THE ARABIC ORIGINS OF ENGLISH AND INDO-EUROPEAN "URBAN TERMS": A RADICAL LINGUISTIC THEORY APPROACH ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE THEARABICORIGINSOFENGLISHAND INDO-EUROPEAN"URBANTERMS":ARADICAL LINGUISTICTHEORYAPPROACH ZaidanAli Jassem Department of English Language and Translation, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia E-mail: zajassems@gmail.com APA Citation: Jassem, Z. A. (2015). The arabic origins of English and Indo-European urban terms": A radical linguistic theory approach. English Review: Journal of English Education, 3(2), 145-165 Received: 10-04-2015 Accepted: 25-04-2015 Published: 01-06-2015 Abstract: This paper traces the Arabic origins of English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit "urban terms" from a radical linguistic (or lexical root) theory perspective. The data comprises 130 such terms like abide, building, city, construction, courtyard, hotel, house, live, mansion, mason, palace, metropolis, residence, road, rural, sedentary, sojourn, stay, structure, tent, town, urban, villa, village, zoo, and so on. The results clearly show that all such words have true Arabic cognates with the same or similar forms and meanings, whose differences are due to natural and plausible causes and different routes of linguistic change. Moreover, the results support the adequacy of the radical linguistic theory according to which, unlike the Comparative Method and/or Family Tree Model, Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit are dialects of the same language or family, renamed Eurabian or Urban family, with Arabic being their origin all for sharing the whole cognates with them and for its huge phonetic, morphological, grammatical, and lexical variety and wealth. Also, they indicate that there is a radical language from which all human languages stemmed and which has been preserved almost intact in Arabic as the most conservative and productive language, without which it is impossible to interpret its linguistic richness and versatility on all levels. Keywords: urban terms, Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, historical linguistics, radical linguistic (lexical root) theory, language relationships INTRODUCTION Jassem (2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, 2015a-g) has shown in forty one studies so far that Arabic, English, German, French, and the so-called Indo-European languages in general are genetically related very closely phonetically, morphologically, grammatically, and semantically or lexically to such an extent that they can all be regarded as dialects of the same language. More precisely, the Arabic origins or cognates of their words were successfully traced in twenty six lexical studies in key semantic fields like numerals, religious, love, democratic, military, and legal terms (Jassem 2012a-d, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, 2015a-f); in three morphological studies on inflectional and derivational markers (Jassem 2012f, 2013a-b); in nine grammatical papers like pronouns, verb 'to be', wh-questions, and case (Jassem 2012c-e, 2013l, 2014c, 2015d); and in one phonetic study about the English, German, French, Latin, and Greek cognates of Arabic back consonants (Jassem 2013c). Furthermore, ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach the theory was extended to the examination of the Arabic origins of pronouns in Chinese (Jassem 2014h) and Basque and Finnish (Jassem 2014i) as well as demonstratives in eleven major (and minor) language families, making up 95% of the total world population (Jassem 2015h). Finally, two papers applied the approach to translation studies (Jassem 2014e, 2015b). The above studies have been initially based on the lexical root theory (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-g, 2015a-g) and subsequently on its slightly revised and extended version, called radical linguistic theory (Jassem 2014 h-k, 2015a-g), both deriving their name originally from the use of lexical (consonantal) roots or radicals in retracing genetic relationships between words in world languages. The theory first arose as a rejection of the Family Tree Model or Comparative Method in historical linguistics for classifying Arabic as a member of a different language family than English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and the so-called Indo-European languages (Bergs and Brinton 2012; Algeo 2010; Crystal 2010: 302; Yule 2014; Campbell 2004: 190-191; Crowley 1997: 22-25, 110-111; Pyles and Algeo 1993: 61-94). In all the above forty one studies, the tightly-knit genetic relationship between Arabic and such languages was, on the contrary, categorically established