre gooseflesh gout gripe hemorrhoids hayfever headache heart-attack heartburn heatstroke hendra-(virus) hepatoma herpes HIV/AIDS hives housemaid’s-knee HPV-human papilloma virus Hughes-syndrome hydrocele hydrocephalus ICU-delirium impetigo influenza jaundice jetlag jitters kaposi’s-sarcoma knock-knee kwashiorkor legionella lockjaw long-Covid lumbago lupus lymphangioma lymphoma lyssavirus mange measles melanose-melasma mesothelioma migraine monkeypox motion-sickness multiple-system atrophy (MSA) mumps murrain muscular-atrophy-disease (MAD) naevus neuroblastoma Nipah-virus nystagmus omphalocele paratyphoid pellagra piles plague (pleurisy) polio polycystic-kidney-disease (PKD) polycystic-ovary-syndrome (PCOS) prickly-heat prolactinoma purpura rabies rectocele rickets rinderpest rosacea roseola RSV (respiratory-syncytial-virus) rubella rubeola salmonella sarcoma sars scabies sciatica scrofula shingles SIDS smallpox spina bifida sprue stage-fright stertor stomach-ache strain strangles stroke strophulus sunburn sunstroke tetanus the-blues thrush tinnitus toothache trachoma trauma trenchfoot typhoid typhus urethrocele urinary-tract-infection (UTI) veneral disease (VD) vertigo whiplash whooping-cough worms X-syndrome writer’s-block yaws. HAVE X colour/ aquamarine azure auburn bay beige bisque bistre black blond blue brindle (bronze) bronze-olive brunette carmine celadon cerise cherry(-red) crimson cyan dun ecru emerald exautic-green forest-green fawn gingery-brown gray/grey green hazel (indigo) infrared lilac lovat magenta maroon/marone mauve (ochre) off-white olive(-green) orange pink puce purple red roan rose ruby russet scarlet (sepia) (sorrel) tan taupe tawny teal technicolour turquoise ultramarine ultraviolet umber vermillion violet white yellow. HAVE X taste/ kokumi peppermint umami. HAVE - PHRASAL VERBS have X/grudge, loss against Y he has nothing personal against the company, product have X in they had workmen in have X clothing, device on she had nothing on underneath it, they had the radio on have X person(s) on (= deceive X) have X information on Y the police have nothing on him, according to their records have X out (= have X removed) he had his wisdom teeth out have X matter out with Y person(s) (= discuss a disagreement) he wanted to telephone and have it out with her right away. MAKE (248) create, make X happen, fabricate, construct making a (minor, significant) alteration(s) making a baby making a bank transfer, a payment(s) making a bee-line for X making a (desperate) bid for freedom, a bid to oust X making a booking, a reservation making a break, a dash, a false start, a good, bad, winning start, a run for it making a breakthrough making, getting, receiving, taking a (phone-)call making a (jingoistic) call(s) for (change) making, undergoing a change, a transformation making, levying, instituting a charge(s) (for X) making a choice, a selection making, repeating, denying a claim(s) making, establishing a classification(s) making, forming, cementing a coalition, a pact, a group, an alliance, an association, a relationship making a collection making a comeback, a return/first/second (appearance), one’s debut making a (crass) comment, a finding, an observation, a determination, a judgement, a ruling, a law making a commitment, a promise making a comparison, an inference, an association making a complaint, a criticism, an objection, a reproach, an interruption making a concession(s) making, imposing a condition(s), a curfew, a restriction(s), a requirement(s), a sanction(s), a suppression order(s), a control(s) on X/the media, Netflix making a connection making, doing a conversion(s) making a correction(s) making a dash for X/it making a date to celebrate, to do making/taking a decision making a delivery/making delivery (of X) making, giving a demonstration, a show, an exhibition, a display (of X) making a dent in X/drug infrastructure making a detour. MAKE - PHRASAL VERBS make after X (= chase X) make away with X (= steal and take away) make away with X person(s) (= kill X) make for X place (= move towards X) make for X situation (= be conducive to X, result in X) make X into Y made the nightie into a house-coat, they made him into what he is today make of X (= have, form an opinion about X) the police don’t know what to make of their story make off (= leave, depart) make off with X (= steal X and take it away) make out (= cope, manage a situation, hear something clearly) he is making out well at the camp, she cannot make out what we are saying make out a (false) case (= suggest, imply a reason, a rationale) she is making out that we don’t care make out X/a cheque, a document (= write out X) (two people) make out (with X) (= play sex (with X)) make X over to Y (= transfer X to Y) make up (= comprise) almost half of the Parliament is made up of lawyers, lawyers make up half of the Parliament make up X/a story, an excuse (= fabricate, invent) make up one’s mind (= decide) make