










































English Language Teaching Educational Journal          ISSN 2621-6485 

Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

  https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v6i1.8747         http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eltej/index         eltej@pbi.uad.ac.id 

Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills 

(4Cs): An action research study in a Chilean teacher education 

program 

Jessica Vega-Abarzúa a,1*, Camilo Jarpa Gutiérrez b,2, Valentina Palma Pulgar c,3,  

Vasco Salazar Marabolíd,4 

a,b,c,d Universidad Adventista de Chile, Camino a Tanilvoro Km. 12 - Sector, Las Mariposas, Chillán, Ñuble, Chile 
1 jessicavega@unach.cl *; 2 camilojarpa@alu.unach.cl; 3 valentinapalma@alu.unach.cl; vascosalazar@alu.unach.cl  

 

 

* Corresponding author 

 

ARTICLE INFO 

 

ABSTRACT  

 

 

Article history 

Received 11 January 2023 

Revised 23 February 2023 

Accepted 10 April 2024 

 Situated in an action research study, this investigation describes the 

impact of scaffolding on the perceptions of preservice teachers of 

English. An action plan was developed for this group of preservice 

teachers as they showed concern for some of their communication, 

critical thinking, creativity and collaboration skills known as learning and 

innovative skills or 4Cs. The action plan comprised the use of scaffolding 

as the main means of instruction, which was executed by the design of 

various evidenced-based scaffolds including group discussions, note-

taking, summarizing, comparing, hypothesizing and problem-solving. 

The group of preservice teachers included 11 students, 4 male and 7 

female, aged 20 and 38 of an English education program in a private 

university in Ñuble, Chile. Data was collected in three main stages using 

an open-ended questionnaire before, during and after the implementation 

of the action plan. Findings showed that the use of scaffolding increased 

participants’ perceptions of their overall 4Cs skills, being critical thinking 

the most salient area of change. It is hoped that English teacher education 

programs can incorporate scaffolding as a potential instructional method 

in the development of academic and crucial skills for future teacher 

generations.  

 

This is an open access article under the CC–BY-SA license. 

 

 

    

 

 
Keywords 

Scaffolding  

Learning and innovative skills 

4Cs 

21st-century skills 

Action research 

Teacher education 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

How to Cite: Vega-Abarzúa, J., Jarpa Gutiérrez, C., Palma Pulgar, V., & Salazar Marabolí, V. (2023). 
Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs): An action research study in a Chilean 
teacher education program. English Language Teaching Educational Journal, 6(1)57-72. 
https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v6i1.8747  

1. Introduction  

Today’s rapidly evolving technological landscape has resulted in the incorporation of 21st-
century skills into the teacher education programs of various contexts around the globe. From an 
English language teaching (ELT) perspective, 21st-century skills are pivotal to equip learners with 
the necessary tools and competencies to succeed in the modern world by using the target language 
in different contexts (Armstrong & Warlick, 2004). Considering this relevance, a vast amount of 
research has been conducted on 21st-century skills in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts 
during the past five years (e.g. Eryansyah, 2019; Hosseinnia, 2018; Motallebzadeh & Saleh, 2019; 
Şahin & Han, 2020; Tang, et al. 2022). Beyond ‘skills for life’ or ‘skills for the future’, the literature 

https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v6i1.8747
http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eltej/index
mailto:jessicavega@unach.cl
mailto:camilojarpa@alu.unach.cl
mailto:valentinapalma@alu.unach.cl
mailto:vascosalazar@alu.unach.cl
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
https://doi.org/10.12928/eltej.v6i1.8747
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5260-5584
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2677-7271
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9644-3177
https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.12928/eltej.v6i1.8747&domain=pdf


58                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

seems not to point to a universal definition of 21st-century skills; what is known is that these skills 
emerged from a convergence of factors, namely, knowledge work, thinking tools, digital lifestyles 
and learning research (Trilling & Fadel, 2009). Today, educational institutions have a regulatory 
framework for the integration of the 21st century, known as ‘21st-century student outcomes’ put 
forward by Partnership 21st century skills in 2009. The framework, which takes a rainbow shape, is 
meant to be used with some critical factors supporting the classification of the skills, including 
standards, assessments, curriculum and instruction, professional development and learning 
environments. The skills, on the other hand, are grouped into three categories: i) learning and 
innovative skills, ii) information, media, and technology skills, and iii) life and career skills 
(Partnership 21, 2015).  

