



































Sebuah Kajian Pustaka:


English Language Teaching Educational Journal (ELTEJ) 
Vol. 3, No. 1, 2020, pp. 14-25 
E-ISSN: 2621-6485  

  

Bringing Zull’s Four Brain-derived Pillars of Learning into the 

English Classroom 

 
Jorge Carlos Correa Rodriguez 

Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China 

jorgecorrear@yahoo.com 

 
Abstract 

Teaching modifies the brain of the learners. In that respect, providing teachers with information about 

ways in which the brain learns could allow them to enhance their practices. Similarly, language teachers 

should also embrace what experts and theories from Educational Neuroscience and Mind, Brain and 

Education Science (MBE) Science can offer to pedagogy. This paper explored Zull’s biological learning 

model in order to provide a practical way to support language teaching. The model depicts 4 pillars 

derived from his understanding of the learning brain. Zull’s model was developed by his observations of 

the organic structure of the brain. It originated from the functioning of specific areas located in the 

neocortex of the brain; the sensory area, the back-integrative area, the front-integrative area and the motor 

area. Zull (2002) posited that each area is in charge of general functions such as; gathering, reflecting, 

creating and testing respectively. This connection could benefit the teaching process by providing a path 

to follow at the moment of instruction. In that sense, this paper observed how his model could be 

connected with one language teaching methodology. Presentation, practice and production (PPP). It was 

also observed that the synergetic nature of the connections within the human brain allows the pillars to 

move throughout the stages of PPP. It means that despite each stage was bound to specific pillars, the rest 

of them could be also used in each particular stage of PPP if needed. Moreover, some suggestions for the 

general language classroom were also included. This paper, therefore, aimed to connect one theory 

derived from the understanding of the brain with pedagogy in order to enhance the way teaching and 

learning in language classrooms is conducted.  

 

Keywords: biology of learning, the brain, zull’s model, language teaching; PPP 
 

 

How to Cite: Correa Rodriguez, J. C. (2020). Bringing Zull’s four brain-derived pillars of learning into 

the English classroom. English Language Teaching Educational Journal, 3(1), 14-25 

  

 

INTRODUCTION  

Language learning, similar to any mental process, is strictly bounded to the inner 

and complex workings of the human brain (Friederici, 2017). Language is shaped due to 

the biological complexity of our brain, a process which has been also connected with 

aspects our evolution, such as the need for communication. It is not then surprising that 

language, as a mean of communication, is considered as a unique human characteristic, 

which is strictly bounded to the particular development of our species (Jackendoff, 

2002). Thus, the intricate organic and cognitive processes which shape language, and 

learning itself, should not be an unknown subject for language teachers. According to 

Zull (2002), “(…) the more you understand the brain, the more artful you can be when 

you must teach” (p.vii). Consequently, language teachers’ knowledge about how the 

brain learns may lead to improvements in the way languages are taught and therefore 

learned. For instance, language teachers may actually benefit from embracing what 

experts from Educational Neuroscience, and Mind, Brain and Education Science 

(MBE), which are two academic fields connecting brain science and education, have 

offered in respect to learning, teaching and several educational matters including 

mailto:jorgecorrear@yahoo.com


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Correa Rodriguez 

15 

language learning (Battro, Fischer, & Léna, 2008; Caine, Caine, Klimek, & McClintic, 

2009; OECD, 2007; Sousa, 2011; Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2011; Tokuhama-Espinosa, 

2014). All the investigations from those two areas can definitely have impacts on the 

quality of teaching and the way students actually learn. However, the success of that 

connection, to some extent, relies directly on educators’ willingness to accept and 

include knowledge from those fields into their classrooms. For instance, in the words of 

Geake & Cooper (2003), “(…) the education profession could benefit from embracing 

rather than ignoring cognitive neuroscience. Moreover, educationists should be actively 

contributing to the research agenda of future brain research” (p.7). Consequently, over 

the past years, numerous researchers have reflected on and promoted the critical 

connection between brain science and education to support teachers from all educational 

levels and academic subjects (Battro, Fischer, & Léna, 2008; Blakemore & Frith, 2005; 

Campbell & Patten, 2011; Geake, 2009; Jensen, 2008; Sousa, 2011; Sousa, 2011; 

Willis, 2008), among others. 

