







































English Language Teaching Educational Journal   ISSN 2621-6485 

Vol. 3, No. 2, 2020, pp. 142-150  142 

      10.12928/eltej.v3i2.2447           http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eltej/index           eltej@pbi.uad.ac.id 

A descriptive study on ESL learners’ vocabulary knowledge through cognitive and 

metacognitive strategies  

B R Aravind  a,1,*, V Rajasekaran b,2 

a, b School of Social Sciences and Languages (SSL),Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India 
1aravind.abur@gmail.com*, 2rskaran2003@gmail.com  

*Corresponding author 

 

1. Introduction   

“Without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” 
(Wilkins 1972, p. 111). Vocabulary learning starts at the very early stage of infancy. According to 
the National Research Council (1998), the foundations for language and literacy begin in early 
childhood when children develop vocabulary and use the vocabulary to communicate. 8 to 12 
months; children understand 3 to 50 words. Those words were normally familiar persons in the 
family or their favorite objects around them. Even in a learner’s mother tongue, there is incessant 
learning of new words and new meanings for old words (Thornbury 2002, p. 1). It is generally 
accepted that vocabulary is ‘the heart in learning a second language’, but the acquisition of 
numerous vocabulary items may be one of the most difficult aspects of learning a second language 
for most L2 learners (Meara 1980; Read 2000; Stoffer 1995).  

Maley (1986) any learner of a foreign language knows very well that words are essential, and the 
lack of them leads to difficulties in communication situations. Decarrico (2001) points out that 
vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition whether it is a second or a foreign language. 
Vocabulary often seems to be the least systematized, and the least well-catered for of all the aspects 
of learning a foreign language, such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar, or even 
pronunciation. Many scholars (e.g. Allen, 2009; Carter and McCarthy, 1988; Hughes, 1989; 2003; 
Jackson & Amvela, 2007; Lewis, 1993; Long and Richards, 1997; Maley, 1986; Meara, 1980; 1982; 
Read, 2000; Richards, 1985; Schmitt, 1997; Seal, 1991; Zimmerman, 1996) specifically highlight 
the neglect of vocabulary studies. 

A R T I C LE  IN F O  

 

ABST RACT  

 

 

Article history 

Received 10 July, 2020 

Revised 12 August, 2020 

Accepted 30 August, 2020 

 The present research was carried out to study the cognitive and 
metacognitive vocabulary learning strategies of 36 ESL learners’. 
Schmitt’s Vocabulary Learning Strategies questionnaire was used to 
conduct the study. The study revealed the subsequent array of cognitive 
and metacognitive strategies employed by ESL learners. Additionally, 
semi-structured interviews were also conducted with 10 ESL learners’ 
who completed the questionnaire to get more reliable information about 
learners’ strategies with vocabulary learning. The findings indicated that 
‘Using English Language Media’, ‘Verbal repetition’, ‘Take notes in 
class’ were the most popular strategies, whereas ‘Skip or pass new 
word’ and ‘Put English labels on physical objects’ were least used. The 
results of this paper provide many implications for English language 
teaching. Detailed explanations of the participants’ cognitive and 
metacognitive strategies were given in the discussion  

 

This is an open access article under the CC–BY-SA license. 

    

 

 
Keywords 

Cognitive 

Metacognitive 

Vocabulary Learning Strategies 

ESL learners 

Teaching 

 

 

https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v3i2.2447
http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eltej/index
mailto:aravind.abur@gmail.com
mailto:2rskaran2003@gmail.com
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 Aravind and Rajasekaran (A descriptive study on ESL learners’ vocabulary knowledge...) 

 

Fig. 1.  Types of vocabulary (Source: Adapted from Pikulski and Templeton (2004, p. 2) 

Pikulski and Templeton (2004, p. 2) demonstrate that vocabulary items play a dominant part in 
learning to communicate effectively while listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Vocabulary 
items in Fig. 1. can be classified in terms of types, meanings, and functions. Based on the diagram, 
vocabulary is categorized into four main groups as meaning/oral vocabulary, literate/written 
vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, and productive vocabulary. Hence, all vocabulary items are inter-
related in functions and meanings. Vocabulary learning strategies are a part of language learning 
strategies which in turn are a part of general learning strategies (Nation 2001, p. 217). Cameron 
(2001, p. 92) defines vocabulary learning strategies as “the actions that learners take to help 
themselves understand and remember vocabulary items”.  