up an amount, a shortfall (= add as required) they made up the time before take-off make up X (= prepare) make up X/ready-to-cook meals, make up a bed, make up one’s face make up (with X) (= settle differences (with X)) make up for X/hurt, damage (= compensate for X) make up to X person(s) (= be friendly with X for some advantage). TAKE (186) take possession, control of X, receiving, gathering X taking, receiving, giving, getting a bribe, a blessing(s), advice, a salary increase, a raise taking, making, getting, receiving a (phone-)call taking a collection taking a delivery/taking delivery (of X) taking, suffering a direct hit taking a (financial) haircut taking a hostage(s), a prisoner(s) taking a light from a/the match taking, receiving, issuing, making a refund(s), a (credit) voucher(s) taking away the opportunity to do taking, accepting, receiving cheques, donations, funds (from anybody and everybody) taking (the) credit (for X) taking in, accepting X/patients from other States taking, accepting money from X taking exception (to X/remark, treatment, behaviour), offence (at X), umbrage (at X) taking over a building, a shrine taking permission, consent, approval taking, having refreshment(s) taking refuge in X place/with Y person(s) taking, assuming, accepting responsibility (for X) taking, returning telephone calls taking the air taking the bait taking, feeling the heat taking the hint taking the law into one’s own hands taking X alive taking X/things, an event(s), a decision hard/lightly/to heart, lying down, in poor/good spirit, lightly/seriously, well/badly etc. taking X/tolls in good part taking X in one’s stride. TAKE - PHRASAL VERBS take aback/be taken aback (= be surprised) take after X (= resemble X) take against X (= dislike X) take along X (= be accompanied by X) take apart X (= separate into parts, dismantle, analyse) take X around (Y place) the manager took us round the factory (= show) take X aside take away X (= remove) versus put back X (= replace) a takeaway (meal) (US = takeout) took the children away to her parents’ house, the suspects were taken away in an unmarked van, her husband’s job took him away for periods, taking away the justification for X, the light-hearted comment did not take away any part of the obvious threat, taking one’s breath away, taking away something, lessons from an experience, taking four away from seven leaves three take X/husband away from Y/wife nothing can take away from his technological achievements (= devalue) take back (X) (= return to its place) take them back with you (to your home, place), take back something borrowed, took it back to the shop for a refund, after they reconciled, she took him back, he regretted saying that and wants to take it back (= retract it), he took the audience back to his childhood, those comments took him back to his childhood take down (X) (literally = accompany X to a lower level), antonym: take up (X), take down X object (= bring X from a higher level), he took down the mirror from the wall, they took down the tent, the display, and packed it in the van (= dismantle X), while she was talking, we took down these notes, she disliked him enough to take him down in public (= belittle) take in we took him in to meet my father, took their drinks into the meeting, she took the child in her arms, he was homeless, so we took him in (= house X), they had the teaching capacity and space to take in 25 more freshers, the police took them in for questioning, we did not realise until too late that we had been taken in (= be deceived), he was speaking so quickly that we couldn’t take it all in (= comprehend), the new policy takes in two groups who were previously excluded (= include, embrace), during these weekends away, he would regularly take in a film or two, her pension has been cut, so she is taking in washing, they will take their car in for servicing on Thursday, sharks take in water through their mouths, he had a sharp intake of breath, the pants are too large, so I will take in the waist, the business takes in about $1800 each day take X into Y place took him to the nearest pharmacy, they took him into the local hospital ER, he doesn’t want to take all that dust into his lungs, these thoughts used to take him into dangerous imaginary spaces, the politicians want these services to be taken into public ownership, the new policies will take the organization into the next century take off (X) took it off the shelf, took the water off the boil, had to take those buttons off the children, she took off her hat and the necklace, the plane will take off at 2 pm, the new cafe is bound to take off, given its location, he decided to leave them alone and take himself off after the accident, she was taken off to hospital straight away, now they will take her off the list, she will take time off while the baby is young, they will take $500 off if we pay before June, he’s always trying to take me off, mimicking