phonetically, morphologically, grammatically, and semantically or lexically so much so that they can be really considered dialects of the same language, where Arabic was found to be their source or parent language for several reasons (Jassem (2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, 2015a-g). In other words, Arabic, English, German, and French words of all types and sorts, for example, were shown to be true cognates with similar or identical forms and meanings, whose apparent differences are due to natural and plausible causes and diverse routes of linguistic change. This entails that all such languages developed, in fact must have developed, from an earlier single, perfect, suddenly-emerged Radical Language from which all human languages emanated in the first place, and which could never have died out but rather has fully, though variably, survived into today's languages, to which they can all be traced, with Arabic in particular being the closest or most conservative and productive descendant. To aptly capture the close genetic linkage between European and Arabian languages in general, a new larger language family grouping has been proposed, called Eurabian or Urban (Jassem 2015c: 41; 2015d). This paper examines the Arabic origins and/or source cognates of urban terms in English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and the so-called Indo-European languages. The remainder of the paper includes four sections: (ii) research methods, (iii) results, (iv) discussion, and (v) conclusion. METHOD The Data The data consists of 130 urban terms like abide, building, city, construction, courtyard, hotel, house, live, mansion, mason, palace, metropolis, residence, road, rural, sedentary, sojourn, stay, structure, tent, town, urban, villa, village, and so on in English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and Indo-European languages as well as Arabic, now all generally called Eurabian. Their selection has been based on the author's knowledge of their frequency and use in today's fully ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE natural English, German, and French conversations and/or texts as well as English dictionaries and thesauri. For ease of reference, the data will be arranged alphabetically together with brief linguistic comments in the next Results section. As for etymological data, all references to English and Indo-European languages are for Harper (2015). However, this etymology is not, like all other similar dictionaries, without its severe drawbacks owing to the many unknowns, uncertainties, and the seemingly illogical derivations or meanings of many words such as alley, castle, county, dwell, farm, head, house, mansion, office, pen, road, dining room, street, track, etc. which make more sense if derived straight from Arabic as shall be seen in section (3) below. Therefore, it has to be used with care and discretion. Concerning Arabic data, the meanings are for Ibn Manzoor (2013) in the main, Ibn Seedah (1996: 13/79-120), Altha3alibi (2011), Albabidi (2011), e-dictionaries like mu3jamalama3ani (2015), and the author's knowledge and use of Shami (Syrian) Arabic as a native speaker. All the genetic linkages between Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit and so on are exclusively mine, unless otherwise stated. In transcribing the data, normal Romanized spelling is used for all languages for practical purposes. Nonetheless, certain symbols were used for unique Arabic sounds: namely, /2 & 3/ for the voiceless and voiced pharyngeal fricatives respectively, /kh & gh/ for the voiceless and voiced velar fricatives each, /q/ for the voiceless uvular stop, capital letters for the emphatic counterparts of plain consonants /T (t), D (d), Dh (dh), & S (s)/, and /'/ for the glottal stop (Jassem 2013c). Long vowels in Arabic are usually doubled- i.e., /aa, ee, & oo/. Data Analysis Theoretical Framework: Radical Linguistic Theory Data analysis utilizes the Radical Linguistic Theory (Jassem 2014h-l, 2015a-g), a slightly revised and more generalized version of the original Lexical Root Theory (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-g). For the sake of economy and brevity, the inquisitive reader is referred to any earlier work for a fuller account (e.g., Jassem 2015a-c, 2014a, 2013a, 2012a-b). In short, the most appropriate procedure for genetically relating English and Arabic words to each other can be summed up as follows: (i) select a word (in any given semantic field), e.g., abide, dwell, live, (ii) identify the source, daughter, or sister language meaning (e.g., English or Latin) on the basis of especially word history or etymology. It is essential to start with meanings, not sounds or sound laws as