







































English Language Teaching Educational Journal   ISSN 2621-6485 

Vol. 3, No. 2, 2020, pp. 118-132  118 

       10.12928/eltej.v3i2.2370            http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eltej/index        eltej@pbi.uad.ac.id 

Intentional vocabulary learning via WhatsApp: Does the type of 

input matter?  

Mojgan Rashtchia,1, * , Parisa Yazdanib, 2  

a Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Republic of Iran,  
b TEFL Department, Faculty of Foreign Languages, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran 
1 mojgan.rashtchi@gmail.com* ; 2 parisa_yz@yahoo.com   

* corresponding author 

 

1. Introduction  

Second language vocabulary acquisition, as a discrete domain of study, has stimulated numerous 
investigations and has contributed to SLA researchers' understanding of the factors that affect the 
process of learning. According to Cohen and Weaver (2005), vocabulary learning has a significant 
role in the improvement of four language skills and can contribute to gaining communicative 
competence. A challenging task language learners face is how to retain the vocabulary they have 
learned. Focus on the features of new words, contextual/ decontextualized learning, frequency of 
encounters, and noticing are factors that determine the degree of success in vocabulary learning 
(Pellicer-Sánchez, 2020). For retention of vocabulary, as Nation and Gu (2007) argue, memory, 
processing, storing, and using L2 words in productive ways can play decisive roles. Pyc and Rawson 
(2009) believe that deep processing of words in the cognitive framework of learners leads to more 
successful retention. Craik and Lockhart's (1972) Information Processing Model explains that the 
level of processing is a determining factor in the storage of data in memory.  

A R T I C LE  IN F O  

 
ABSTRACT  

 

 

Article history 

Received   09 July 2020 

Revised   29 July 2020 

Accepted   30 August 2020 

 Nowadays, vocabulary as an influential domain in mastering 
second/foreign languages has encouraged researchers to put forth 
conceptualizations that can substantiate the successful learning of words. 
This study used WhatsApp to investigate the different impacts of two 
input modalities (voice messages vs. written texts) on EFL learners' 
intentional learning and retention of words. To this end, 50 female EFL 
learners in two intact classes (n1=n2=25) were selected from a language 
institute in Khorramabad, Iran. The groups were randomly assigned to 
two treatment conditions. The results of a general English proficiency test 
verified their homogeneity at the outset. A standardized teacher-made 
vocabulary test assured the researchers that the words were unfamiliar to 
the learners. After the twelve-session treatment, which was integrated 
with conventional English teaching classes, another standardized 
vocabulary test was administered once immediately after the intervention 
and the second time after a two-week interval. The Friedman repeated 
measures analysis showed a significant difference between the pretest and 
posttests. However, the results of the statistical analyses showed no 
statistically significant differences between the participants' performances 
on the immediate and delayed posttests. Thus, the researchers concluded 
that the participants had not forgotten the words from the first to the 
second posttest indicating the efficacy of intentional vocabulary learning. 
Additionally, no significant differences were found between the two 
groups showing the similar impacts of the input modality. The study has 
implications for EFL teachers and educators whose focus is on TEFL.   

This is an open access article under the CC–BY-SA license. 

  

 

 
Keywords 

input modality  

learning 

social networking  

WhatsApp  

   

 

https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v3i2.2370
http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eltej/index
mailto:mojgan.rashtchi@gmail.com
mailto:parisa_yz@yahoo.com
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 Rashtchi and Yazdani (Intentional vocabulary learning via WhatsApp...) 

The theories regarding working memory can also explain vocabulary retention.  As a cognitive 
information storage processing system, working memory can facilitate the retention and utilization 
of information (Baddeley, 1997). However, as proposed by Baddeley (1986), working memory has a 
limited capacity, and the presentation of data via a single channel splits its function, and thus 
imposes a high cognitive load on it and can have a detrimental role in the process of learning 
(Sweller  &Chandler, 1994). Therefore, a balance in the presentation of learning materials contributes 
to the efficiency of using the limited working memory capacity and decreases cognitive load 
(Baddeley, 1992). Second language learners need to store information and engage in cognitive 
processing to transfer the target language to long-term memory, which is called the process of 
language retention (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). As a result, employing a combination of input 
modalities is superior to a single modality input as small amounts of information are stored in two 
different paths or loops. According to the modality principle (Atkinson, 2005; Mayer, 2009), 
employing different instructional formats (Paas, van Gog, & Sweller, 2010) can lead to successful 
retention.  By using different types of input, learners can retain and utilize the information they need 
to accomplish tasks that require reasoning and comprehension (Baddeley, 1986).  