my mannerisms, the doctor has taken my mother off sleeping-pills, that train service has been taken off for the winter (= be suspended) take on X they want to take on more work, his voice took on a note of urgency (= assume), the factory took him on full-time, we took on the competition and succeeded, yachts can take on fresh water and supplies here, he took it (up)on himself to deal with the officials, he asked her not to take on in that way whenever something upset her take out X she took out her comb and a small mirror, if you prefer it, we can take out this wall and enlarge the room, she took him out to dinner, the mafia decided to take him out (= kill him) we have taken out a comprehensive insurance policy, he wants to take cash out from the bank (= withdraw), you can take out up to three books from the Library (= borrow), he decided to take time out from campaigning, for his mother’s birthday take X out of Y the new job is physically taxing and takes a lot out of her, the new social group takes her out of herself and makes her feel more contented take X out on Y he was angry and took his feelings out on those around him, which he later regretted take over (X) the Opposition threaten to take over the government and lower taxes (= control the government), buying out is another word for taking over financially, the protesters have taken over the city centre, so traffic is stopped (= occupy), she has taken over the apartment from her sister, she has taken over the duties of the previous temp., she took a lot of time over the alterations, she took drinks over to the new-arrivals, he let the idea take him over so that it consumed him, reading-to-learn eventually takes over from (= replaces) learning-to-read take X through Y he took the orchestra through the first two movements take to X I didn’t take to the new menu at first, because I worried about the prices, my son has taken against/to his new teacher, she took to wearing cut-off jeans to school every day, he took to his bed in a huff take up X we took him up two levels, then we took him down to the car park on the lower-ground, the bed will take up too much space, how much time time will that arrangement take up? (= occupy), he’s going to take up fishing as a hobby (= go in for fishing), she took up his point with interesting examples (= pick up a point, pursue a point), she took up the opportunity without hesitation, while X declined it, she has taken up (= adopt) this new uncompromising stance, she will take up where this morning’s group left off (= pick up), the protesters took up the cry from the stage (= continue), if you take up that position, the protesters may surround you (= adopt, move to), the old rails were taken up and sent for recycling, you can always take that skirt up if it’s too long, or let it down, if it’s too short, the agent took up the young actress and helped her, some plants take up (= absorb) moisture, after the meeting, they took up a collection for the homeless shelter take X up on Y he took her up on the offer of couch-surfing, she took him up on his claims about the new heater take up with X she took up with him because they were both lonely and losing confidence, he’s completely taken up with his new job and doesn’t have enough time for his friends. 2.2.10 NE Phrasal Verbs The following is a list of some NE phrasal-verbs in the corpus, with their formal SE equivalents (in parentheses). give nod to (approve) jump out at (startle) scale up (rise) open up on (mention) fill up land (build on) carry forward a legacy (advance) run away from (avoid) shell out (pay) tear into X (criticise X) slap with list (confront with) tap into demands (respond to) ask for (seek) stick out (persevere) mutt, come up (be built) move ahead (travel) voice out (speak) hive off (separate) urge for (request) work out (calculate) stick to demands (maintain) have issue with (object to) push for (support) hit out at (criticise) roll back (reverse, undo) show up (be detected) shoot up (increase sharply) crop up (occur) pick up (begin) push around (manhandle) reach out to (contact) look into that situation (solve a problem) find out (discover) stick to (stand one’s ground) sort out (resolve) work out to (amount to) give out details (publish) call in (summon) call out (blame) dig out (investigate) strip X off (reduce X) flee back (return quickly) open back (re-open) hold out note of caution (sound) demand for (request) rush out of (flee) stay out in sea (remain at sea) hole up (stay) back out of (withdraw from) stay away from (beware) pile up (accumulate) be removed from job (lose a job) turn up at meeting (attend) reach out to (negotiate with) throw up (suggest) rope in (hire) round up (gather, collect) walk out of jail (be released) shunt out (transfer) firm up (finalize) people’s sentiments, be taken care of (be respected) call out X (criticise X) set up (establish) run out (deplete) roll out (develop) wash out (erode) call