3.1. Survey of literature  

Today, the significance of vocabulary is appreciated both in second language research and in 
language teaching. The number of studies and books concerning vocabulary instruction has 
increased. Thornbury (2002, p. 4) states, “This is partly due to the recent availability of 
computerized databases of words (or corpora), and partly due to the development of new approaches 
to language teaching which are much more word-centered, such as the lexical approach.” Burns and 
Richards (2018) emphasized the importance of aptitude tests in Second Language Acquisition 
(SLA). Initial learning draws on conscious learning abilities, such as memory, reasoning, and 
analytic abilities assessed through aptitude tests in SLA. Mayer (2019) mentioned the influence of 
multimedia in learners’ deep learning. The impact of deep learning was more from words and 
pictures than from words alone.   

Amirian and Heshmatifar (2013) conducted a study on “A Survey on Vocabulary Learning 
Strategies: A Case of Iranian EFL University Students”. 74 students were used for the study. The 
result showed that determination strategies were frequently used by the students. Guessing from 
context and dictionary usage are the most popular strategies for the Iranian learners to acquire 
vocabulary.   

Ramos (2015) reviewed incidental vocabulary learning under the title, “Incidental Vocabulary 
Learning in Second Language Acquisition: A Literature Review”. In the article, he surveyed the 
understanding of incidental learning and the relationship of reading and the promotion of vocabulary 
learning through strategies and tasks with technology-based methods. 

Rabadi (2016) investigated a study on “Vocabulary Learning Strategies Employed by 
Undergraduate EFL Jordanian Students”. 110 students were used for the study. The study showed 



144 English Language Teaching Educational Journal   ISSN 2621-6485 

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 Aravind and Rajasekaran (A descriptive study on ESL learners’ vocabulary knowledge...) 

that memory strategies were the most frequently employed by them and metacognitive strategies 
were the least frequently used strategies among them. In addition, the study revealed that the 
variation of Jordanian participants’ choice of vocabulary learning strategies were medium strategy 
users. 

Nosratinia et al., (2017) published a research paper on “Promoting Second Language Learners’ 
Vocabulary Learning Strategies: Can Autonomy and Critical Thinking Make a Contribution?” 100 
undergraduate EFL learners were used for the study. Three questionnaires were given to estimate 
their critical thinking, autonomy and vocabulary learning strategies, and analyzed by Pearson’s 
product-moment correlation coefficient. Findings showed the significant relationships between 
autonomy and critical thinking, critical thinking and vocabulary learning strategies, autonomy and 
vocabulary learning strategies. In addition, the stepwise method revealed autonomy is the best 
predictor of vocabulary learning strategies. Specifically, EFL learners’ autonomy predicts 20 percent 
of vocabulary learning strategies compared to critical thinking.  

Aravind and Rajasekaran (2018) conducted a study on strategies used by research scholars in 
vocabulary learning. The findings revealed that the frequent strategies employed were using new 
words in the sentence, note-taking in the class, studying or spelling of words, spoken repetition, and 
usage of dictionary. Other strategies like the Peg method, analyzing of parts of speech, flashcards 
were not preferred by the research scholars in vocabulary learning.  

3.2. Schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies 

Strategies in vocabulary learning were intended to retrieve the learned vocabulary in language 
learning. Schmitt’s Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (1997) was based on Oxford’s 
(1990) social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive categories. Schmitt classifies vocabulary 
learning strategies into two divisions namely discovery strategies and consolidation strategies. The 
current study investigates cognitive and metacognitive strategies of ESL learners’ which comes 
under consolidation strategies of Schmitt’s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies. Cognitive 
strategies include mechanical means of learning vocabulary. Metacognitive strategies used by 
learners to manage and assess their individual learning process in vocabulary.  

3.3. Research objectives 

There are three research objectives. They are to study the cognitive and metacognitive strategies 
used by ESL learners’ for their vocabulary development, to find out the most and least frequently 
used cognitive and metacognitive strategies among ESL learners, and to determine which of these 
strategies are more reported by ESL learners’ during semi-structured interview.  