Specifically, this study addresses the category of learning and innovative skills, encompassing 
communication, critical thinking, creativity and collaboration known as the 4Cs. Based on the 
literature, these skills are key for thriving in academic and personal life; Saxena (2015) presents the 
4Cs as the ‘super skills’ that “help develop the qualities that students need to possess in the 21st 
century for success in college, career and citizenship (p.1)”. Hence, this action research study focuses 
on these skills. Furthermore, our study aims to contribute to the limited body of literature on 21st-
century skills in EFL teacher education within the Chilean context. 

To address the 4Cs and meet participants' needs, this study used scaffolding as the main 
instructional strategy. Scaffolding is not a novel approach in education; Jerome Bruner, the American 
cognitive psychologist, pioneered its use in educational contexts. Based on Bruner (1957), 
scaffolding involves providing temporary support or assistance to learners to help them acquire new 
skills or knowledge. In the context of education, Bruner's scaffolding approach emphasizes the 
importance of a knowledgeable teacher or more competent peer providing guidance and support to a 
learner as they progress through a learning task. Wood et al. (1976) assert that scaffolding is a 
cognitive support construction that learners adapt to their needs. Research on scaffolding is closely 
linked to the development of learning and innovative skills; current literature has explored 
scaffolding and critical thinking (e.g. Brown et al., 2017; Mohammed Qadir & Yousofi, 2021) 
creativity (e.g. Ivcevic, Hoffmann & McGarry 2022; Sanders, 2006; Sharma & Hannafin, 2005);  
communication (e.g. Liboiron & Soto, 2006; Nfor, 2020; Rasmussen, 2001) and collaboration 
(Ertmer & Glazewski, 2015; Griesemer & Shavit, 2023; Hsieh, 2017; Rojas-Drummond & Mercer, 
2003). 

Although scaffolding has been vastly investigated, especially in ELT contexts, (e.g. Chen, 2020; 
Choi, et al. 2019; Johnson, 2023; Nasr, et al., 2018; Xu, et al. 2023) its study in teacher education 
has not been sufficiently covered. The few research studies found (e.g. Bunch & Lang, 2023; Schutz 
et al., 2019; Sleeter, et al., 2004) were of great use in this action research study, shedding light on 
how scaffolding provides student teachers with opportunities to enhance their teaching practice. 
Sleeter et al. (2004), based on critical pedagogy, describe scaffolding as a practical pedagogical tool 
that not only has an impact on student teachers but also on their learners as scaffolding facilitates 
teaching and learning, and complex reflexible processes. Bunch & Lang (2023) offer valuable 
insights from preservice teachers’ understanding of scaffolding that point to a useful tool that teachers 
employ to activate learners’ prior knowledge and help dissect the main components of tasks.   

Based on this context and preservice teachers’ need to improve their learning and innovative 
skills, an action plan that considered scaffolding as an instructional strategy was designed to 
strengthen teachers' 21st-century skills. Since this study took place in a teacher education program, 
the investigation is addressed to the teacher education community to reflect upon student teachers’ 
concerns and explore ways to tackle those situations in a practical way. The leading questions were 
the following: 

 

General question: 

• What are EFL preservice teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in promoting 
communication, critical thinking, creativity and collaboration? 

 



ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               59 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

Subsidiary questions: 

• What do EFL preservice teachers know about scaffolding prior to the action plan?  

• What are the perceptions of EFL preservice teachers about their communication, critical 
thinking, creativity and collaboration before, during and after the action plan? 

• What are the benefits and difficulties, from the perspective of EFL preservice teachers, 
of using scaffolding in the classroom? 

2. Method 

This is a qualitative action research study, grasped as a systematic procedure in tackling real-
world issues within educational institutions and classrooms (Creswell, 2015). Since a problem was 
identified in a university classroom and the instructor aimed to enhance the skills of preservice 
teachers, action research emerged as the most fitting methodology to address and document the issue. 
The teacher-researcher, a TESOL instructor, collaborated with three student assistants (hereafter 
research team). The study involved a cohort of 11 preservice teachers enrolled in an English 
education program in Ñuble, Chile, comprising 4 females and 7 males, ranging in age from 20 to 38. 
These participants willingly volunteered to take part in the study and were informed about the 
anonymous handling of their data. This was clarified in the informed consent provided during the 
initial stage of the data collection process. It is important to note that both the study and data 
collection received approval from the Scientific Ethics Committee of the university where the 
research was conducted. 