for (summon) hand over to (send to) hand over (donate, give, assign) call for (request) rule out (dismiss) turn down (reject) propose for (suggest) fish out (remove) close out (complete) shoot up (increase) fill up (record) build up (develop) water down (reduce) stay back (remain) collapse (malfunction) play down (minimize) shut down (close) haul up (summon) roll out challenge (launch) end up (become) scale down (reduce) attend to X (resolve X) raze down (demolish) lash out at (criticise) brush up its act (improve services) work out (succeed) tie up with (partner with, ally with) call for (recommend) set off (initiate) shoot down (refute) look into (check) ooze out (gradual loss) lay off (leave undisturbed) gang up (collaborate) emerge from (be emitted by) ask for X from Y (ask Y for X) call-on (visit informally) come out of (leave) iron out (finalize) reach out to X (suggest to X) brush away speculation (dismiss) stash seed up safely at home (store) who had switched over from Congress to BJP (switched) football dished out at matches (the football used at matches) when 10,000 objections stare at you in your face (when 10,000 objections stare you in the face). (Count:112) Compare these examples in context: farmers cannot be forced to step back (retreat) cannot be sent back insulted (dismissed) and step down as President (resign) the issue can be sorted out (resolved) do not go in public and talk (do not speak publicly), cf. go public handed him over a memorandum demanding online exams (handed him a memorandum) if Government is incapable of tackling illegalities, then shutting down this industry is not the solution (if the Gov’t cannot control people’s behaviour, penalising tourism will not help) totally failed in making proper strategy in taking care of people’s health and employment during this pandemic (failed to safeguard people’s health and employment during this pandemic). NE words often have less restricted meanings than their SE equivalents (as exemplified above), and this breadth of meaning is the theme of another set of 2-word verbs in NE, which are explained in the following section. 2.2.11 Other NE 2-Word Verbs We listed above the semantically general English verbs, do, have, be, get, come, go, bring, take, put, carry, hold, throw, pull, push, make, call. They can each be used in combination with many different nouns and qualifiers, potentially economizing on words. Languages sometimes modify the same root or stem in order to derive a similar-looking noun, verb and qualifier (like, econom-y, econom-ize, econom-ic, econom-ist). When children begin to write in Primary school in an English-speaking context, teachers may ask them to record their time before reaching school, and the result will often be like the following. I got up at seven o’clock and got washed and got dressed, and I got my breakfast at half-past seven. I got my bag ready and got to the bus stop for the eight o’clock bus and I got to school at half-past eight. This example demonstrates the scope of general verbs and the primacy of the oral mode, but also provides the teacher with the opportunity to introduce the concept of formality and word-choice in the written mode. After an explanation, the children can edit their own writing by trying to find more formal substitutes for each use of get. From the age of six or seven, in the school setting, English children learn that there is a hierarchy of words, that some words are better than others, and they will apply this knowledge later in the acquisition of formal writing styles. NE is new and certainly not old in the sense of having prejudices. Whereas phrasal verbs in Standard English evolved over hundreds of years, NE innocently abstracts the main meaning-based patterns from SE and applies them without native-speaker sensitivity to all the verbs fitting its pattern. This is a natural attraction to simplicity, but at the same time, to economy. The following phrases from our corpus exemplify ten such general verbs used in combination in NE. be after X (pursue, prosecute X) become being routine (become routine) be in mental trauma (suffer mental trauma) be on top of issue (control an issue) be on X topic (treat, explain X topic) be on X to do Y (X must do Y) results, be out (be issued) be out on work (be away working) be underway (take place, occur) be up against soccer legends (oppose) be up for review (will be reviewed) be at centre of decision (make a decision) that Government is for the youth (support) be over (complete, end) be with party for long (remain with a party for a long time) is very much with us (support) bring down (lower) bring forth (reveal) bring in (result in) bring in confidence (instil) prospects of bringing in agriculture reforms (introduce) those bringing in supplies (bringing supplies) will bring it in written form (confirm in writing) bring on (cause) bring on record (place) bring out (fetch, reveal) bring up (rear) bring out sunken