The rationale to developing this paper then originated by one main reason; the 

biological basis of language in the brain. It means that if language is originated in the 

brain, then a higher understanding of the way the brain learns may lead to enhancements 

in the way language is taught. Moreover, since Zull’s model depicts an organic way of 

learning, then the possible connections between language teaching and his learning 

model were believed to be appropriate. Finally, since his model describes learning as a 

universal process happening in the brain, then language learning would be included, and 

it could be taught by following the ideas within his model. Thus, this paper will 

particularly examine in which ways Zull’s four learning pillars could be connected to 

one well known language teaching methodology presentation, practice and production 

(PPP). The four pillars being connected with language teaching will be; gathering, 

reflection, creating and testing as presented in his model (Zull J. E., 2002; Zull J. E., 

2006; Zull J. E., 2011).  

The first section of this paper will explore the main theory behind Zull’s four 

pillars in order to describe its theoretical foundations. The second section will firstly 

include a reflection on how the 4 pillars can be connected with one PPP. Finally, some 

practical and general ideas to connect the pillars with the English language classroom 

will be presented. 

 

Zull’s biology of learning 

The main theory supporting this paper was developed by Zull (2002) when 

connecting Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984, 2015) with his knowledge of 

the human brain and the biology of learning. Zull proposed the construct of learning as a 

4 stage physio-biological process involving, broadly speaking; the sensory, integrative 

and motor areas in the brain. Moreover, Zull observed learning as a process which 

produces physical changes in the structure of the brain. In his own words (2002), 

“Learning is about biology” (p.xiii). However, even though he acknowledged learning 

as a far more complex process including a variety of parallel and overlapping 

interconnections, he insisted that in end, the 4 pillars could be considered as the main 

framework where all the interconnections of the biological learning processes are 

encased and happen in an orchestral but no rigid fashion. To sum up, and based on 

Zull’s ideas, we could define learning as a physical and cognitive experience encasing 

the integration, processing and assimilation of sensory stimuli from the environment 

and the body resulting in concrete and dynamic motor responses. This definition could 



 

 

 

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also apply to language learning because it includes some actions similarly performed by 

language teachers. 

 

Zull’s four fundamental pillars of learning 

 Zull’s four pillars of learning have some organic foundations which depict four 

major areas of the neocortex as observed below. Thus, an overview of these structures 

of the brain will be firstly included. 

 

The 4 major areas of the neocortex supporting the pillars  

These areas are, in general terms, in charge of gathering, reflecting, creating, and 

testing all data around and within us. The way in which these areas of the human brain 

interact in complex manners are believed to set the basis for our capacity to learn. In 

consequence, and before going into the four pillars, it is necessary to identify and 

describe the 4 major areas of the neocortex carrying out most learning processes. As 

described in Zull’s model (2002), they are the following; the sensory area (gathering), 

the back-integrative area (reflecting), the front-integrative area, (creating) and the motor 

area (testing) as clearly observed in figure 1.  

 

 
 

Figure 1. The 4 Major Areas of the Neocortex in the Human Brain (Zull J. E., 2002) 

 

From the previous diagram, it can be observed that the relationship between 

those four areas is not linear; it is actually a cycle which can include several processes 

and sub-processes within each area, all of them happening and overlapping 

simultaneously.  

The sensory area: The sensory area of the neocortex is in charge of receiving 

and gathering all the stimuli coming from the environment around us, as well as from 

our own bodies. This process is facilitated by all the senses human beings have. For 

example, the senses of sight and hearing allow us to see the light, images and hear 

sounds in the outside world. Therefore, all the senses in the body play a fundamental 

role as receptors of information encased in the stimuli which will be processed later on 

in other areas of the neocortex connected to each specific sense. This particular 

collection of data is fundamental for all of us because it helps us to observe, understand 

and interact, as well as to learn from the environment we live on. In sum, all we can 

sense, feel, see, hear, taste, touch etc, is firstly received in the sensory area of the 

neocortex in the human brain. Later on, this data will be internalized. 