The problem was identified at the beginning of the first semester of 2023 while the participants 
were enrolled in the 'Methodology and Didactics of English Language Teaching' module. This issue 
surfaced during informal classroom discussions, where teacher students expressed concerns about 
their readiness to foster critical and creative thinking skills in school learners if they had not fully 
developed these skills themselves. Additionally, the participants reflected on their knowledge gaps 
and social skills deficits resulting from the remote learning scenario during the Covid-19 pandemic. 
After listening to the students' challenges, the research team developed an action plan that entailed 
various methodological actions, which were categorized into six procedures, as summarized in 
Figure 1. 

 

Figure 1. Methodological actions comprised in the action plan 

 

First, the participants needed to experience fully student-centered teaching methods; therefore, 
lessons were planned including the use of problem-based learning, flipped learning and task-based 
learning. Second, every lesson would require the completion of evidenced-based scaffolds to 
promote deep learning. These scaffolds were constructed based on McTighe & Silver’s Teaching for 
deeper learning: tools to engage students in meaning-making (2020), which comprised activities 
such as discussions, note-taking, summarizing, comparing, hypothesizing and problem-solving. All 
these scaffolds were always used with oral and written instructions on a self-guiding document that 
would engage participants in the step-by-step process of the outcome sought in every lesson. For 
instance, if participants were to read study material, they were given a tailored scaffold to complete 
including questions and information required for the reading (see Figure 2). This approach ensured 



60                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

that all participants had equal opportunities in the reading process and subsequent discussion of the 
material.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Participants’ sample of scaffolds of the action plan 

 

Third, participants were encouraged to document all their work resulting from the provided 
scaffolds, notes and assessments in a folder. Fourth, the 4Cs would be appraised based on the 
conceptualization of the Pedagogical Standards for Teachers of English (Mineduc, 2021) as 
described below; it is worth noting that participants were also presented with this information when 
data was collected: 

-Communication: “The teacher of English communicates ideas accurately and effectively, 
mastering the fourth language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The teachers possess 
knowledge that allows her/him to present, explain and model abilities and linguistic components of 
the English language in various contexts” (personal translation based on Mineduc, 2021, p.79) 

-Critical thinking:  “which implies understanding and expressing the meaning or relevance of 
various experiences, situations, data, events, judgment     , agreements, beliefs, norms, procedures or 
criteria” (personal translation based on Mineduc, 2021, p.13) 

-Creative thinking: “understood as the one used in the creation or modification of something, 
introducing new elements to generate new ideas that have the potential to develop or modify 
something already existing” (personal translation based on Mineduc, 2021, p.13) 



ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               61 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

-Collaboration: “to solve shared problems or tasks through the development of abilities and 
attitudes that allow the mutual construction of knowledge in a trusting environment of joint 
collaboration” (personal translation based on Mineduc, 2021, p.13) 

Fifth, data collection would take place in three different moments: before, during and after the 
action plan using an open-ended questionnaire elaborated by the research team, and documenting 
relevant information in a research journal. Sixth, to ensure rigorous work and procedure, the action 
plan underwent discussion and refinement based on the feedback of two external academics.  

2.1 Data collection and analysis 

As previously mentioned, data collection occurred at three distinct points through an electronic 
questionnaire distributed to participants via their institutional email addresses. These questionnaires 
were completed during instructional hours to ensure uniform timing and conditions for all 
participants. The first questionnaire served as a threshold for the study since, up to that point, the 
research team had only collected informal data through conversations, which was not sufficient to 
establish a rigorous reference point. Therefore, the initial questionnaire consisted of 5 open-ended 
questions covering the two leading dimensions of this study: scaffolding and 4Cs. The second stage 
of data collection occurred after six weeks of implementation using scaffolding and was very similar 
to the initial questionnaire as the research team wanted to focus on the progress or possible changes 
from the perceptions of the participants. The third questionnaire was different as it sought to unpack 
the impact of scaffolding on 4Cs and participants’ future teaching practice specifically.  From these 
three questionnaires, the research team obtained a data corpus that underwent thematic analysis. The 
three questionnaires were initially managed separately; participants’ answers were organized on a 
spreadsheet and were coded using colors whenever themes emerged. This process was repeated in 
each questionnaire. Afterwards, codes and themes were arranged onto another spreadsheet that 
comprised the three moments of data collection. This process allowed the research team to identify 
the changes from the perception of the participants. The research team determined to present the 
results showing the contrast of participants’ perceptions per each skill of the 4Cs, using graphs and 
direct quotes from the participants as presented in the following section. 