Thus, teachers' responsibility is to help learners successfully store and retrieve words by 
employing effective pedagogical methods in teaching. One way to do so is through the use of 
technology and social media in the classroom. By infusion of technology into EFL classes, teachers 
can provide learners with the condition of dual contexts for learning vocabulary and expose them to 
a large amount of input (Blake, 2008). Researchers of the present study assumed that the use of 
WhatsApp as an instructional tool could contribute to vocabulary learning. Following Isisag (2012), 
the researchers believed that the combination of the media with traditional teaching methods might 
offer new opportunities to promote the efficacy of foreign language teaching. In the EFL setting of 
Khorramabad, Iran, where this research was conducted, explicit grammar and intentional vocabulary 
instructions dominate English classes. That is to say; learners are supposed to memorize the 
meaning of the words and do different exercises to learn grammar and vocabulary. One reason for 
such teaching strategies is that in university entrance examinations, students are supposed to be 
successful in multiple-choice word recognition tests. Therefore, they mostly use memorization as the 
learning strategy. 

Additionally, high school students do not have much opportunity to attend language classes due 
to the time constraints they experience preparing for the examination. Thus, although research 
findings mostly support incidental vocabulary learning, the researchers' incentive was to find 
practical ways to enhance the students' learning conditions. One way was to increase the word 
encounters via WhatsApp. They compared the effects of two input modalities: visual (reading) and 
audio (listening) to explore which type of input, combined with traditional classroom practices, 
could be more effective in enhancing participants' vocabulary knowledge. The researchers 
considered the interactive environment provided by the application, frequent exposure to language, 
and the possibility to use mobile phones anytime and anywhere as the opportunities to invest in 
them.  The findings of this study may potentially provide insights into unlocking how the use of 
social networks can promote students' vocabulary retention. The article provides a literature review 
followed by the research questions and method of the study. Detailed explanations are given 
regarding the participants, instruments, and classroom procedures. Researchers' interpretations of the 
results section are given in the Results section. The conclusion embraces some suggestions for 
further research and concluding remarks. 

Social networking applications are types of internet websites in which individuals, groups, and 
organizations come together based on prevailing conditions and share their information, subjects, 
and contexts. Moreover, the use of social networks as an educational method will cause creativity 
and interpersonal relationship (Swist, Collin, McCormack, & Third, 2015). The use of social 
networking in generating online communities is prevalent among L2 practitioners. Teachers create 
social groups to facilitate interaction with students beyond L2 classrooms (Rashtchi & Porkar, 
2020). As defined by Bryer and Zavatarro (2001), social media are technologies that improve social 
interaction, make collaboration possible, and enable discussion among learners. Social networks, as 
a modern tool, can assist L2 teachers and learners in accessing information quickly. Blogs, wikis, 
media sharing tools, networking platforms, and virtual worlds are some social media types. Their 
role in language learning has been the focus of some studies. For example, Rashtchi and Hajihassani 
(2010) showed the benefits of weblogs in improving EFL learners' reading ability. In a qualitative 



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study, Selwyn (2009) concluded that Facebook could help university students overcome the 
challenges they encounter in their academic life.  Slim and Hafedh (2019) investigated the impacts 
of using Facebook on learning English for specific purposes. Although no significant differences 
were specified in the experimental and control groups' achievements, the researchers found that 
employing  Facebook had resulted in developing a positive attitude among learners. 

One of the popular social networks is WhatsApp, which has been used by some researchers for 
teaching vocabulary (Jafari & Chalak, 2016; Bensalem, 2018).  The researchers of the current study, 
in line with these researchers, postulated that the use of WhatsApp could be an excellent source for 
drawing the learners' attention and facilitate learning new words. As Siyanova-Chanturia and Webb 
(2016) put forth, in EFL contexts, vocabulary learning is a big challenge for learners since 
instruction is limited to the classroom environment. The use of WhatsApp could be a remedy for 
learners to have a more frequent encounter with words. The results of previous studies on the 
decisive role of technology in vocabulary retention (Hermagustiana & Rusmawaty, 2017; Ma & 
Kelly, 2006; Rashtchi & Aghili, 2014) also stimulated the researchers to examine the efficacy of the 
social network as a tool for vocabulary learning. 