the former are more stable and change less than the latter which do so extensively; for example, all the sounds of a given word might change beyond recognition while meanings very much less so and in a rather limited way; so the meaning will lead you to the cognate naturally whereas the sounds will get you lost definitely, (iii) search for the equivalent meaning and form in the target, parent, or reference language (e.g., Arabic), looking for cognates: i.e., sister words with the same or similar forms and meanings, and ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach (iv) finally explain the differences in form and meaning between the cognates lexicologically, phonetically, morphologically, and semantically as indicated. As a matter of fact, finding the right cognate on the basis of its meaning first often leads you to the resultant changes automatically. That is the whole story simply and truly. No fuss, no mess. For example, consider abide, live, dwell below. Statistical analysis The percentage formula will be used for calculating the ratio of cognate words or shared vocabulary (Cowley 1997: 173, 182), which has been fully described in earlier papers (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k). RESULTS&DISCUSSION The results will mainly focus on the Arabic lexical (consonantal) radicals or roots of English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit urban words and the changes that involved them. The exact quality of the vowel is, therefore, of generally secondary importance for having little or no semantic impact whatsoever on the final output (Jassem 2012-2015). Abide (abidance, abode) via Old English abidan, gebidan 'remain, wait, dwell', from Arabic 'abada 'dwell, stay', 'aabad 'place'; or baata 'remain, dwell', bait (n) 'house' where /t/ became /d/ (Jassem 2015g). Accommodation (accommodate) via French, from Latin accommodatio(nem) 'lodging', from accommodare 'make fit, adapt', from (i) ad- 'to', from Arabic ta- 'derivational affix' via reversal and turning /t/ into /d/ and (ii) commodore 'make fit', from commodus 'fit', from (a) com- 'intensive prefix; together; like', from Arabic kama 'as, like' and (b) modus 'measure, manner', from Arabic madd(at) 'extension; lying' via lexical shift; or, as a whole, from Arabic jathama 'to stay' or makatha 'to stay' via reordering and turning /j & th/ into /k & d/. Agrarian (agriculture, grow) via Old English æcer 'a field', from Latin agrarius 'of the land', from ager 'a field', from Greek agros ' a field', from Arabic 3aqaar 'a field, earth' or 2aql 'a field' via /3 (2)/-loss and passing /q & l/ into /g & r/; or qira2 'farm; unbuilt and unplanted area', qira2i (adj.) 'city dweller' via /2/-loss and passing /q/ into /g/. See cultivate. Alley (alleyway) via Old French alee (Modern allée) 'a path, passage; a going', from aler 'to go', possibly short for Latin ambulare 'to walk', or from Gallo-Roman allare, from allatus 'having been brought to', direct from Arabic 'alla 'go, speed up', 'aala return', or lai(at) 'a bending; a bent (road)'. See way. Apartment (apart, part, depart, partition) via French, from Latin partem (nom., pars) 'part, division', related to portio 'a share, portion', from Arabic batr, 'abtar (adj.) 'cutting' via reordering and lexical shift (Jassem 2013m-n). Architecture (architect) via Middle French, from Latin architectura, from architectus, from Greek architekton 'master builder, director of works', from (i) arkhi- 'chief', from Arabic ra'ees 'head' where /s/ became /kh (k)/ (Jassem 2015e) and (ii) tekton 'builder, carpenter', from Arabic Taqqa(t) 'beat, knock, break', daqqa(t)/dakka(t) 'beat, dig, knock, hammer', or Takhkh(at) 'build, knock, dig', turning /T (d) & q (kh) / into /t & k/. Area via Latin area 'level ground, open space', direct from Arabic 3araa' 'open space' via /3/-loss. Attic 'top story under the roof of a house' via Latin Atticus, from Greek Attikos 'Athenian, of Attica', direct from Arabic Taaqa(t) 'a small, narrow window; a ventilation wall opening' via lexical shift and turning /T & q/ into /t & k/. Avenue (venue) via Old and Middle French avenue 'way of access, arrival', from Latin advenire 'to come to', from (i) ad- 'to', from Arabic ta- 'derivational affix' via reversal ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE and turning /t/ into /d/ or al- 'definite article' via /l/-merger into /v/ (Jassem 2013a, 2015d) and (ii) venire 'to come', from Arabic faana 'to go' or fanna 'drive away (camels)' via lexical shift; or direct from Arabic fann, afnan (pl.) 