3. Results 

The findings described in this study stem from data collected at three different moments of the 
action plan that involved two leading dimensions, namely, scaffolding the 4Cs. Therefore, prior to 
the implementation of the action plan, and by means of the initial questionnaire, it was of utmost 
importance to explore participants’ perceptions on each of the dimensions. In terms of scaffolding, 
it was possible to establish that all the participants either did not know or did not remember about 
scaffolding, even when including the concept in their first language.  

Regarding the 4Cs, it was possible to determine that participants, in general, showed confidence 
and preparation in their creative thinking and collaborative work. Nevertheless, in the areas of 
communication and critical thinking, participants’ responses revealed less preparation. These initial 
results match learners’ comments gathered in informal conversation and served to determine their 
progress during the action plan.  

The second stage of data collection indicates an increase in all the 4Cs, including the areas of 
concern. To illustrate this progress, each area is presented separately. 

 

3.1 Communication 

It is worth pointing out that during the implementation of the action plan, and with the various 
scaffolding activities participants’ disposition to learning changed favorably. As each assignment 
required the use of tailored scaffolds, participants seemed to enjoy engaging in the activities. 
Participants’ perceptions of their communication skills were coded using the labels: prepared, 
partially prepared, more or less prepared, and not prepared. As seen in Figure 3, participants’ 
evaluation of their communicative skills was lower compared to the perceptions they had during the 
implementation of scaffolded activities. Participants’ answers during the action plan resulted in three 



62                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

labels in which the majority of the participants stated to have developed their communication skills. 
Participants commented that the action plan helped them to express themselves effectively. For 
instance, in the participants’ words: 

“I think that they [scaffolds] have helped me in communicating effectively because of the 

emphasis placed on expositions, debates and communication instances” (Participant 1) 

“The round table discussions have been good to talk about different topics which have helped 

to an better communication” (Participant 2)  

“...these tools [scaffolds] have been of great help at the moment of sharing our answers with 

our classmates” (Participant 5)  

“I think that all the scaffolds have helped me to develop my communication because they are 

all very practical. In some of them I have to write my ideas, in others we have to write our 

points of view, improving my written communication. This has helped me in keeping my 

ideas organized” (Participant 10). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. Participants’ perceptions of communication skills before and during the action plan. 

 

3. 2 Critical thinking  

In addition to communication, critical thinking was another skill of concern for participants. The 
initial questionnaire yielded a lack of preparation as most of the participants claimed to be partially 
prepared in terms of critical thinking. Compared to the questionnaire administered during the action 
plan, it was possible to establish a significant change in participants' perceptions towards their critical 
thinking skills. Figure 4, displays this contrast, in which 91 % of the participants claimed to be 
prepared for this skill. In this sense, participants explained the following: 

 

“i’m sure that the scaffolds given in the exercises of case study and providing an 

opinion/critique helped me improve my critical thinking skills”  (Participant 6). 

“...I remember that in one activity we had to write questions for the author and to the teacher 

about a text we were reading, and that was new for me and it was an opportunity for 

questioning and making comments about it [the text]” (Participant 7) 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4. Participants’ critical thinking skills before and during the action plan 



ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               63 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

3. 3 Creative Thinking  

While creative thinking was not initially identified as a critical skill requiring attention, 
participants' initial assessments were categorized into three main groups:  prepared (66, 7%), 
partially prepared, (11, 1%) and not prepared (22,2%). As seen in Figure 5, during the action plan, 
participants' appreciation towards their creative thinking skills increased from 66,7 to 90,9% of 
preparedness. Some of the comments of the participants stated the following: 

 

“i believe that they [scaffolds] have provided a significant contribution because although they 

are guiding tools, at the same time they makes us think, and start elaborating new ideas in a 

creative way as it is needed” (Participant 1). 

“yeah, the participation in hypothetical situations has helped me to develop my creative 

thinking because I have to think in activities for these contexts” (Participant 2) 

“yes, this is the area in which I struggle the most, but these tools really challenged me to think 

‘out of the box’” (Participant 10).  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

Figure 5. Participants’ creative thinking skills before and during the action plan  

 

3. 4 Collaborative work  

Collaborative work was another aspect that did not appear to be a significant concern during 
informal conversations among the participants. However, in the initial stage of data collection, 
several participants expressed that they were not fully prepared in this regard (see Figure 6). Some 
participants provided explanations, stating: 

 

“in this aspect [collaborative work] i'm not really prepared because not many times i have 

had to work on something like this [constructing knowledge together]...”(Participant 8),  

“honestly, collaborative work is something hard for me because I am a little stubborn and it 

is also difficult to delegate work” (Participant 9).  