A review of the literature indicates that one of the major concerns of researchers in vocabulary 
teaching is examining the usefulness of incidental or intentional vocabulary teaching (Restrepo 
Ramos, 2015).  Incidental learning is the result of meaning-focused activities in which learners gain 
the meaning of the words through reading or listening. However, intentional learning requires 
learners to focus on learning words and employ different activities "to explicitly focus students on 
learning words" (Webb, 2020, p.5). Generally speaking, most researchers believe that incidental 
learning obtained from the focus of attention on language use is a more effective process in 
vocabulary acquisition (Zimmerman, 2014), and the efficacy of intentional learning is limited 
(Webb, 2020). However, some researchers argue for the necessity of an explicit focus on vocabulary 
(Deccarico, 2001). Laufer (2005) emphasizes the importance of intentional vocabulary learning and 
believes that explicit learning of words contributes to their retention. Webb (2020) maintains that 
intentional vocabulary learning serves as a basis for future meaning-based vocabulary acquisition.  

Furthermore, all SLA researchers have acknowledged the significant role of input in the process 
of language learning.  However, the type and modality of input and conceptualization of how 
language learners manage data have been the source of much debate (Doughty & Long, 2003; Ellis, 
2008). According to VanPatten (2003), input is the language that a learner "hears or reads" and has 
"some kind of communicative intent" (p.25). As Schwartz (1993) claimed, to improve the 
knowledge system of a specific language, the learner must be exposed to instances or exemplars of 
that particular language. Without this type of exposure, language development will not occur. Thus, 
input refers to all language samples used to communicate a message (VanPatten & Leeser, 2006). 

Additionally, the role of language input in information processing theories is essential since the 
frequency of the information embedded in the input helps language learners acquire the target 
language (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). One factor which has received much emphasis in the discussion 
regarding input is attention. Schmidt (2001) argues that attended learning is far superior, and for all 
practical purposes, attention is necessary for different aspects of L2 learning. The researchers of the 
current study assumed that by increasing the exposure of EFL learners via WhatsApp opportunities 
for learning and retention of vocabulary would increase. Therefore, they proposed the following 
research questions for a quasi-experimental study with a non-equivalent control group pretest-
posttest design: 

RQ1: Is there a change in the vocabulary knowledge of the group that receives text messages via 
WhatsApp from pretest to immediate and delayed posttests?  

RQ2: Is there a change in the vocabulary knowledge of the group that receives voice messages 
via WhatsApp from pretest to immediate and delayed posttests? 

RQ3: Does the type of teacher-provided input (voice vs. written messages) via WhatsApp have 
different impacts on EFL learners' vocabulary learning and retention? 



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2. Research Method 

2.1.  Participants 

Fifty school girls aged between 16 and 17 at the intermediate level of language proficiency (B1, 
according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) took part in this study.  
The participants, selected based on convenience sampling, were studying in two intact classes in a 
language institute in Khorramabad, Iran. The results of a general English proficiency test (GPT) 
revealed that the participants were homogenous, with scores clustering around the mean (±1 SD 
above and below the mean). The groups were randomly assigned to the voice message group 
(VMG) and the text message group (TMG).  

2.2. Instruments 

The researchers employed three instruments for data collection; a general English proficiency 
test, a vocabulary pretest, and a vocabulary posttest administered twice (as immediate and delayed 
posttests). A general proficiency test (GPT) in two sections adopted from the Cambridge 
Preliminary English Test 7 (2012) was employed to explore whether the participants were at the 
same level of language proficiency at the onset of the study. The reading part of the test consisted of 
35 reading questions, and the writing part comprised three parts, which examined a range of writing 
skills. Questions 1-5 carried one mark each. Item 6 was marked out of five, and items 7 and 8 were 
marked out of 15, giving a total of 25. The allocated time for the test was one hour. The reliability of 
the test estimated via Cronbach's alpha showed an acceptable index (r= .893). The inter-rater 
reliability of the writing section computed through Pearson's r showed a high consistency between 
the two raters (r=.843). 