3.4. Research questions 

The research questions are formulated in three questions. What are the effective cognitive and 
metacognitive strategies to enrich the vocabulary level of ESL learners’? Do cognitive and 
metacognitive strategies motivate ESL learners’ in vocabulary enhancement? What are the most and 
least frequently cognitive and metacognitive strategies used by ESL learners? 

3.5. Significance of the study 

Vocabulary learning strategies play a major part in assisting ESL learners to acquire and learn 
new words easily. Studies proved that learners have their own strategies to promote and uplift their 
vocabulary knowledge. The current study can be beneficial in promoting and assisting ESL learners 
to direct effective strategies to learn vocabulary in English. ESL educators and practitioners can 
enhance the teaching-learning process by exposing the number of strategies employed by other ESL 
learners around the world. Also, they can instruct cognitive and metacognitive strategies that 
facilitate ESL learners’ vocabulary development. The findings of this investigation can be an 
information base for further research in the related field. 

2. Research Method 

The research methodology employed in this study was a mixed research methodology. Schmitt’s 
Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire was adopted to study the participants’ vocabulary 
knowledge. Especially cognitive and metacognitive strategies were used from Schmitt’s Vocabulary 
Learning Strategies Questionnaire to investigate the effectiveness and the impact of 36 ESL 



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learners’ vocabulary knowledge. All the 14 items in the questionnaire (9 cognitive and 5 
metacognitive) were collected through online source of Google Forms 2020 as shown in Table 1. 
The rating scale for the frequency of use of the cognitive and metacognitive strategies as Helpful, 
Not Helpful, Not Used but Helpful, and Not Aware. Additionally, semi-structured interviews were 
also conducted with 10 ESL learners’ who completed the questionnaire to get more reliable 
information about learners’ strategies with vocabulary learning. 

Table 1.  Classification of the items in the questionnaire 

Items Cognitive Strategies 

1 Verbal repetition 

2 Written repetition 
3 Wordlists 

4 Prepare flashcards 

5 Take notes in class 

6 Use vocabulary section in text book 

7 Listen to tape of new words 

8 Put English labels on physical objects 

9 Keep vocabulary notebook 

Items Metacognitive Strategies 

10 Use English language media (songs, newspaper/newscasts etc.,) 

11 Testing oneself with word tests 

12 Use spaced word practice 

13 Skip or pass new word 

14 Continue to study over time 

 

The present study was conducted with 36 third-year ESL learners who were randomly selected 
on single-stage cluster sampling. The participants comprised 20 male and 16 female participants 
ranging from 18 to 19 years old (see Table 2). The sample’s proficiency level ranges between 
intermediate low and intermediate high. Participant’s demographical details, length of time studying 
English, and other background information were also collected from the participants’ responses. All 
the participants were exposed to the uniform treatment conditions for the study although they had 
various language backgrounds.  

Table 2.  Description of samples 

Category Number 

Male 20 

Female 16 

Total 36 

3. Findings and Discussion 

The result of ESL learners’ use of cognitive strategies presented in Table. 3. The statistical 
details includes participants’ average, standard deviation and median scores from Schmitt’s 
Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire.  

 

 

 

 



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Table 3.  Statistical details of ESL learners’ cognitive strategies  

Cognitive Strategies Helpful Not Helpful Not Used but Helpful Not Aware 

Verbal repetition 32 (88.9%) 4 (11.1%) 0 0 

Written repetition 30 (83.3%) 3 (8.3%) 3 (8.3%) 0 

Wordlists 31 (86.1%) 3 (8.3%) 2 (5.6%) 0 

Prepare flashcards 21 (58.3%) 4 (11.1%) 5 (13.9%) 6 (16.7%) 

Take notes in class 32 (88.9%) 3 (8.3%) 1 (2.8%) 0 

Use vocabulary section in text book 28 (77.8%) 3 (8.3%) 4 (11.1%) 1 (2.8%) 

Listen to tape of new words 28 (77.8%) 1 (2.8%) 4 (11.1%) 3 (8.3%) 

Put English labels on physical objects 19 (52.8%) 3 (8.3%) 7 (19.4%) 7 (19.4%) 

Keep vocabulary notebook 20 (55.6%) 5 (13.9%) 6 (16.7%) 5 (13.9%) 

Average 26.7 3.2 3.5 2.4 

Standard Deviation 5.3 1.0 2.2 2.8 

Median 28 3 4 1 

 

Table 3 shows the average, standard deviation, and median value of the 9 cognitive strategies. 
The total group mean of the study is 26.7. The standard deviation of the cognitive strategies is 5.3. 
The median value of cognitive strategies is 28 as shown in Table 3.  