 

During the action plan, all the participants showed full preparedness in their collaborative skills.  

 

 

 

 

Figure 6. Participants’ perceptions of their collaborative skills before and during the action plan  

 

Prepared  



64                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

3.5 Scaffolding and the 4Cs 

Participants’ perceptions of scaffolding in the development of the 4Cs were favorable as all the 
participants showed satisfaction with the various scaffolding tools used throughout the action plan. 
As seen in Figure 7, most of the participants maintained that critical thinking, 31,6%, and creative 
thinking 26,3%, were the skills that they developed the most during the implementation of the action 
plan. In this respect, some comments are presented below: 

 

“critical thinking mainly because there were many instances for reflection and analysis where 

i used this skill to reflect about teaching” (Participant 1) 

“to develop my creative and critical thinking, scaffolding was what helped me the most…. 

the latest activity, assessment tools,  has helped me think ‘out of the box’ and judge what i 

should use and what not… these type of skills will be highly useful in teaching” (Participant 

3) 

“i think that communication and critical thinking were the abilities that i developed the most, 

and the scaffolding activities like group conversations and discussions helped to find other 

strategies for studying and in that way i felt more confident” (Participant 8) 

“I think that creative and critical thinking because I had that skill gap from the beginning. 

Every lesson, each scaffold helped me develop these skills…” (Participant 9)  

 

Figure 7. Scaffolding in the development of the 4Cs based on participants’ perceptions 

 

In terms of the procedural aspects that allowed the participants to develop their 4Cs, the research 
team identified three themes, being the most salient organization. The participants expressed that all 
the actions embedded in the action plan (e.g. classroom arrangement, activities, assignments, 
instructional material and teaching methods) required a systematic organization. Seemingly, 
participants also valued having scaffolded activities with written guidelines, steps and checklists. For 
instance, in the participants’ words: 

 

“it [the intervention] helped me out to organize my studies and also have an organization in 

my readings and documents because i keep them in my folder” (Participant 7) 

“it was new and surprising for me to see such detail instructions provided by Teacher J 

because at least i had never seen activities explained in that way…. this has had an impact on 

my mental organization, meaning that now I follow the instructions point by point which is 

something important to do well” (Participant 11) 

Another theme connected to the organization was autonomy. Participants’ answers reveal that 
during the action plan, they gained autonomy as many of the instructional activities were explained 
extensively, allowing them to make progress at their own pace. It also seems that the novel 



ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               65 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

component of the action plan and its methodological approach contributed to the positive 
appreciation of preservice teachers as they expressed that: 

 

“they [scaffolds] made a difference, since they promoted self-learning in a module, and this 

is also the first time that in one class 21st century skills are developed in such a short time 

and in such effective way…” (Participant 1) 

“...scaffolds have turned out to be very interesting, there are more instances to work step by 

step different contents. it is very meaningful and different from our normal classes… this 

class involved creativity, investigation and autonomy which are very important…” 

(Participant 6) 

A third theme that seems to have contributed to participants’ perceptions in their development of 
the 4Cs using scaffolding was feedback. Participants’ comments in this theme underscore: the 
moments their activities were corrected, the help the instructor provided, and the feedback provided 
prior and after the assessments.  

In terms of the difficulties that participants faced during the implementation of the action plan, all 
the participants stated that the scaffolds did not pose further challenges for them. Given the frequency 
and numerous tools that participants received, just 1 participant added that although the scaffold 
materials were not complex to tackle, some of them could turn ‘complex’ as they required more 
development and lots of thinking.  

 

3.6 Scaffolding in the classroom  

Although all participants' responses reveal benefits for using scaffolding in their EFL classes, they 
signaled different reasons. Some of these reasons were grouped under the same category as shown 
in Figure 8. The category that comprises most of the reasons was named Facilitate learning as the 
participants expressed that they would use scaffolding to leverage mixed-ability groups and to 
provide equal learning opportunities for all learners. Based on our participants' answers, it was 
possible to establish that they see scaffolding as a useful tool for making sustained progress in the 
classroom. The most frequent reason is portrayed as 4Cs/21st century skills since participants 
commented that they would use scaffolding to specifically focus on these skills that help learners in 
their studies and life. Organization and guided learning was the third most frequent reason, for 
participants believe that scaffolding can be key in providing organization and learning success.  