The second instrument was a 30-item vocabulary achievement test developed by the researchers. 
The test contained the textbook's new words that the students were going to study during the 
semester. It could ensure the researchers that the participants were not familiar with the terms before 
the treatment. Two English language teachers with ten years of experience verified its content 
validity after some revisions (Appendix A).  The test was piloted, and its agreement (Brown, 2005) 
calculated through Cohen's Kappa coefficient was .569. The researchers developed another 30-item 
vocabulary test parallel to the pretest. That is, the words were the same as the pretest but appeared in 
a new context (Appendix B). The purpose of the test was to examine the vocabulary achievement of 
the participants after the treatment. Two experienced teachers reviewed the test and attested to its 
content validity. Then the test was piloted, and its agreement using Cohen's Kappa formula revealed 
an acceptable index (Ƙ=.57). The items of the immediate posttest were shuffled for the delayed 
posttest to control the practice effect. The time allocated for each vocabulary test was 30 minutes. 
The total number of the target words the participants were supposed to learn was sixty.  

 

2.3. Piloting Tests 

Before the treatment, the two teacher-made tests (pretest and posttest) were piloted among 25 
students bearing almost the same characteristics as the main study participants. Following Brown 
(2005), for validating the achievement tests, as a criterion- referenced test (CRT), the pilot group 
was selected from those who knew the words. The reason was to examine whether there were any 
malfunctioning items. If the students who knew the words could not perform successfully on the 
test, then the researchers could conclude that the test was not appropriate. The skewness ratios of the 
pretest and posttest scores were -2.55 and -2.69 (obtained from dividing statistic by standard error), 
respectively. Since skewness ratios (-2.55 and -2.69) exceeded the legitimate range of normal 
distribution (±1.96), the two sets of scores were not normally distributed, indicating that the test-
takers knew the words (Table 1). 

Table 1.  Descriptive statistics for piloting the vocabulary pretest & posttest 

 N Min. Max. Mean SD Skewness Statistic Std Error 
Pretest 25 4.00 30.00 20.36 6.663 -1.185 .464 

Posttest 25 4.00 29.00 20.28 6.717 -1.252 .464 



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2.4. Materials 

The coursebook was English-Phil UEE test-prep (Anari & Ghoreyshi, 2016), usually used for 
learners who are going to attend the university entrance examination in Iran. 

2.5. Procedure 

The classes took six weeks, each week, two 90-minute sessions, 18 hours in total. GPT was 
administered to both groups in the first session. After ensuring that all participants had WhatsApp on 
their mobile phones, the teacher, who was one of the researchers, created a WhatsApp group for 
each study group and provided explanations regarding the instructional purposes of the social 
networking group. In the second session, the researchers administered the vocabulary pretest to 
ensure that the participants did not know the meaning of the target words before the treatment.  

2.6. Voice Message Group (VMG)  

The teacher started the classes by writing the new words of the lesson on the board and providing 
explanations, synonyms, and antonyms for each item. Then she read the passage while students were 
engaged in silent reading (the reading while listening process). Meanwhile, the teacher referred to 
the parts of speech of the words and exemplified each in a few sentences. Afterward, the students 
completed a worksheet in three sections to practice the new words explicitly. The first section 
contained some fill-in-the-blanks exercises and matching word lists with their equivalents. In the 
next section, learners had to write the meaning of the new words in their L1 (Persian) or English.  
The last part of the worksheets was sentence production with given terms. At the end of the session, 
the teacher spot-checked the students by asking the meaning of the words. One day after the class, 
the teacher shared her recorded voice message on the WhatsApp group for five new words. She 
pronounced the new terms for three times expressively to attract the students' attention. She 
provided definitions, synonyms, and antonyms for each word. The students were encouraged to 
listen to the files as many times as they needed to memorize the words. They could ask questions or 
require further explanations from the teacher or other classmates.  

2.7. Text Message Group (TMG) 

The classroom procedure for this group was the same as VMG. However, instead of sharing 
voice messages, the teacher sent text messages. She wrote the vocabulary items and highlighted 
them to make them salient. Also, she provided definitions, synonyms, and antonyms for the words. 
Similar to the VMG, TMG members were encouraged to memorize the words and their meanings. 
They could interact with the teacher or peers when they had any queries.  

2.8. Posttest 

After the 12-session treatment, the participants took two vocabulary posttests. The first 
administration was on the 13th session, and the other was after a two-week interval to examine 
vocabulary retention. 

3. Findings and Discussion 

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics obtained from the administration of GPT to the groups. 
The results show that the mean scores of VMG (M=42.3, SD=2.16) and TMG (M=41.5, SD=2.93) 
were close to each other. The results of the skewness indicated that the distributions of scores in 
both groups were normal (0.95 for VMG and 0.49 for TMG, both ratios falling between ±1.96, 
obtained from dividing statistic by standard error), and running parametric tests enjoyed legitimacy.  