Table 4.  Statistical details of ESL learners’ metacognitive strategies 

Metacognitive Strategies Helpful Not Helpful Not Used but Helpful Not Aware 

Use English Language Media 
(Songs/newspaper/newscasts etc.) 

33 (91.7%) 2 (5.6%) 0 1 (2.8%) 

Testing oneself with word tests 30 (83.3%) 1 (2.8%) 5 (13.9%) 0 

Use spaced word practice 23 (63.9%) 2 (5.6%) 4 (11.1%) 7 (19.4%) 

Skip or pass new word 13 (36.1%) 14 (38.9%) 2 (5.6%) 7 (19.4%) 

Continue to study over time 23 (63.9%) 9 (25%) 2 (5.6%) 2 (5.6%) 

Average 24.4 5.6 2.6 3.4 

Standard Deviation 7.7 5.6 1.9 3.3 

Median 23 2 2 2 

 

Table 4 shows the average, standard deviation, and the median value of the 5 metacognitive 
strategies. The total group mean of the study is 24.4. The standard deviation of the metacognitive 
strategies is 7.7. The median value of metacognitive strategies is 23 as shown in Table 4. 

 



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Fig. 2. Graphical representation of the comparison of cognitive and metacognitive strategies 

 

Table 5.  Most frequently used cognitive and metacognitive strategies of ESL learners’  

Strategies Category Respondents 

Use English Language Media 
(Songs/newspaper/newscasts etc.) 

Metacognitive 33 (91.7%) 

Verbal repetition Cognitive 32 (88.9%) 

Take notes in class Cognitive 32 (88.9%) 

Wordlists Cognitive 31 (86.1%) 

Testing oneself with word tests Metacognitive 30 (83.3%) 

Written repetition Cognitive 30 (83.3%) 

 

Table 6.  Least frequently used cognitive and metacognitive strategies of ESL learners’  

Strategies Category Respondents 

Skip or pass new word Metacognitive 13 (36.1%) 

Put English labels on physical objects Cognitive 19 (52.8%) 

Keep vocabulary notebook Cognitive 20 (55.6%) 

Prepare flashcards Cognitive 21 (58.3%) 

 

From the responses of the ESL learners’, all the cognitive and metacognitive strategies were put 
together to find the most and least frequently used strategies were reported as shown in Table 5 and 
Table 6. Based on ESL learners’ responses to the ‘Helpful’ population, the most and least strategies 
were calculated. ESL learners’ most frequently used strategies were ‘Use English Language Media’ 
with 33 (91.7%) from metacognitive strategies, ‘Verbal repetition’ with 32 (88.9%), ‘Take notes in 
class’ with 32 (88.9%), ‘Wordlists’ with 31 (86.1%) from cognitive strategies, ‘Testing oneself with 
word tests’ with 30 (83.3%) from metacognitive strategies and ‘Written repetition’ with 30 (83.3%) 
from cognitive strategies were reported by the ESL learners. On the other hand, least frequently used 
strategies by ESL learners are ‘Skip or pass new word’ with 13 (36.1%) from metacognitive 
strategies, ‘Put English labels on physical objects’ with 19 (52.8%), ‘Keep vocabulary notebook’ 
with 20 (55.6%), and ‘Prepare flashcard’ with 21 (58.3%) from cognitive strategies were reported by 
the learners for vocabulary learning.  