 

Figure 8. Participants’ reasons for using scaffolding in the EFL classroom 



66                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

4. Discussion  

This study has addressed an education issue that emerged from the concern of EFL preservice 
teachers. The findings of this study reveal that, from the perspective of a group of preservice teachers, 
they did not feel fully prepared in terms of their learning and innovative skills. After implementing 
an action plan based on a number of methodological procedures in which scaffolding was the main 
instructional approach, participants’ perceptions showed more satisfaction in the development of 
their 4Cs. In particular, participants expressed more consolidation in the areas of critical and creative 
thinking. This, to some extent, can be explained by the nature and quantity of scaffolds designed for 
developing these skills. Counting the number of scaffolds that would contribute to the development 
of each of the  4Cs was out of our scope. Therefore, future studies may consider this to minimize 
bias. Despite the marked development in critical and creative thinking, it has to be noted that 
participants’ perceptions increased in all the 4Cs as they declared to be more prepared after their 
scaffolded-based instruction. These results match the benefits of scaffolding addressed in the 
literature not only to promote learning and innovation skills (Griesemer & Shavit, 2023; Hsieh, 2017; 
Ivcevic, Hoffmann & McGarry 2022; Mohammed Qadir & Yousofi, 2021; Rasmussen, 2001) but 
also to provide student teachers experiential learning as addressed by Awadelkarim (2021)  
Participants' favorable views toward scaffolding align with their intentions to incorporate scaffolds 
into their future teaching practices 

A finding that turned out to be surprising was the fact that none of the participants declared to 
know what scaffolding is prior to the implementation of the action plan. Considering that scaffolding 
is a well-established teaching strategy, it raises concerns that future teacher generations are not 
familiar with this type of inherent processes in English language teaching. It also calls to our attention 
the fact that participants had appreciated and benefited from detailed oral and written instructions in 
their instructional material. This finding serves as a warning regarding methodological and didactic 
knowledge that instructors and teachers programs should heed. While student teachers are adults, 
they are still learners who require quality practices and models to take to their future classrooms.  

5. Conclusion 

This study has established that scaffolding used as a primary instructional strategy significantly 
enhanced the perception of EFL preservice teachers regarding their learning and innovative skills, 
particularly in critical and creative thinking. These student teachers hold highly positive views about 
the regular use of scaffolding, considering it a valuable tool they intend to incorporate into their 
teaching practice. Likewise, it is important to highlight that through research and action, the research 
team recognized the potential of methodological changes to empower teacher candidates, not only in 
the attainment of language skills but life skills acquisition.  

This study faced some limitations that future researchers and practitioners may consider. 
Designing instructional materials and documenting participants' information lesson by lesson was 
time-consuming and required a team of researchers. Additionally, handling a large data corpus was 
challenging; future research may explore alternative data collection techniques. 

Acknowledgment  

 The researchers express deep gratitude to all those who played a role in bringing this paper 
to completion, specifically the editorial support of ELTEJ. 

Declarations  

Author contribution           :  The first author was responsible for the design and implementation of 
the entire action research study. She also led the writing of the 
manuscript, data collection and analysis processes. The second, third 
and fourth author participated in the data collection and transcription as 
well as text revision. The completed manuscript was accepted by four 
authors. 

Funding statement             : : This study received no funding or specific grant. 



ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               67 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

Conflict of interest             : : The authors declare no conflict of interest. 

Ethics declaration              :   
 
 
 
 

 

 

 

Additional information    : 

: We as authors declare that this work has been written based on ethical 
research that conforms with the regulations of Universidad Adventista 
de Chile, and that we have obtained permission from the relevant 
institute when collecting data. We support English Language Teaching 
Educational Journal (ELTEJ) in maintaining high standards of personal 
conduct, practicing honesty in all our professional practices and 
endeavors. 

No additional information is available for this paper. 