Table 2.  Descriptive statistics of GPT scores by groups 

 
N Min. Max. Mean SD Skewness 

Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error 
TMG 25 36.00 48.00 41.5600 2.93442 .231 .464 

VMG 25 37.00 46.00 42.3000 2.16025 -.441 .464 

Valid N (listwise) 25       

 



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The Levene's F =2.378, p >.05) indicated that the assumption of the homogeneity of variances 
was assumed. The results of the independent samples t-test showed that there was no statistically 
significant difference between the means of the groups, t (48) = 1.01, p>0.05.   Thus, the researchers 
concluded that the participants in the two groups shared the same level of language proficiency and 
were homogenous.  

Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics obtained from the administration of the pretest and the 
immediate and delayed posttests.  

Table 3.  Descriptive statistics vocabulary pretest 

 Min. Max. Mean SD 
Pretest TMG 2.00 14.00 6.24 2.79 

VMG 2.00 15.00 7.08 2.52 
Total 2.00 15.00 6.66 2.66 

Immediate Posttest TMG 11.00 30.00 22.88 4.76 

VMG 12.00 30.00 23.04 4.83 
Total 11.00 30.00 22.96 4.75 

Delayed Posttest TMG 13.00 30.00 22.20 4.12 

VMG 15.00 30.00 22.36 4.42 
Total 13.00 30.00 22.28 4.23 

 

The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was conducted to examine the normality of the distribution of the 
scores in the three vocabulary tests. The p values larger than .05 indicated normality (p>.05); 
however, since some of the p values were smaller than .05, the researchers had to use non-
parametric tests.   

Two non-parametric tests of Friedman repeated measures ANOVA were performed to compare 
the performances of the TMG and VMG from time 1 (pretest) to time 2 (immediate posttest) and 
time 3 (delayed posttest) to answer the first and second research questions. Table 7 shows the results 
of the test (χ2 (2, 24) = 39.4, p < .001) for TMG. As the results of the p-value indicate, there is a 
significant difference between the performances of TMG in the pretest, immediate posttest, and 
delayed posttest.  

Table 4.  TMG Friedman test, pretest, immediate, & delayed posttests 

N 25 

Chi-Square 39.402 

df 2 

Asymp. Sig. .000 

 

In the next step, Wilcoxon tests were run to help the researchers locate where the difference(s) 
lay. The results of the Wilcoxon test indicated that the difference between the posttests and the 
pretest scores was statistically significant (mean rank of 0.00 versus 25.5, Z = 6.16, p <.001). In 
contrast, the difference between the delayed posttest and the immediate posttest scores (mean rank 
of 21.35 versus 22.15, Z = .73, p > .05) was not significant. This finding indicates that the 
participants were successful in vocabulary retention and had not forgotten the words from the 
immediate posttest to the delayed posttest. The effect size obtained from dividing Z by the square 
root of cases (25x3) is 0.7, which using Cohen's (1988) criteria, indicates a large effect size 
indicating that 7 percent of the change in the dependent variable was due to the treatment.  

Friedman repeated-measures ANOVA was performed to examine the effectiveness of the voice 
messages on the participants' vocabulary learning and retention. As the results of the test (χ2 (2, 24) 
= 41.583, p < .001) indicate (Table 5), there is a statistically significant difference between the 
performances of VMG in the pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest.  

 



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Table 5.  VMG Friedman test, pretest, immediate, & delayed posttests 

N 25 

Chi-Square 41.583 

df 2 

Asymp. Sig. .000 

 

Two Wilcoxon tests were conducted to examine where exactly the differences suggested by 
Friedman test occurred. Table 6 shows the ranks of the scores in each test.  

Table 6.  Ranks statistics of Wilcoxon test, VMG 

 N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks 
Immediate posttest &Pretest Negative Ranks 0a .000 .000 

Positive Ranks 25b 13.00 325.00 
Ties 0c   
Total 25   

Delayed posttest &Immediate posttest Negative Ranks 16d 10.91 174.50 

Positive Ranks 5e 11.30 56.50 

Ties 4f   
Total 25   

 

As the results of the Wilcoxon test showed, the immediate posttest results were significantly 
different from the pretest (mean rank of 0.00 versus 13.0, Z = 4.38, p <.001); and the delayed 
posttest scores were significantly different from the posttest scores (mean rank of 11.3 versus 10.91, 
Z = 2.73, p < .05).  The lack of a statistically significant difference between the immediate and 
delayed posttests shows that the participants in VMG could remember the words they had learned. 
The effect size (r= .5.), using Cohen's (1988) criteria, indicates a large effect size.  