ESL learners use these cognitive strategies to consolidate new words in vocabulary learning from 
the perspective of mental process. 32 (88.9%) participants answered the strategies ‘Take notes in 



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class’ and ‘Verbal repetition’ of the dictions to register the words in mind and these two strategies 
reported the most highly used cognitive strategies. ‘Take notes in class’ strategy is though found 
classical, learners believed this strategy to consolidate the words till date for the learning process. 
‘Verbal repetition’ is to register the word in the mental process of learning, where the learners’ 
alleged articulation in the cognitive domain is possible in remembering the word to learn. 19 
(52.8%) ESL learners’ said that ‘Put English labels on physical objects’ as least used strategy in 
learning the vocabulary. Hence, it cannot be taken lightly into the consideration of consolidating the 
vocabulary in cognitive strategies.   

Learners use metacognitive strategies to deepen the thinking-learning process in vocabulary from 
the perspective of advanced cognitive levels. 33 (91.7%) learners responded that ‘Use English 
Language Media’ as a highly used strategy in order to plan and decide the word for manipulation. 
Moreover, this strategy had scored most of the participants’ responses in the metacognitive 
strategies list. Because ESL learners believe Newspaper, songs, videos give a new angle in 
remembering the words; they find it novel for learning the vocabulary. Surprisingly 13 (36.1%) 
learners were on the view that it was helpful to ‘Skip or pass the new word’ in the learning process 
and it has ranked the least used strategy in the metacognitive list. At the same time, 14 (38.9%) 
participants strongly disagree with skipping the new word and it was not helpful in vocabulary 
learning. As an ESL learner, mastery of vocabulary is very much essential in the productive work; 
words cannot be skipped or passed without learning in the educational progression. 

Fig. 3. 

10

8

6

Reported Strategies by ESL Learners'

Use English Langauge Media

Take notes in class

Verbal repetition

 Reported strategies by ESL learners’ for vocabulary learning 

In order to ascertain the responses of ESL learners’ attitudes about cognitive and metacognitive 
strategies, randomly 10 learners were selected and questioned in the form of semi-structured 
interviews. The learners’ responses were projected in Fig. 3. The questions posed to learners as 
follows. The first question, what is the most frequently used strategy for you, and why? All the 10 
participants responded ‘Use English Language Media’ as the most frequently used strategy 
according to them. They said this particular strategy deepens the understanding level and fasten the 
learning process. It reported the high number of participants in both cognitive and metacognitive 
strategies. The second question is named a strategy that is useful in the class. 8 respondents replied 
‘Take notes in class’ as the useful strategy in the class. During the lectures, learners find this strategy 
as a powerful strategy since they themselves write the words when they encounter it. The final 
question to the interviewees is which strategy helps you to remember the word? 6 interviewees said 
the ‘Verbal repetition’ strategy assist them to remember the learned word. Learners keep repeating 
the words again and again to remember the word. All those 3 interview questions were posed to the 
participants to name a particular strategy from the cognitive and metacognitive strategies. The 



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participants’ opinions were collected and distributed on the bases of responses to the questions. 
Based on the interview report, ‘Use English Language Media’, ‘Take notes in class’, and ‘Verbal 
repetition’ are the cognitive and metacognitive strategies reported by ESL learners during the semi-
structured interviews for vocabulary learning and development. 

4. Conclusion 

The prime focus of this research is to study the cognitive and metacognitive strategies on ESL 
learners’ vocabulary learning. It also sought to find out ESL learners’ most and least used strategies. 
The finding of the study revealed the reliability of the research from the questionnaire and interview 
responses of the participants. Data analysis indicated that reported and responded strategy use 
increased learners’ perceptions towards cognitive and metacognitive strategies on vocabulary. Based 
on the findings of the study, ‘Use English Language Media’, ‘Take notes in class’ strategies should 
be considered to be included in the vocabulary teaching-learning process of ESL learners. Since 
both instructors and the learners were in favor of the strategy training in language learning. To 
conclude, this study reveals that strategies in learning vocabulary may help the learner to discover 
themselves and it pave way for them into independent learners. The flexibility shown by the ESL 
learners towards being independent is significant in ‘Written repetition’ and ‘Verbal repetition’ 
strategies. It indicates that when guided with proper context, they can be more autonomy in learning 
and developing vocabulary effectively. The least used strategies of this study could help the 
practitioners to enhance the teaching strategies in vocabulary and also they could introduce the 
vocabulary learning strategies in the teaching-learning process. 

 

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