barge (raise) change brought distress to farmers (the change upset farmers) bring food to plate (put food on our plates) the factory was brought under Agriculture Department (the Agriculture Dept. assumed control of the factory) carry away (remove) carry forward policy (promote) carry in (bring in) carry on about X (rant about X) carry on business (transact) carry on doing (continue) failed to carry on with planned industry (proceed) carry out demonstration (hold) carry out hot coals (remove) carry out road works (undertake) carry out manufacturing (engage in) carry out surveillance (mount) carry up mortar (raise) come across (discover, meet, face) intended to come across as an alternative currency (serve) come ahead to save Goa (participate) anyone can come and give provocative speeches (use the opportunity) come back (return) come clean with her feelings (explain) come down (reduce) come down heavily on (reprimand) come forward (act) come forward and volunteer (volunteer) every time obstruction comes in its way (block) come in the way (interfere) come in contact with X (ditto) come out (act in public) come out (be published, of election results) come out against (oppose) come out strongly against police action (criticize) come out clear on (explain) come out from (exit) come out in support (support) come (out) on the streets (demonstrate, parade) come out with new policy (reveal) come out with reply (reply) come to a standstill no favourable action has come to forefront (no action has been taken) come to light (discover) come under scheme (be eligible) come under submergence (flood) come up (occur) come up (be built, be established) the proposal has not come up before panel (be assessed formally) first time susegad has come up on political platform (mention) come up to (reach) come up with a decision (make, embrace) do agriculture in 8 acres of land of his uncle (farm 8 acres of his uncles’ land) do arrest (make) do away with Section 79A (repeal) do bloodshed (slaughter by bleeding) do borrowing (borrow) do bungling and manipulation (bungle and manipulate) cross-verification will be done by signatures (will be cross-verified by signatures) do development (develop) power to do development works (the power to provide the infrastructure) by time discussions were done (ended) do due diligence (act with due diligence) doing political dodagiri on people (practise nepotism) do efforts (make) do encore (perform) do error, payment, investigation, effort, arrest, arrangements (make) do farming (farm) do injustice to X (treat X unjustly) do inquiry (hold) do inspections (inspect) do insurance (arrange, buy) do law (enact) marriage was done without conversion (be married) do part (play) do reforms (reform) do rethink (rethink) do serious rethink (have) do schooling (school / go to school) do screening of all travellers (screen all travellers) do suicide (commit) do toddy-tapping do welfare (provide, manage) working done by the committee (the committee’s work) get (hire) get (receive) get their act together (organise) get acquainted (meet) get activated (be activated) get aggressive with police (become aggressive) get alternative (find) get back home (return home) does not want people to get economically better (improve) get constructed (construct) is investing with purpose of getting deduction (obtain) get destroyed (be destroyed) ecosystem, get destroyed (degrade) get detected (be detected) get diminished (diminish) get examination done (finish) get down (alight) get dragged on (drag on, delay) get friendly with (befriend) get full (be filled) get hooked (become addicted) get impression (believe) get inaugurated (be inaugurated) get the woman identified (identify) get infected (become infected) get into act (interfere) get into action (swing into action) get into extravagant display (make an extravagant display) get into illegal trade (trade illegally) get into opportunism (seek opportunities) get into opportunities (find opportunities) get marauded (suffer attack) difficult for State to get on track (normalize) get out of Housing Society (leave a H S) get over (end) get her statement recorded (record) get registered (be registered) get rid of (treat, process) get satisfied about (approve) get stalled (stall) get pension started for these seafarers (start) get stuck (be stranded) get tested, flooded, uprooted (be tested, flooded, uprooted) get time extended (extend the time) get traction (be supported) get trapped into net (be trapped in a net) get under control (control) get underway (begin) get wasted (waste) go abroad (travel abroad) go across (visit) go after: Opposition went after him (criticize) go after (seek) go ahead (occur) go ahead to do (proceed) go ahead with constructing, with probe (continue) go all out to educate farmers (strive) go around on traffic circles (wander, roam) go as per (follow, obey rules) go beyond their powers (exceed) go down in history (record) go for (prefer, choose, seek, obtain, decide on, take the bait) with two weeks to go for Budget (remaining until the Budget) be careful when going for it - Bitcoin (invest in) go for lowering of VAT (promote) go for pilgrimage (make) go for second phase (begin, enter) go in for lockdown (choose, impose) go in proper direction (work efficiently) go inside (enter) go into details (examine, review) go into disarray (be disorganized) go into hands of (fall into the hands of) go into huddle (confer) go into the international market (enter) go into X (involve oneself in X) sacrifice will not be allowed to go in vain (pass) go off (explode) go on (happen, occur) camp that has been going on for several years (take place, continue) go on (continue) meeting went on till 3 pm (continue) M. had gone on to state … (also) go on hunger strike (begin) go on lookout for (search for) go soft on X (treat X leniently) go out (leave) go out, of rhetoric (circulate) are expected to go out and accept standards laid out by them (are expected to accept standards prescribed by others) go over road bumps (traverse, pass) go past (pass) hope that coming days will go similar (be similar) though plan never went through (be implemented) go through financial scam (experience) go through loss (suffer) go through preparations (make) go through process (experience, be affected by) go through sleepless nights (endure) elections will go to second round (proceed) go with Government (support) will go with people’s decision (accept) have no confidence about X (mistrust X) have good quality education, fever (experience) have meeting (meet) have risk of X (X pose a risk) have survey (conduct) put across recommendations (make, submit, suggest) put back on track (re-set) put bar on the use of crackers (ban crackers) put end to (end) put for cultivation (cultivate) put forward document (lodge, submit) put in effort, work (work, make an effort) put names in list (include names on a list) put split in other parties (split the other parties) put things in place (reform, change) put in proposal (lodge, submit) put in smart meters (instal) put into inconvenience (inconvenience) put him into limelight (give him public attention) put off passing of Bills (postpone) put on hold a decision (delay a decision) put capping on X (cap X) alleged that voice-clip had been put out as part of a conspiracy (had been released as part of a conspiracy) put out (advertise, issue, suggest) put out chairs (set chairs) put stop to all constructions (cease all constructions) put resources to better use (use the resources better) put X to rest put X to shame put under hardship (inflict) put under moratorium (postpone) put up appearance (appear, make an appearance) put up bank statement on Facebook (posted) put up candidate (nominate a candidate) put up fight (attempt) put up relative (lodge) put up notice (post) put up signages (place signs) put up 300 mobile toilets at Sardhu (instal) decided to put up water pipeline (instal) put up wires (string) put up with hoodwinking (endure, suffer) take admission (be admitted) take ahead (promote) take back (retrieve, resettle) take back complaint (withdraw) take call on X (decide X) take consent (receive) take flight (fly) take in exam centres (admit to) take into possession (secure, receive) his telephone numbers have been taken off by CB (remove, cancel) take on board (win confidence of) take on task (shoulder) take out from (remove) take out march (organise, participate) take over case (assume) take around (transport) take place (occur) take precautions (ditto) take steps to do (strive) youth of Goa have taken good steps towards saving… (Goa’s youth are helping to save…) take to social media (use) take up case (examine, judge) take up matter (consider) take up tender (accept) take up work (commence, find) 3 Discussion Weinreich (1963) studied language acquisition among young Swiss bi- and trilinguals, and aspects of his work were developed after his untimely death by sociolinguists (e.g. Labov, 1991) and applied linguists (e.g. Selinker, 1972, Tarone, 2014, and see also Corder, 1971). The applied linguistic research stemmed from the principle that learners acquire language systematically, on the basis that language is pattern- (or rule-) based. Language teachers are, naturally, keen to understand the process of language acquisition. The term interlanguage was coined to represent the systematic grammars which learners form in acquiring a new language (also called steps in learning by language teachers). Much detailed research based on learners’ speech recordings has led to debate on details, like the context and purpose of language use, because the data revealed inconsistency and variation among the subjects. This in turn led to notions of interference in the acquisition process, as might be expected where learners have already created their mother-tongue and are further complicated by their teachers’ attempts at