Quade's Rank Analysis of Covariance was conducted to explore further the difference between 
the effects of the two treatments. To do so, first, both immediate posttest and delayed posttest scores 
of the participants were ranked. Then, a linear regression of the ranks was performed, and the 
residuals were saved. Table 7 shows the descriptive statistics of the residuals for delayed posttest 
scores from immediate posttest scores. 

Table 7.  Residual statistics, delayed posttest scores from immediate posttest scores 

 Min. Max. Mean SD N 
Predicted value 12.2381 28.1910 22.2800 3.98887 50 

Residual -3.15321 2.52604 .00000 1.41736 50 

Std. predicted value -2.517 1.482 .000 1.000 50 

Std. residual -2.202 1.764 .000 .990 50 

 

Finally, a Mann-Whitney U test was run to probe the difference between the ranks of the two 
groups. As the results indicated, there were no statistically significant differences between the two 
groups (U = .309, p > .05) regarding their ranks in the delayed posttests compared to the immediate 
posttests. In other words, the results of the test showed that while the two groups were successful in 
learning the words and remembering them, the type of input did not cause any statistically 
significant differences between the groups.  

 



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Fig. 1.  Line graph of two groups' progress in three tests 

 

The affirmative answers to the first and second research questions showed that intentional 
vocabulary learning strategies via WhatsApp were useful for learning and retaining new words. 
However, the type of input (voice vs. text messaging), as proposed by the third research question, 
did not cause any statistically significant differences between the groups. The study showed that 
activities related to intentional vocabulary learning and memorization could help learners have 
mental access to the delayed posttest words. As Barcroft (2015) argues, focus on learning 
vocabulary and disregarding other language-related activities can be the key to the efficacy of 
intentional learning. Besides, in intentional learning, learners voluntarily use all possible techniques 
and strategies they have developed during their schooling to overcome the barriers which impede 
their success. Likewise, it can be assumed that the WhatsApp messages allowed the learners to 
employ their preferred strategies for vocabulary learning, as the participants tried to learn 
individually and at their own pace. As Nation (2013) puts forth, a considerable proportion of 
vocabulary learning relies on using appropriate strategies. Regarding the present study, motivation 
and desire to learn were additional factors that affected the results since the participants were getting 
ready to take the university entrance examination.   

Another reason for the efficacy of intentional vocabulary learning was that WhatsApp increased 
the frequency of exposure to the new words (Pellicer-Sánchez, 2020). Peters (2014) found that 
repeated exposure could have a significant impact on vocabulary learning. Also, the finding by Alali 
and Schmitt (2012) lends some support to the role of repetition in vocabulary learning. The 
researchers assume that the reiteration of the words in the messages that the students received after 
explicit class instruction could have a vital role in learning and remembering vocabulary. Also, the 
ubiquitous learning provided by mobile phones could have a decisive role in learning the words.  

An alternative possibility for the success of the participants could be the integration of two 
modes of learning. During the treatment, the conventional in-class learning in which learners were 
engaged mostly in paper and pencil activities followed by out-of-class technology-based learning 
put a less cognitive load on their working memory (Baddeley,1997).  That is to say, the combination 
of exercises that required production (i.e., doing worksheets and answering to teacher's questions), 
and receptive activities (i.e., listening to or reading messages in WhatsApp group) could lead to 
better results in vocabulary learning.     



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The findings emphasize the role of social networking in vocabulary learning. Using such tools is 
mainly useful in EFL settings where learners do not have adequate opportunities to encounter the 
target language. Receiving messages from the teacher via WhatsApp could give the learners the 
advantage of regulating their study time according to their schedule. Also, individualized learning 
inherent in the use of mobile phones for educational purposes frees the participants from the 
pressure of keeping pace with the class, which itself can impede learning (Rashtchi & Tollabi 
Mazraehno, 2019; Tanner & London, 2009).  Employing the strategies that were compatible with 
their personality characteristics and learning styles could be another reason for the participants' 
success in vocabulary learning. Placing the burden of learning on the shoulders of the participants 
can trigger their sense of responsibility and foster autonomous learning.  