'straight tree branches' or fanaa' 'courtyard' via lexical shift. Bathroom (bathe) via Old English bæth 'immersion in water, mud; bathing water', German Bad, from Arabic saba2, sibaa2a(t) (n) 'bathe, swim' via reversal and turning /s & 2/ into /th & Ø/; or batha 'to sweat' or baththa 'to mix (food) with water' via lexical shift. See room. Bedroom (bed, bedding, embed) via Old English bedd 'bed, couch, garden plot', German Bett, from Arabic bait 'house; plot' via lexical shift and turning /t/ into /d/; biTaa2/baT2(at) 'flat, low land', baTa2 (v) 'lie/lay down', turning /T & 2/ into /d & Ø/; or, more properly, from Arabic mahd 'bed', merging /m & h/ into /b/. See room. Booth via Old Danish both 'temporary dwelling', from bold (Old Saxon bodl) 'house', German Bude 'booth, stall', from Arabic bait, al-bait 'house, the-house' via lexical shift and turning /t/ into /th/. Bridge (-burgh; burg, borough, Cambridge, Hamburg, Edinburgh, Loughborough) via Old English brycge 'causeway over a river' and German Brücke, from Arabic burj 'tower; a high structure'; /j/ became /g (Ø)/. See Burg. Build (building) via Old English byldan 'construct a house', from bold (Old Saxon bodl) 'house', direct from Arabic ballaTa 'build with stones', balaaT (n) 'rock; roof' via lexical shift and passing /T/ into /d/; or balad 'village; earth; stay' via lexical shift. See booth. Burg (-burgh; borough,Hamburg,Edinburgh, Loughborough, berg, iceberg) via Old English burg, burh 'a dwelling with a fortified enclosure' and German Burg 'castle', from Arabic burj 'tower; a high structure'; /j/ evolved into /g (Ø)/. See Bridge. Bury (Canterbury) via Old English byrgan 'bury, raise a mound' from Arabic qabara 'to bury' via reordering and /q & r/-merger or burj 'tower; a high structure' via lexical shift and turning /j/ into /g (y)/ (Jassem 2013c, 2015a). See burg. Capital (capitalization, capital city, money) via Old French, from Latin capitalis 'of the head', caput 'head', from Arabic jabhat 'forehead' via lexical shift and passing /j & h/ into /k & Ø/; qubbat 'top, dome', turning /q/ into /k/; or qabaD 'hold, catch, capture' in which /q & D/ passed into /k & t/. See city. Castle via Old English castel 'village; stronghold', from French and Latin castellum 'castle, fort, fortified village', diminutive of castrum 'fort', perhaps related to castrare 'cut off', direct from Arabic qaSr, qaSar (v) 'palace; shortening, cutting'; /q & r/ evolved into /k & l/ while /S/ split into /st/. Ceiling via Middle English ceil 'put a cover or ceiling over; cover wall with panels', probably from Middle French celer 'to conceal, cover with paneling', from Latin celare 'conceal', straight from Arabic kallal/jallal 'to put a top over, to cover', turning /k (j)/ into /s/. Citadel (city) via Middle French citadelle, from Italian cittadella, diminutive of cittade 'city', from Latin civitatem (nom. civitas) 'city', straight from Arabic as for city. City (citizen; civic, civil, civilization, civility) via Old French cite, citet (Modern cite) 'town, city', Spanish ciudad, German Stadt, from Latin civitatem, citatem (nom., civitas) 'originally citizenship, rights of a citizen; community, state', from civis 'townsman', direct from Arabic jidda(t) (judd, jaddat, juddat) 'river side; a place; city; a KSA sea port and city' or related jaadda(t) 'road' via lexical shift and turning /j & d/ into /s & t/ (cf. civic and Arabic jifs/jafees/jibs 'weak, coward, vicious; lowly person, bastard'; civil from Arabic fisl/fishl 'coward, rascal, lowly' via reordering and lexical shift (Jassem 2015e)). Close (closure, enclosure) via Old French, from Latin clausus, claudere (v) 'to shut, close, confine, put an end to', direct from Arabic qalaS 'close, shut' or khalaS 'finish, end'; /q (kh) & S/ became /k & s/. ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach Condominium (condom, dominate, domain) via Latin condominium 'joint sovereignty', from (i) com- 'together', from Arabic jamee3 'all, together' via /3/-loss and turning /j/ into /k/, kama 'like' via lexical shift or ma3a 'with' via reversal and turning /3/ into /k/ (Jassem 2013a, 2014c) and (ii) dominium 'right of ownership', dominari (v) 'dominate' from Arabic deen(un) 'control, domination', turning /n/ into /m/ (Jassem 2014e, 2015e-f). Corridor (current, concur, occur, recur) via French 'long hallway', from Italian corridore 'a gallery; lit., a runner', from correre 'to run', from Latin currere 'to run, move quickly', from Arabic karra 'to roll, run'; or jara 'to run', jaria(t) (n) 'stream', turning /j & t/ into /d/. Cottage (cot) via Old English and French cote, cote 'hut, cottage', from Arabic koot/kuwat (Kuwait) 'an opening in a house/wall' via lexical shift; kookh 'a shed' where /kh/ became /t/; 2aTTa(t) 'a hut', turning /2 & T/ into /k & t/; or khushsha(t) 'a petty house' via reordering and turning /kh & sh/ into /k & j/. County (count, countess, viscount; account, recount, discount) via Anglo-French, from Latin comitatus 'jurisdiction of a count', from Latin comitem (nominative comes) 'companion, attendant', from (i) com- 'with' above and (ii) ire 'to go', from Arabic raa2 'go' via /2/-loss; however, it comes, as a whole, from Arabic naaqiT (naqeeT) (n) 'a slave's master; slave; count/countess' or niTaaq 'scope, area, belt' via reordering, lexical shift, and turning /T & q/ into /t & k/ (Jassem 2014g, 2015e). Country (countryman, contra, contrary) via Old French, from Latin terra contrata 'land lying opposite or spread before one', from contra 'opposite', straight from Arabic quTr 'country; side' via lexical shift, turning /q & T/ into /k & t/, and inserting /n/. As to terra, it comes from Arabic thara 'earth', passing /th/ into /t/ (Jassem 2013f). Countryside (countrysider) See side. Court (courtship, courtyard, Royal Court) via Old French cort (Modern cour) 'king's court or residence', from Latin cortem, accusative of cors (earlier cohors) 'enclosed yard', from Arabic qaSr 'palace; lit., shortening, enclosure' via reordering and turning /q & S/ into /k & s/. Therefore, it may be incorrect to derive it from (i) com- 'together' above and (ii) hort, hortus 'garden', from Arabic 2arth 'farming; garden' where /2 & th/ became /h (k) & t/; Arabic works both ways, though (Jassem 2013q, 2015e). See yard. Cultivate (cultivation, agriculture) via Latin cultivatus, cultivus 'tilled', from cultivare (v) 'till, cultivate', from cultus 'lit., cultivated, tended; care, labour, cultivation, culture, worship, reverence', from colere (v) 'to till', from Arabic qal3 'uprooting, removing plants', qulla3 'a good plant; dry mud' via /3/-loss and changing /q/ into /k/; 2arth, 2iratha(t) 'cultivation', turning /2, r, & th/ into /k, l, & t/; 2aql(at) 'growth, plantation; farm' via /2 & q/-merger into /k/; kala' 'herbs, grass; pasture' via lexical shift; ka2l 'grass turning into green' via /2/-loss and lexical shift. See agrarian. Design,Urban (signal, insignia; signature; design; designate, designation; consign; resign) via Latin designare 'mark out, devise, choose, appoint', from (i) de- 'out', from Arabic ta- 'derivational affix' where /t/ became /d/ and (ii) signum 'signal, mark, token, symbol', signare (v) 'mark out, mark with a stamp, adorn', from Arabic naqsh 'sign, decoration', tanqeesh (n) to which reversal and turning /t, q, & sh/ into /d, g, & s/ applied; or Sana3, taSnee3 (n) 'make' via reordering and turning /t, S, & 3/ into /d, s, & g/ (Jassem 2013c, 2014g). See urban. Digital (digital camera (chamber), digit, digitalization, index, indexical, ten, decimeter, decameter) via Latin digitus 'finger', from Greek deka 'hand, finger, ten', from Arabic dija(t) '(food-filled) fingers, hand' (Jassem 2012a, 2014g). As to –al, it derives from Arabic al- 'the' via morphological shift (Jassem 2013a, 2015f-g). Dining room (dinner, dine) via Old English disner (Mosern diner) 'to eat, dine', direct from Arabic 'idam 'food', passing /m/ into /n/; or Ta3am 'food', turning /T, 3, & m/ into /d, Ø, & n/ (Jassem 2014a). See room. ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE Direction (direct) via Latin directio(nem), from dirigere 'set straight', from (i) dis- 'apart', from Arabic Taash 'apart, afloat, spread out' or shatta 'diverse, apart' via reversal and turning /T (t) & sh/ into /d & s/ and (ii) regere 'to guide', from Arabic raqa 'to ascend, straighten', changing /q/ into /g/; or direct from Arabic Tareeqat(un) 'a way', Tarq (adj.) 'straight', passing /T & q/ into /d & k/. District (restrict, string) via Old French, from Latin districtus 'restraining of offenders; jurisdiction', from distringere 'hinder, detain', from (i) dis- 'apart' above and (ii) stringere 'draw tight, press together', from Arabic Tareeq(at) 'road, way', Taraq, inTarq (v) 'knock, hit', via lexical shift and turning /T & q/ into /st & k/; or zarnaq 'a wall' via lexical shift and splitting /z/ into /st/. Door (doorway) via Old English dor/duru 'large door, gate', German Tür (Old High German turi), from Arabic daar 'house', dawwaar 'lit., turning; door' via lexical shift; or radda(t) 'a shutter; a door's half; door' via reversal and lexical shift. See way. Dwell (dwelling, dweller) via Old English dwellan 'mislead, deceive; originally lead astray', dwale 'nightshade', Old High German twellen 'to hinder, delay', from Arabic Dalla 'to mislead, deceive', Dhalla 'stay, remain', and/or Dhill 'shade, shadow'; /D(h)/ became /d/. Thus, the different senses come from formally similar but semantically different Arabic words, merged into one. Electronic (electricity, light, leuk-) via Latin electrum, from Greek electron 'amber', direct from Arabic 