ELTEJ  ISSN: 2621-6485  

 

Correa Rodriguez 

17 

The back-integrative area: Once the information from the stimuli has entered 

the sensory cortex and its particular nature has been identified, it may be immediately 

directed to the back integrative area of the neocortex for deeper association. The 

processes in this area can also be parallel and even overlap each other depending of the 

experience. Moreover, in this area of the neocortex, the data is also processed and 

combined with existing data; it means it is connected with existing information in the 

memories of the person. This is a fundamental aspect of the learning process, the 

association between the new and the previous knowledge.  In sum, in the back-

integrative area the sensory information is integrated in order to obtain meaning out of 

the data received previously through the senses by connecting it with previous 

knowledge. 

The front-integrative area: In the next area of the neocortex, the data is 

consciously internalized due to our cognitive skills. It is in this stage where we can 

identify the data, as a construct itself which we can cognitively understand resulting in 

judgments and decisions. Similarly, when the information reaches this area, we can 

comprehend its meaning and apply and attach our own thinking to it. One extra process 

happening here is the identification of its relevance and usefulness for the learning 

experience itself.  In sum, the front integrative are of the neocortex is in charge of the 

consciously processing of the information, it also allows us to plan actions and make 

decisions on the possible ways we can actually try out hypothesis derived from the 

information within the learning experience in which we are at. 

The motor area: The motor area of the neocortex is what allows us to, after all 

the integrative and associative processes, to react to the stimuli we have initially 

received. This active and motor reaction is bounded to the meaningful understanding, 

and hopefully successful processing, of the data within the stimuli. It is then due to this 

specific area by which our actions can illustrate a real connection between the stimuli 

and our particular thinking derived from the assimilation process the information, which 

was contained in it. For instance, a clear illustration would be the ability to orally reply 

to a question in our own, or for the sake of this paper, in a foreign language. In sum, the 

motor are of the neocortex facilitates our “reaction” to the stimuli we have received. It 

means that after all the reflective and integrative processes originated from the 

assimilation of the sensory data of the stimuli, we can finally show a cognitive and 

bodily understanding of that sensory experience through actions. Figure 2 shows the 

location of the areas of the neocortex in the human brain, the picture below was 

obtained from (Zull J. E., 2002) (p.15). 

 
Figure 2. The Four Areas of the Neocortex 

 

The four pillars or learning 

The four pillars in Zull’s model of learning are; gathering, reflecting, creating, 

and testing. In this section, each pillar will be described, in general terms, aiming to set 

the basis for the upcoming connections with the English language classroom. A visual 

representation of the four pillars is presented in figure 3. 

 



 

 

 

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Figure 3. Zull´S Four Pillars of Learning (Zull J. E., 2002) 

 

 

Pillar One: Gathering data 

The first pillar, similarly to its corresponding section of the neocortex, is related 

to information or data gathering. In order to learn, people need to actively interact with 

the world around them. We need to have access to concrete experiences and meaningful 

interactions. It is in this way how we are able to “absorb” and assimilate the information 

we will use in situations like surviving, socializing, and of course learning a language. 

The gathering of data, within any learning experience, is a critical step which should 

include the activation of all senses and it should hopefully origin from concrete 

experiences (Zull J. E., 2002).The more senses involved in any learning situation, the 

more regions of the brain are activated. Thus, if more senses are involved in the 

gathering of data, these processes then may ignite the activation of more neurons and 

therefore the activation of more neural connections leading to the creation of complex 

networks within the brain. In sum, the brain relies on its biological mechanisms to 

gather data through, hopefully from a complete sensory-based experience.  

 

Pillar two: Reflecting 

Once the brain has received and gathered information from the environment, this 

data needs to be connected in order to make meaning. Thus, in this stage, the 

assimilation of all the pieces of information occurs by creating associations for instance 

with the existing information. It means that the data which entered the brain is somehow 

“grouped” with other pieces of data in order to get some meaning out of it. This process 

may be considered as one of the fundamental aspects in the learning of a language due 

to its connective nature. It is in this stage where the learner actually creates connections 

between the new data with existing knowledge in the brain. Moreover, this new 

knowledge is also classified based on its relevance for that specific experience, as well 

as related to the recall of previous knowledge coming from the memories of the 

individual (Sousa, 2011). Similarly, the reflecting stage of the learning process is the 

one which facilitates, activates and produces memory formation due to the connectivity 

nature of its functioning. In simple words, the brain connects the incoming information 

with the already processed information by means of reflection. So teachers need to 

guide students to create connections. 