The amount of mental processing involved in the learning of the words can also be another 
explanation for the findings. The classroom practices, along with the presentation of words via 
WhatsApp, could bring about a deep mental involvement that is assumed to be effective in 
increasing the learners' attention to the words (Nation, 2013). In the same vein, Godfroid, Boers, and 
Housen (2013) maintain that giving some attention can lead to long-term memory storage. This 
conclusion can find support from the noticing hypothesis proposed by Alali and Schmidt (2012). 
This study revealed that English teachers could benefit from social networking, such as WhatsApp, 
via mobile phones to teach vocabulary to EFL learners since they are easy to use and preferred by 
many learners. The findings showed that WhatsApp could encourage students to learn vocabulary 
since it has the advantage of extending learning to outside classroom settings. It can also connect 
students with the teacher and other classmates at any time and in any place. The present study 
signifies the importance of looking for more attractive ways of providing input for EFL learners. 

4. Conclusion 

The study showed that WhatsApp could help develop EFL learners' vocabulary knowledge and 
have a lasting impact on remembering the words they have learned. Besides, the type of input that 
the learners receive, the attraction adolescents have toward using mobiles and social networking 
could have an impact on increasing their motivation for learning vocabulary. The tendency of 
learners to use mobile phones regularly during their daily-life activities, if used for learning 
purposes, can increase the frequency of exposure required for vocabulary learning.  The study 
results can encourage teachers to consider the use of social networking platforms and applications as 
a possibility for increasing the learners' encounter with language in EFL settings. Material 
developers can draw on the results of this study to make informed decisions on how to adopt 
technology in teaching vocabulary in different courses. However, the use of social networking for 
language teaching still needs further investigations, particularly concerning productive language 
skills. One limitation of the present study was that the participants were limited to girls. Therefore, 
the results should be generalized to both genders cautiously. This study was also limited in 
considering the participants' preferences and personality factors. Further studies may consider 
learner characteristics as a variable to investigate in the domain of vocabulary learning integrated 
with social media.  Additionally, interested researchers may explore the participants' perceptions 
regarding the use of social media for vocabulary learning.  

 

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Appendix A 

Vocabulary Pretest 

 
1. Do you think I made a good impression on your parents? "Impression" means ……. 

  

 result   effect  support   habit 

2. You should have …… goals, or else you will be disappointed. 

  

 achievable   readable  agreeable  advisable  

3. A group of people having the same religion, job, etc. Are a …….  

 

 category  community    government   missionary 

4. The time between the final exam and telling the result of students is a period of real ….. for most students. 

 

 comfort    suffering  enjoyment    involvement 

5. Tom has invited all of us to dinner tonight because of his recent …… at work. 

  

 promotion  result  posture   conclusion 

6. Jane has just been ……, which means a company car and an extra five thousand pounds. 

  

 earned   promoted    explored   proposed 

7. The project will be a success if we can only get the …… to put it into action. 

  

 finance     entrance    realization    procedure 

8. The government should act quickly to help people in ……. .  

  

 poverty     struggle   extinction  region 

9. They say that they should spend as much money as needed to improve the country's telephone …. 

 

 device  region     procedure  network 

10. My parents will …… my mail to Italy while I am teaching there.    

  

 forward   provide  operate   recall 

11. The managers have ………… a number of circumstances to the agreement. 

  

 combined    restated  arranged   attached  

12. We were glad to see that the ………. of more wood to the fire made it brighter and warmer 

 

 addition  formation  pollution  location 

13. I haven't been to China ………, but I have read a lot of books about its culture and people. 

  

 entirely  personally   immediately   internationally 

14. You should prepare all your …….. carefully before applying for a passport.  

  

        comments  documents  occasions    statements  

15. I asked the children to slow down because I was not able to ……. them any longer. 

  

 call out to     make up with   keep up with    run away form 

16. The traffic was too heavy as it was raining hard, so we reached the ……… two hours late. 

 

 destination  expectation  occasion  exploration 

17. Mr. Alavi is interested in Asian countries, so he went on a long journey of …….into China. 

 

  prediction  destination  exploration  communication 

18. Mary was not in a good mood, so she welcomed her guests with a (n)…… smile on her face. 

  

  brilliant  primary  artificial  effective 

19. Wet weather is a ……… of life in many countries of the world like Scotland. 

  period 2. manner  feature  sample 



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20. Mr. Karimi has always been dreaming of traveling to ……. lands, particularly the ones in South America. 