'alaq(atun) 'brightening, shining' via lexical shift, turning /q/ into /k/, and /r/-insertion. Embankment (bank, Riverbank) via Old English 'slope, edge of a river', from Old Norse banki, Danish banke 'sandbank', from Arabic banak 'stay', nabk 'high land' via reordering and lexical shift; or janib 'side' via reversal and changing /j/ into /k/. Estate (station, stand, estate realty) via Old French estat, from Latin status 'state, condition, place, position', from stare (v) 'to stand', from Arabic saT2(at) 'place, flat surface', saTa2 (v) via /2/-loss and turning /T/ into /t/. See realty. Farm (farming, farmer) via Old French ferme 'a rent, lease', from Latin firma 'fixed payment', firmare (v) 'to fix, strengthen', from firmus 'firm', direct from Arabic thamar 'fruit; farming; orchard', thaamir 'farmer' via reordering and changing /th/ into /f/. Feudal (feud, feudalism, feudalist) via Latin feudalis, feudum 'feudal estate, land granted to be held as a benefice', from Gothic faihu 'property', Old High German fihu 'cattle', Middle English feodary 'land renter', from Arabic faddad 'rich landlord' or related faddan 'cultivated land; farming cows' and fadad 'loud or low voice'. Flat via Old English flett 'a dwelling; floor, ground; level, smooth', Old High German flaz/flezzi 'flat, level; floor', from Arabic falTa2 'sloping (land); flat (foot)' via /2/-loss and turning /T/ into /t/; falaat '(grazing) ground' or balad 'village, country; earth; dwelling' via /b & d/-mutation into /f & t/. Gang (gangway, go, ago) via Old English gang 'a going, journey, way', German gang, Gothic gagg, German gehen 'go', from Arabic jaa'a 'come', majee' (n) via lexical shift (divergence) and turning /j/ into /g/; or hajja 'escape', merging /h & j/ into /g/. Garden (yard) via Old French gardin/jardin 'garden, palace grounds', from Latin hortus gardinus 'enclosed garden', from Old High German garto (German Garten) 'garden', Old English geard 'fenced enclosure, garden, court; house', Gothic gards 'enclosure; house', direct from Arabic jidar, judran (pl.) 'wall; garden' via reordering and passing /j/ into /g/ or jannat 'garden' via reordering, turning /j & t/ into /g & d/, and /r/-insertion. See zoological. -Gart (Stuttgart; -grad, Leningrad) from Arabic qariat 'village, town'; /q & t/ developed into /g & d/. See -grad. Gate via Old English geat 'gate, door, opening, hinged framework barrier', Old Saxon gat 'eye of a needle, hole', Old ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach Norse gat 'opening, passage', German Gasse 'street', from Arabic qaaTi3 'a barrier, crossing' via lexical shift and turning /q, T, & 3/ into /g, t, & Ø/; or waSeed/sad 'gate; shutting' via reordering and turning /S (s) & d/ into /g & t/. -Grad (Leningrad, -gart, Stuttgart) from Arabic qariat 'village, town'; /q & t/ developed into /g & d/. See -gart. Habitat (habitation, inhabit, inhabitant) via Latin habitat 'flora and fauna; lit; it inhabits', from habitare 'to live, dwell', frequentative of habere 'to have, posses', direct from Arabic bait, 'abiat (pl.) 'home, house', bee'at 'environment' where /'/ became /h/; or habaT 'to live, sit; lit., descend, go down', habeeT(at) (n) 'low-lying place', turning /T/ into /t/. Hall via Old English heall 'spacious roofed residence, house; temple; law-court', hell 'hell', German Halle 'hall', direct from Arabic 2all, ma2all 'home, house; living' or 3illia(t) 'lofty house'; /2 (3)/ became /h/. Headquarters (headship, heading, behead) via Old English heafod 'top of the body or slope; chief person, ruler', German Haupt, Latin caput 'head', from Arabic jabha(t) 'forehead' via lexical shift, turning /j/ into /h (k)/, merging /b & h/ into /Ø (p)/, and turning /t/ into /d/; qubbat 'top, dome', turning /q, b, & t/ into /h, f (= h), & d/; otherwise, straight from Arabic haadi 'head, chief, guide'. See capital & quarter. Highway (height) via Old English heh/heah 'lofty, tall, exalted', Old High German hoh (German hoch), from Arabic shahiq 'high', merging /sh & h/ and turning /q/ into /g (Ø)/; or hiah (haih, haihat, 'aiha) 'far, away' via lexical shift and turning /h/ into /gh (Ø)/. See way. Home (homing, Hamburg, Birmingham) via Old English ham 'dwelling, house, estate, village', German Heim, Greek kome, from Arabic 'umm 'home, residence; country; road; origin; mother', passing /'/ into /h/; 2ima 'protected (land); property' (cf. 2awm 'flying around') or khum 'petty house', turning /2 (kh)/ into /h (k)/. Hostel (hospital, host) via Old French hostel 'inn, lodgings', from Latin hospitale 'inn, large house', from hospes (genitive hospitis) 'guest, host; lit., lord of strangers', direct from Arabic 3azzab, 3izba(t) 'offering food to guests; such a place'; /3 & z/ became /h & s/ while /b/ was lost. Otherwise, straight from Arabic haDhal 'stay', splitting /Dh/ into /st/. Hotel (hostel, hospital, host) via Old French hostel (Modern hôtel) 'inn, lodgings', from Latin hospitale 'inn, large house', direct from Arabic as in hostel. House via Old English hus 'shelter, house', German Haus, perhaps connected to the root of hide (v), from Arabic 2awsh 'house; courtyard; den' or 2awza(t) 'property, possession, enclosure' via lexical shift and turning /2 & sh (z)/ into /h & s/. Hut via Old French hotte 'cottage', from Middle High German hutte 'hut, cottage', perhaps related to Old English hydan 'to hide', direct from Arabic 2aTTa(t) 'a shelter; a temporary station' and/or related 2ooTa(t) 'enclosure', 2aTTa (v) 'to live in; stay', or 2a'iT 'wall' via lexical shift and passing /2 & T/ into /h & t/. Impasse (pass, passage, pace) via French, from Latin (i) in 'not', from Arabic in 'not', and (ii) passare 'pass, walk', from Arabic as in pass. Industry (industrialist, structure) via Old English, from Latin industria 'activity, zeal, diligence', from (i) indu 'in, within', from Arabic 3inda 'in, at' via /3/-loss or hinat 'here' via /h/-loss, turning /t/ into /d/, and lexical shift, and (ii) struere 'build' as in structure. Infrastructure via Latin (i) infra 'below, later, than, smaller than', English under, German unter, and Sanskrit adnah, from Arabic adna 'lower' via reordering and /d & n/-mutation into /f & r/; or naafir 'going up, bulging' via lexical shift or divergence; and (ii) structure below. Inn (in) via Old English inn 'lodging, dwelling, house', probably from inne (adv.) 'inside, within', direct from Arabic 2aana(t) 'a bar' via lexical shift and /2/-loss; or 3an 'in, on, about' via lexical shift and /3/-loss (Jassem 2014c). Kitchen via Old English cycene, from Germanic kokina, Old High German ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE chuhhina, German Küche, from Latin cocina/coquina 'kitchen', from coquinas 'of cooks', from coquus 'cook', coquere (v) 'cook, ripen, digest', from Arabic sawa, istawa 'to cook, ripen', sawi (n) or shawa, shawi (n) 'to roast, grill, barbecue'; /s (sh)/ split into /k & tch/ besides lexical shift (Jassem 2014a). Live (life, alive, living room) via Old English lifian/libban 'to live, have life, to be, experience', German leben, Old Norse lifa 'to remain, to live, to continue', Greek liparein 'to persist, persevere', from Arabic 'alabba, labba 'to stay, live; love; escape' via reordering, turning /b/ into /f/, (and /r/-insertion in Greek); 'alfa (alfa'a, lafi'a) 'stay alive'; lafa 'come, stay' (cf. love & elope from the same Arabic root as well; also leave via Old English laefan 'to remain; have left, bequeath' from the same root or Arabic falla 'leave' via reversal (Jassem 2013n); leaf from Arabic riff 'tree leaves' where /r/ became /l/; peel from Arabic lafa'a 'peel' via reversal and turning /f/ into /p/ (Jassem 2013m, 2015a). Lodge (lodging, lodger) via Old English loge 'arbor, covered walk; hut, cabin', (German Laube 'bower, arbour; shelter of foliage'), from Arabic walaj (v) 'to enter home' and its derivatives wilaj 'door, vague land', walja(t) 'a passerby's shelter from rain or cave', wulj 'area, narrow or sandy roads', and dawlaj 'a small house inside a larger one; inner room' via reordering. Mansion (manse) via Old French, from Latin mansio(nem) 'a staying; night quarters; station', manere (v) 'to stay', Greek menein 'to remain', direct from Arabic manzil 'mansion, house', turning /z & l/ into /s & n/. Mason (masonry) via Old French masson, probably from Old High German steinmezzo (Modern Steinmetz) 'stone mason' or Latin machio, matio, machina 'machine; device', straight from Arabic muSawin 'mason; builder', Sawan/Saan (v), turning /S/ into /s/. Metropolis (mother, maternal; police, politics, political, politicking, polity, polis, metropolis, metropolitan, cosmopolitan, Tripoli) via Latin metropolis, from Greek metropolis 'mother city, capital city', from meter 'mother', from Arabic 'umm(at) 'mother' or 'ama(t) 'maid' via /r/-insertion and (ii) polis 'city' below. Modern (modernity, modernism, modernize) via Middle French moderne, from Latin modernus 'modern', from modo 'just now, in a certain manner', from modo 'to the measure', from modus 'measure, manner', from Arabic madd(un/at) 'extension' and related mudda(t) 'time' via lexical shift; or, as a whole, from Arabic madeena(t), mudun (pl.) 'city, town', madani (adj.) 'urban' via lexical shift and /r/-insertion. Moor (mooring, morass) via Old English mor 'swamp', Old High German muor (Modern Moor) 'swamp, sea; moorland', direct from Arabic marr 'water, rain, sea', maraa2 'water area; den' via lexical shift and /2/-loss; or direct from Arabic mar3a, maraa3 (pl.) 