 

 

 



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Pillar three: Creating 

At this stage, the brain performs processes related to conscious reflection and 

planning. Moreover, it creates intentional and purposeful associations. It is in this stage 

where we test hypothesis and develop action plans to be performed with the information 

encased in the learning experience. It is in fact what we will actually do with the data 

we have received. Most of these action plans will be tested out in the next stage; 

however, some of them may not be used and could be replaced with ideas which may be 

considered to be more appropriate and useful for the experience. A selective process 

aiming to state relevance and meaningfulness may also appear at this stage. The level of 

metacognitive skills a person may have can similarly enhance or hinder the process. It 

means that the capacities a person may have to create meaning from what they learn 

may be observed in this stage. Students at this point think and consciously observe the 

usefulness and possible ways in which learning a specific topic may benefit them as 

well as what they can do with that information. 

 

Pillar four: Active testing 

This pillar encases the active testing of the action plans originated in the 

previous stage. It is in this stage where learners can observe if their predictions or 

hypothesis from the previous stage were effective. It means that the brain of the students 

after receiving, associating and planning what to do with the stimuli they received can 

finally try their ideas out in the real world. If the actions plans for some reason fail, they 

can start the process again and retest their ideas. This pillar, similarly to the first one has 

the experience-based foundations of Zull’s model of learning. Its relevance originates 

from the concrete usage of the information after all the internal systems dealt with the 

stimuli entering the body. In sum, students need to be given time to try out their ideas in 

concrete and active manners. 

The four pillars described in this section provided a general view of data 

processing in the brain, which according to Zull, should be seen as the foundation of all 

learning. His model represents a general way of information processing which teachers 

could use to enhance their practices. 
 

RESEARCH METHOD  
This paper followed a library research method. It means that the corresponding 

information and theories depicting the main ideas supporting the study were drawn after 

revising and understanding the selected theorists´ books. Hence, a description of the major 

foundations was initially observed, and then the possible applications of the theory were 

connected with English teaching. 

 

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 

This section will aim to connect Zull´s model with one language teaching 

methodology; (PPP) presentation, practice production (Harmer, 2007a; Harmer, 2007b). 

This methodology was selected because it was believed that most English language 

teachers should be familiar with the theory behind it. In future research, other 

methodologies could be observed. 

 

Presentation, practice, production (PPP) and the four overlapping pillars 
 If we think about language teaching we can recall the idea of presentation, 

practice and production. PPP depicts a specific way in which language or particular 

features of a language can be taught. For a more detailed description of PPP, please 



 

 

 

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refer to (Harmer, 2007a: Harmer, 2007b). In general terms, when teachers use PPP, 

learners are firstly presented with a language feature. At this point, the sensory cortex 

allows the brain to gather the incoming information. Then, learners need to internalize it 

by means of practice and reflection. In other words, they need to reflect and use the 

information; some testing could also be needed at this stage if needed. Finally, learners 

should produce the same or new language derived from what was presented. Therefore, 

they have to try or test if the way in which they processed the information was correct 

based on the requirements of that particular learning situation. The overlapping nature 

of the model allows each area and each pillar to move from one stage to the other. It 

means that despite, to some extent, the fixed structure of PPP, the pillars can overlap as 

needed. Zull’s idea of the model relied on the synergetic nature of the human brain, 

even though it follows certain patterns, its uniqueness relies on its capacity to create 

infinite connections to enhance its functioning. For example, practice can include two or 

more areas of the neocortex at the same time as observed in figure 4. In other words, 

learners may rely on different parts of the brain to integrate information in order to 

practice and produce the target language. For instance, even though at the presentation 

stage learners mainly receive and gather information, they may also reflect and test 

some ideas related to the topic they are learning in that specific initial stage. For those 

reasons, despite the 4 pillars were included in each stage in the figure below, the most 

relevant(s) for that specific stage will be presented in italics. To sum up, figure 4 was 

mainly included to clarify Zull’s theory rather than to rigidly provide a pattern to 

follow. The main idea was to try to observe how PPP could mirror the pillars and how 

they could be placed along all the stages. It is relevant to mention again that due to the 

synergetic and intricate nature of the biological processes within the human brain, the 4 

pillars of learning can overlap and therefore be activated through the 3 stages of PPP. 