  global  complex  flexible  distant 

21. Dr. Javadi is a ……… of this kind of operation human heart in the world. 

  layer  winner  gesture  pioneer 

22. I worry about the ………. effect that violent films may have on children. 

 destructive  repetitive  irrelevant  nervous 

23. Bill escaped from ……… by going to he cinema every afternoon.  

 function  reality  certainly  capacity 

24. Trying to ……… the weather is not an easy job, as it requires specialized equipment.  

 estimate  mention  forecast  express 

25. We were late getting to the airport, but ….. for us; the plane was delayed.  

 luckily  basically  certainly  entirely 

26. I would like to know how Helen manages to keep …. before examinations. 

 firm  calm  similar  natural 

27. As a student he lived very ……, rarely going out and buying very few clothes.  

 economically  scientifically  necessarily  emotionally 

28. The village was a scene of immense peace, far ….. from the tensions of city life. 

 bothered  removed  stretched  survived 

29. I would prefer not to travel to a country like Canada in winter because it gets ……. cold. 

 previously  necessarily  extremely  anxiously 

30. The government has several plans to remove ……… and raise living standards. 

 reality  capacity  charity poverty 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B 

Vocabulary Immediate and Delayed Posttests 
 

1. Mary was chosen for the job because she was ….. to the others. 

 conscious voluntary   fashionable   superior   

2. Our schools should …… more time to scientific subjects. 

 raise              devote                   transfer               express 

3. I can say with …… that there will be no more discussion today. 

 capacity                experience  certainty        impression 

4. A person who goes to another country to teach people about religion is called a …… 

 teacher                     missionary            passenger          psychologist 

5. These days the business has got into …… difficulties. 

 financial                flexible                emotional   facial 

6. We don't exactly know what happened; Bill only gave a /an …… of the events. 

 mistake                density           outline               article 

7. Many adults seem to know little about some of the most …… sciences. 

 emotional   elementary                voluntary                repetitive 

8. I try to ………… two hours every night to my school work. 

 estimate  devote            spend         enhance 

9. You can buy a / an ……. version of the dictionary and save money in this way. 

 regular    national  electronic   reasonable 

10. I don't like seeing animals in a zoo. I prefer to see them in their natural ….. areas. 

 relaxed   surrounding   contrasting  individual 

11. Our luggage was checked through to our final ….. . 

 situation    destination      observation   connection 

12. I think we have just enough gasoline to reach our ……. 

 destination   imagination  extinction  inaction 

13. My parents will …… my mails to china while I am working there. 

 stick    forward   compose   mention 

14. John doesn't seem to be happy that he is …… to our Tokyo branch next month. 

 joining   hiring   transferring    devoting 

15. We were waiting …… for my father coming back from Mecca.  



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 Smoothly  anxiously   personally   necessarily    

16. Will you quickly …… me on what has been happening. 

 update    include  promise   concentrate 

17. I think we started our business with each other …… two years ago. 

  exactly  recently  brightly  silently 

18. The pilot ……… the plane safely, but there was a crash afterward. 

  landed  located  reacted  floated 

19. A: "How many scientists took part in the conference?"  

      B: "……… 50 ones."   

  Mostly  Nearly  Primarily  Immediately 

20. I think the plane is ……. in a few minutes. 

  turning on  making up  turning up  taking off 

21. Each school's central …….. should be to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

    

  mission  occasion  expression  permission 

22. The window were …… all night because of the wind.  

  

 relaxing  suffering  wrestling  rattling 

23. Most high buildings are ….. in the north of our city. 

.   

 located  interested  attached  entered 

24. It is …….. knowledge that swimming is one of the best forms of exercise.  

  

 serious  average  common  efficient 

25. We need to make changes in the …… for collecting taxes. 

   

 practice  involvement  mechanism  statement 

26. The pilot of the airplane had to make a/an …….. landing because of the terrible weather. 

 

 mystery  emergency  strategy  density 

27. Every packet of cigarettes should come with a government health warning which is …… to it. 

 

 attached  forced  forbidden  promised 

28. As I know, Sally had sold only twelve pictures …… to friends and family.  

  

 recently  formally  mostly  reasonably 

29. Vitamins cannot be …… by our bodies; we get them from what we eat or drink. 

  

 involved  manufactured  concentrated  accepted 

30. Experts …… that, on average, the world loses a language every two weeks. 

   

 annoy  explore  estimate  measure 

 

 
 