   

References 

Armstrong, S., & Warlick, D. (2004). The new literacy. Technology and learning magazine. 

http://www. techlearning.com/curriculum/0035/the-new-literacy/42060  

Awadelkarim, A. A. (2021). An analysis and insight into the effectiveness of scaffolding: EFL 

instructors’/teachers’ perceptions and attitudes. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 

17(2), [828]-841. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.216267229830245 

Bruner, J. (1975). From communication to language. A psychological perspective. Cognition 3,255-

289.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(74)90012-2 

Brown, M., Worth, M., & Boylan, D. (2017). Improving critical thinking skills: Augmented feedback 

and post-exam debate. Business Education & Accreditation, 9(1), 55-63. 

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3025086  

Bunch, G. C., & Lang, N. W. (2023). Scaffolding “Scaffolding” in Pre-service Teacher Education. 

In Scaffolding for Multilingual Learners in Elementary and Secondary Schools(pp. 197-214). 

Routledge.  

Chen, C. H. (2020). AR videos as scaffolding to foster students’ learning achievements and 

motivation in EFL learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(3), 657-672. 

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12902 

Choi, I., Wolf, M. K., Pooler, E., Sova, L., & Faulkner-Bond, M. (2019). Investigating the benefits 

of scaffolding in assessments of young English learners: A case for scaffolded retell tasks. 

Language Assessment Quarterly, 16(2), 161-179. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2019.1619180      

Cresswell, J. (2015). Educational research. Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and 

qualitative research. Pearson      

Ertmer, P. A., & Glazewski, K. D. (2015). Essentials for PBL implementation: Fostering 

collaboration, transforming roles, and scaffolding learning. Essential readings in problem-

based learning, 58, 89-106.  

Eryansyah, E., Erlina, E., Fiftinova, F., & NURWENI, A. (2019). EFL Students' Needs of Digital 

Literacy to Meet the Demands of 21stCentury Skills. Indonesian Research Journal in 

Education| IRJE|, 442-460. https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v3i2.8297 

Griesemer, J., & Shavit, A. (2023). Scaffolding individuality: coordination, cooperation, 

collaboration and community. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 378(1872), 

20210398. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0398 

Hsieh, Y. C. (2017). A case study of the dynamics of scaffolding among ESL learners and online 

resources in collaborative learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(1-2), 115-132.  

https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2016.1273245 

http://www./
https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.216267229830245
https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(74)90012-2
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3025086
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12902
https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2019.1619180
https://doi.org/10.22437/irje.v3i2.8297
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0398
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2016.1273245


68                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

Ivcevic, Z., Hoffmann, J. D., & McGarry, J. A. (2022). Scaffolding positive creativity in secondary 

school students. Education Sciences, 12(4), 239. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12040239 

Johnson, E. (2023). Scaffolding in Action: How Exemplary Teachers Use Interactional Scaffolding 

to Generate and Sustain Emergent Bilinguals' Engagement with Challenging English Text. In 

Scaffolding for Multilingual Learners in Elementary and Secondary Schools (pp. 147-162). 

Routledge.  https://doi.org/10.6918/IJOSSER.202301_6(1).0035  

Liboiron, N., & Soto, G. (2006). Shared storybook reading with a student who uses alternative and 

augmentative communication: A description of scaffolding practices. Child Language 

Teaching and Therapy, 22(1), 69-95. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265659006ct298oa 

McTighe, J., & Silver, H. F. (2020). Teaching for deeper learning: tools to engage students in 

meaning making. Alexandria, VA, ASCD. 

Mineduc (2021). Estándares Pedagógicos y Disciplinarios para la Carrera de Pedagogía en Inglés. 

Recuperado de: https://estandaresdocentes.mineduc.cl/wp-

content/uploads/2021/08/ingles.pdf 

Mohammed Qadir, E., & Yousofi, N. (2021). Examining the effect of scaffolding instruction on 

critical thinking skills of Iranian EFL learners. Issues in Language Teaching, 10(2), 145-170. 

https://doi.org/10.22054/ilt.2022.60798.593 

Motallebzadeh, K., Ahmadi, F., & Hosseinnia, M. (2018). Relationship between 21st Century Skills, 

Speaking and Writing Skills: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach. International 

Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 265-276. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1183376.pdf 

Nasr, M., Bagheri, M. S., Sadighi, F., & Rassaei, E. (2018). Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions of 

assessment for learning regarding monitoring and scaffolding practices as a function of their 

demographics. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1558916. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1558916 

Nfor, S. (2020). Multimodal scaffolding teaching: Role-taking or role-creating in an English as a 

Foreign Language (EFL) oral communication class in Japan. Scenario: A Journal for 