  

 
 

Figure 4. The Connection between PPP and the 4 Pillars of Learning 

 

The 4 pillars in the general English classroom 

 

Pillar 1. Data gathering: Include learning experiences which promote the highly 

inclusion and activation of all the senses. Make learning experiential! 

 

In order to apply Zull’s model, educators should start by designing learning 

experiences which include the ideas behind the first pillar. The first pillar deals with the 



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Correa Rodriguez 

21 

sensory gathering of the information because we receive most of the input from the 

environment. Thus, language teachers should do their best to turn their classes into 

highly sensorial learning experiences. It is relevant to mention that these will be general 

ideas, it is then the task of the teachers to use their creativity and adaptation skills to 

apply the first pillar into their particular contexts and needs. Following, a set of specific 

ideas to include the first pillar into language classes 

a) When dealing with vocabulary, teachers should use pictures, videos, realia and 

include concrete experiences to introduce it. According to Zull’s first pillar, this 

may facilitate the creation of more complex and integrated networks in the brain 

because once the input enters the brain more senses will be involved. It means 

that if students see, hear, touch, and taste an object related to one specific word 

for example, this construct will be connected to “four neuronal networks”. Of 

course that there may be more networks involved, but here we oversimplify the 

idea to make things clear. Following the example, the resulting activated 

networks would be the visual, auditory, tactile and gustatory. On the contrary, if 

students just look at a word on a flashcard or written on the board, they may lack 

the opportunity to create more networks for that specific word which may 

probably later on hinder memory formation.  

b) If possible, take students out to field trips so they can learn and use language on 

the spot. For instance, a zoo, a museum, a park. This will allow them to interact 

with the stimuli in the environment while using the target language. Concrete 

experiences activate and involve more neuronal networks. 

c) Bring the outside world into your classroom. Turn your classroom into a post 

office, a hospital, a restaurant, an amusement park etc. Be creative! 

d) Ask students to bring from home realia related to the topics they are learning. 

This could also add the affective connection with the learning experience. 

e) Use songs, drawing books, scale models, plasticine. etc. Make learning active 

and more organic, so not only visual and auditory sections of the brain will be 

activated. 

Pillar 2. Reflection: Guide students to connect and associate the new information with 

previous experiences. Neurons that fire together, wire together (Hebb, 1949). 

 

Once the data has been received, something must be done with it. So now it is 

reflection time! Provide enough time for students to reflect on what they are learning 

with what they already know. However, learning is more than receiving data from the 

environment through the senses and to think about it is not enough; something very 

important needs to be done with that data. What it is needed at this point is the creation 

of connections. Moreover, they have to be highly effective connections which should be 

achieved thanks to the reflection processes. It means that learners should be guide to 

effectively associate the new input or data with existing ideas in their memory systems. 

Thus, they need to attach new knowledge entering through the senses with previous 

related knowledge stored in their brains. The following are some ways in which this can 

be possibly achieved. 

a) Use the art of questioning, it means that you can use specific questions to make 

students think, connect and associate the new information with previous 

experiences. Recalling! 



 

 

 

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b) Provide “thinking time”. Let students go into their memories to create those 

connections. 

c) Encourage students to use mind maps to connect ideas. 

d) Allow students to interact and share ideas with peers 

e) Provide clues and guide them to make effective connections.   

f) Allow students to interact in groups 

Pillar 3. Creating: Guide students to generate and develop ideas based on the 

connections they have formed. 

 

This specific pillar may allow students to develop a sense of deep understanding of 

the data they have received and processed in the previous stages, and actually plan and 

try out what to do with it. This is actually the stage in which students use their cognitive 

capacities to consciously think and give meaning to knowledge, as well as to generate 

some potential final outputs. This capacity to think about what is being learned leads to 

the planning of the actions to be performed in the next stage. Students can therefore 

mentally prepare themselves to try out a hypothesis or ideas connected to the element or 

topic they are dealing with. This stage provides them with the opportunity to personalize 

and connect their own thinking with the learning experience by becoming cognitively 

active manipulators of the knowledge. This could be considered as a cognitive trial an 

error process. Here students plan and test their ideas because it is a fully metacognitive 

stage. Below, some ideas to get the best out of this pillar. 

a) Provide appropriate time for students to reflect and try out their mental ideas. 

b) Celebrate mistakes as part of the learning process! 

c) Encourage students to think about learning. Promote critical thinking. 

d) Show them ways to enhance their metacognitive skills. 

e) Guide the reflection by being a supporter rather than a corrector. 

f) Promote creativity among your students. 