generalizing the new language’s structures. Unlike my neighbours’ children in Talpan village, they are learning in a conscious and deliberate fashion. In contrast, the simplest English interlanguage will overgeneralize rules by omitting exceptions (cf. Pinker’s rules versus words), will impose semantic regularity based on literal meanings, and will fashion a workable vocabulary by relying on 2-word combinations of general verb plus noun, which will include the names for things and ideas (like, do development, do education). Our research shows that the study of unconscious language acquisition is more likely to yield insights of value than the study of conscious language learning. References Aikhenvald, A. (2004). Evidentiality. Oxford: O.U.P. Bauer, L., & P. Nation. (1993). “Word families.” International J. of Lexicography, 6(3), 253-279. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijl/6.4.253 Collins Cobuild Phrasal Verbs Dictionary. (2011). Glasgow: Harper-Collins. Corder, S. Pit. (1971). “Error Analysis, Interlanguage and Second Language Acquisition.” Language Teaching and Linguistics Abstracts, 8(4), 201-218. Ethnologue, online resource of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, Retrieved from http://www.sil.org/ethnologue https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800002822 Halliday, M. A. K. (1966). “Grammar, Society and the Noun.” Inaugural Lecture, University of London. Krashen, S. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Prentice-Hall International. Krashen, S. (1988). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International. Labov, W. (1991). Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. Lang, S. (2014). Toki Pona, the Language of Good. Google Books. Levin, B. (1993). English Verb Classes and Alternations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lyons, C. (1999). Definiteness. Cambridge. UK: C.U.P. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511605789 Pinker, S. (1999). Words and Rules. N.Y.: Basic Books. Roget, P. M., & J. L. Roget. (2021). Roget’s Thesaurus. Delhi: Goyal Publishers. Selinker, L. (1972). “Interlanguage.” International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-231. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209 Sperber, D., & Deidre Wilson. (1986). “Linguistic Communication and Relevance.” Lingua, 90, 1-25. Tarone, E. (2014). Interlanguage. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Weinreich, U. (1963). Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton & Co. Appendix The semantic basis of English prefixes and suffixes Prefixation LOCATION/ ab-, ad-, ante-, circum-, de-, endo-, exo-, extra-, DIRECTION in-, infra-, inter-, intra-, ob-, per-, se-, sub-, super-, supra-, trans- down-, up-, over-, under-, out- ana-, apo-, cata-, dia-, epi-, hyper-, hypo-, meta-, para-, peri- DEGREE/SIZE holo-, hyper-, omni-, pan-, ultra-, super-, sub- all-, out-, over-, under- macro-, micro-, mega-, mini-, maxi- TIME/ORDER ante-, arch-, ex-, pre-, re- fore-, meso-/med-, post-, vice- ana-, neo-, paleo-, pali(n)-, proto- NUMBER uni-, bi-, tri-, quadri-, quart-, octo-, non- penta-, quin(t)-, hex-, sex-, hept-, sept- mono-, di-, du-, myria-, oligo-, poly- ambi-, centi-, deci-, hect-, kilo-, milli- multi-, semi-, demi-, hemi- QUALITY bene-, eu-, mal-, mis-, dys-, caco-, ill- brady-, brachy-, ortho-, pachy-, platy- pseudo-, tachy-, brevi-, pleni- ATTITUDE/ allo-, anti-, co(n)-, contra-, counter-, equi- MANNER pro-, se-, soli-, self- auto-, hetero-, homo-, idio-, iso-, para-, syn- NEGATIVE un-, in-, non-, a(n)-, dis-, de- CAUSATIVE be-, en- (verbal) QUALIFIER/ a- MODIFIER Suffixation PERSON/JOB/AGENT/NATIONALITY/GROUP (noun) Diminutive: -ette, -let, -ling, -ule, -icle, -ie/y Feminine: -ess, -ix Neutral: -er, -or, -ist IDEA (noun) -a, -(at)ion, -i/ety, -ary/ery, -y, -ness, -ing, -(n)ce, -ment, -ism, -age, -ude, -hood, -ice, -th, -dom, -i, -ic, -al, -ia, -ish, -ure, -our, -sis, -ics, -ship, -itis, -an, -ese MASS (noun) -a, -ade/ide, -age, -al/el, -ate/ite, -en, -ane/ine/ene/one, -ant/ent, -er, -ary/ery, -i, -ia, -ic, -ice, -in, -ing, -(at)ion, -(i)sh -(C)le, -ment, -o, -ol, -on, -ose, -our, -th, -um, -ure, -us, -y UNIT (noun) -a, -ade, -age, -al/el, -an, -and/end, -ane/ine/ene/one, -ant/ent-ary/ery/ory/ury, -ate/ite, -(at)ion, -dom, -e/é(e), -ee, -eer, -en, -er/or/ir, -ess, -et, -ette, eur, -ful, -hood, -ic, -ice, -ie, -ile/ule, -in, -ing, -ism, -ist, (i)ty, -ive, -ix, -(C)le, -let, -ling, -ment, -nce, -ness, -o, -oid, -oir, -om, -on, -oon, -our, -que, -re, -ship, -sis, -th, -um, -ure, -us, -y CAUSATIVE (verbal) -ify, -ise, -ate, -en QUALIFIER -ed/en/t, -id, -ing -(ic)al, -ic, -(i)an, -ar, -ive, -ous -able/-ible, -escent, -ful, -less, -ose, -most -ish, -esque, -like, -ly, -oid -ane/ine/une, -ant/ent, -ary/ory, -ate/ite, -ile/ule -er, -est MODIFIER/ADVERB -ly Acknowledgements I am very grateful to Lys Ford and Paul Black for comments and suggestions on earlier versions.