Performative Teaching, Learning, Research, 14(1), 24-43. https://doi.org/ 

10.33178/scenario.14.1.3 

Partnership 21 (2015). P21 Partnership for 21st Century Learning. http://www.p21.org/ 

storage/documents/docs/P21_Framework_Definitions_New_ Logo_2015.pdf 

Rasmussen, J. (2001). The importance of communication in teaching: A systems-theory approach to 

the scaffolding metaphor. Journal of curriculum studies, 33(5), 569-582. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/00220270110034369 

Rojas-Drummond, S., & Mercer, N. (2003). Scaffolding the development of effective collaboration 

and learning. International journal of educational research, 39(1-2), 99-111. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(03)00075-2 

Şahin, H., & Han, T. (2020). EFL teachers’ attitude towards 21st century skills: A mixed-methods 

study. The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 20(2), 167-181. 

https://www.readingmatrix.com/files/23-3jspj75s.pdf 

Saleh, S. E. (2019). Critical thinking as a 21st century skill: conceptions, implementation and 

challenges in the EFL classroom. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. 

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2542838  

Sanders, E. B. N. (2006). Scaffolds for building everyday creativity. Design for effective 

communications: Creating Contexts for Clarity and Meaning, 65-77. https://bpb-us-

w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/1/8276/files/2015/02/ScaffoldsforBuildingEverydayCreativ

ity_Sanders_06-273u7ji.pdf  

https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12040239
https://doi.org/10.6918/IJOSSER.202301_6(1).0035
https://doi.org/10.6918/IJOSSER.202301_6(1).0035
https://doi.org/10.6918/IJOSSER.202301_6(1).0035
https://doi.org/10.1191/0265659006ct298oa
https://estandaresdocentes.mineduc.cl/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/ingles.pdf
https://estandaresdocentes.mineduc.cl/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/ingles.pdf
https://doi.org/10.22054/ilt.2022.60798.593
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1183376.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1558916
https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/
http://www.p21.org/
http://www.p21.org/
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220270110034369
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(03)00075-2
https://www.readingmatrix.com/files/23-3jspj75s.pdf
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2542838
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2542838
https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/1/8276/files/2015/02/ScaffoldsforBuildingEverydayCreativity_Sanders_06-273u7ji.pdf
https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/1/8276/files/2015/02/ScaffoldsforBuildingEverydayCreativity_Sanders_06-273u7ji.pdf
https://bpb-us-w2.wpmucdn.com/u.osu.edu/dist/1/8276/files/2015/02/ScaffoldsforBuildingEverydayCreativity_Sanders_06-273u7ji.pdf


ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               69 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

Saxena, S. (2015). How do you teach the 4Cs to students (Part-1): Creativity and innovation. Nioda 

Dehli NCR: Amity University.  

Schutz, K. M., Danielson, K. A., & Cohen, J. (2019). Approximations in English language arts: 

Scaffolding a shared teaching practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 81, 100-111. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.01.004 

Sharma, P., Hannafin, M. Learner perceptions of scaffolding in supporting critical thinking. J. 

Comput. High. Educ. 17, 17–42 (2005). 

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02960225 

Sleeter, C., Torres, M. N., & Laughlin, P. (2004). Scaffolding conscientization through inquiry in 

teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 31(1), 81-96. 

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ795236.pdf  

Tang, H., Mao, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, H. (2022). A validation study for a short-version scale to 

assess 21st century skills in flipped EFL classrooms. Oxford Review of Education, 48(2), 148-

165.  https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2021.1935226 

Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. San Francisco, 

CA: John Wiley & Sons.  

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child 

Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-

7610.1976.tb00381.x 

Xu, Q., Sun, D., & Zhan, Y. (2023). Embedding teacher scaffolding in a mobile technology supported 

collaborative learning environment in English reading class: students' learning outcomes, 

engagement, and attitudes. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 17(1-

2), 280-302. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMLO.2023.128340  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.01.004
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02960225
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02960225
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ795236.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2021.1935226
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMLO.2023.128340
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMLO.2023.128340


70                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

Appendix 

Participants’ sample completion of scaffolds  

 

 

 

 

 

 



ISSN 2621-6485 English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                               71 
Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega-Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



72                                            English Language Teaching Educational Journal                                 ISSN 2621-6485 

                                                       Vol. 6, No. 1, April 2023, pp. 57-72  

 Vega -Abarzúa, J., et.al (Scaffolding in the development of learning and innovative skills (4Cs):…..) 

 

 

 