Pillar 4. Testing: See learning as an experiential process where students can test their 

ideas. 

 

After the data, content or knowledge passed the previous pillars, students need to 

test the ideas specifically developed in the reflection and creating pillars. It means that 

they need to have the opportunity to observe how their assumptions on the new 

knowledge, which was already processed, can be applied or tried out. This stage may 

provide a concrete way to meaningfully use the data which was received, associated and 

integrated in the first stages. Similarly to the previous stage, in the last pillar, students 

will also experience mistakes at the moment of trying out their ideas. It is then the task 

of the teacher to guide and make them aware of the importance of mistakes as 

fundamental part of learning. In the case errors are done, they should be encouraged to 

rethink and reconsidered their hypothesis or ideas in order to retry them until they get it 

right. This, in the end, should produce a new sensory and concrete experience and the 

cycle may start all over again. 

a) The inclusion of acting and role plays in the language classrooms are specific 

ideas related to the last pillar. These two, and other similar activities, may allow 



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students to fully and bodily immerse themselves in the use of language. In a 

class performance, the students will use all their bodies and senses to 

communicate when acting out. In other words, they would be actively testing 

and integrating knowledge within an experiential process. 

b) At this point it should be mentioned that the performance of dialogues in front of 

the class may a little distant from the pillars because, in general, students mainly 

read aloud from their notes or a given handout. The idea is to make learning a 

highly sensorial experience in which they were active participants. So, 

encourage students to be creative by developing their own dialogues using the 

target language. 

c) Encourage students’ active participation! 

d) Similar to the previous pillar, celebrate mistakes as part of the learning process. 

e) Design your classes so all students can use the target language in experiential 

and active fashions. 

The previous examples included some general ideas to include the four pillars in the 

English classroom. However, considering the vast amount of specific topics, levels and 

contexts related to language learning, it was decided to include mainly some broad ideas 

for the teacher. It is then recommended that teachers should use their creativity to 

include the pillars when designing their classes because as observed in Zull’s model, 

that is how the brain actually learns. 

 

CONCLUSION  

In general words, this paper reflected on the connection between Zull’s biological 

model of learning and one language teaching methodology; presentation, practice and 

production. It overviewed Zull’s model main foundations rooted in some of the major 

areas of the brain; the sensory, integrative and motor areas of the neocortex. Similarly, it 

observed how Zull connected those areas of the brain with learning itself by proposing 4 

pillars depicting a natural, but not fixed, cycle of learning. It also included a reflection 

on how one language teaching methodology (PPP) may connect to the pillars. It was 

also observed that the synergetic nature of the connections within the human brain 

allows the pillars to move throughout the stages of PPP, it means that despite each stage 

was bound to specific pillars; the rest of them could be also used in each particular stage 

of PPP if needed. Moreover, it included some general ideas to incorporate each pillar 

into the language classroom. It is relevant to mention that this paper mirrored a similar 

review which observed the ways in which other learning principles found within (MBE) 

Science could be similarly included into the English classroom (Correa Rodriguez, 

2018). 

To sum up, learning involves mental and physio-biological process. Educators then 

should take into account both aspects of learning when designing and conducting their 

classes. They should not focus only on the cognitive aspects of learning; they should 

also pay attention to how the brain organically processes that knowledge and bring that 

information into their classrooms when possible. As Zull, (2002) stated, “(…) learning 

is change. It is change in ourselves, because it is change in the brain. Thus, the art of 

teaching must be the art of changing the brain” (p.xiv). Hopefully, Zull’s model of 

learning can provide a different perspective for teachers to use so they can enhance their 

practices and make learning a more organic-based experience. 

 

 



 

 

 

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