'grazing land' via /3/-los or boor 'disused land' by passing /b/ into /n/ (Jassem 2013n). Motorway (move, movement, motion) from Latin motor 'lit., mover', from movere (motare) 'move, set in motion, remove, disturb', from Arabic as in move. Mount (mountain, surmount) via Old French and English munt 'mountain', from Latin mons (genitive montis) 'mountain', direct from Arabic amt 'height' or matn, mutoon (pl.) 'mount' via reordering or maTiat(un) 'a mounting animal', imtaTa (v) 'ride' via reordering and passing /T/ into /t/ (Jassem 2013f, 2013n). Move (movement, motion, motor) via Old French, from Latin movere (motare) 'move, set in motion, remove, disturb', from Arabic maDa 'go, move' where /D/ became /v (t)/; maada 'move', turning /d/ into /v (t)/; maa2a, mai2 (n) 'of camels, walk, move', turning /2/ into /v (t)/; or math3 'a woman's walk', merging /th & 3/ into /v/ (cf. remove from Arabic ma2a 'erase' where /2/ became /v/). Mundane (monde, le monde) via Old French mondain 'earthly, worldly; elegant, clean', from Latin mundanus 'of this world', from mundus 'world; lit., elegant, clear', from Arabic madina(t), mudun (pl.) 'city', madani (adj) 'urban; civilized' via reordering and ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach lexical shift. See modern. Office (office, official, officiate) via Old French ofice, from Latin officium 'service, kindness, favour; official duty, business', direct from Arabic fisfis 'a decorated house' and related fasfaas 'stupid, foolish, weak' via syllable reduction and lexical shift (see Jassem 2015e-g). Palace (palate) via Old French palais, from Latin palacium 'a palace', from palatium 'the Palatin hill; a palace', from Arabic balaaT 'rock, marble; palace'; /T/ became /s/. Park (Parkville, Hyde Park) via Old French parc 'enclosed wood or heath land used as a game preserve', probably from Germanic *parruck 'enclosed tract of land', Old English pearruc, German Pferch 'fold for sheep', from Arabic barak 'sit down; rest', barka(t) 'pool, lake; low flat land' via lexical shift; bar2a(t) 'open space, area' or boor(at) 'uncultivated, grassy land' where /2 (t)/ changed into /k/; bars 'a group of trees; village', turning /s/ into /k/; or buSr, buSra, baSr 'good red earth; good stony mud; white limestone; side' via reordering and passing /S/ into /k/. See village & villa. Pass (passage, impasse, pace) via Old French passer, from Latin passare 'to step, walk, pass', from passus 'step, pace', from Arabic bawS 'pass, advance', turning /S/ into /s/; saab 'to go, to pass' and related sabsab 'walk quickly; flow' via reversal (cf. piss from Arabic sab(sab) 'go, pass, flow', Sabb 'pour' via reversal or bazz 'of liquids, to come out' (Jassem 2013d & h)). Pastoral (pasture, pastor) via Latin pastor 'shepherd', pastus, pascere (v) 'to lead to pasture, cause to eat', from Arabic baSSa(t) 'pasture, growth', turning /S/ into /s/; bassa(t) 'eat'; or baseeTa(t), basaT (v) 'flat land; eating', passing /T/ into /t/. Path (pad) via Old English path 'path, track', German Pfad 'path', from Arabic batha' 'soft, easy earth', baatha (v) 'to mix with dust; dig, dissipate, search' via lexical shift; or waTi'a 'to tread', mawTi' (n) 'foothold' where /w & T/ passed into /p & th/. Pavement (pave) via Old French paver, pavement 'pave', from Latin pavare/pavire 'to beat, ram, tread down', from Arabic baa2a(t) 'a space' via lexical shift and turning /2/ into /v/; baatha 'to dig, mix with dust', batha' (n) 'soft, easy earth', passing /th/ into /v/. Pavilion (pappilon) via Old French paveillon 'large tent; butterfly', from Latin papilio(nem) 'butterfly, moth; tent', from Arabic bahw(un), albahw 'house (front or back); any houselike structure; pelvis' via reordering, lexical shift, and turning /h/ into /v/. Peasant (peasantry, pagan) via Old French paisent (Modern paysan) 'local inhabitant', from pais 'country, region', from Latin pagensis inhabitant of district', from pagus 'country, rural district', from Arabic baaj 'vast sand area; road' via lexical shift and passing /j/ into /g/, jubb 'a well, good grass land' and related juboob 'earth, land' reversal and lexical shift, jabbaana(t) 'desert, flat upland, graveyard' via reordering and replacing /j/ by /g/; alternatively and more logically, straight from Arabic bustani 'a gardener' via reordering or baseeT(un) 'simple (person)' via reordering and passing /T/ into /t/. Pen (combine, compound, bone, banana) via Old English penn, penne 'enclosure, pen, fold', perhaps related to Old English pinn 'peg, pin', straight from Arabic bina', bana (v) 'building; hut' or banan 'finger' via lexical shift. Polis (police, politics, political, politicking, polity, polis, metropolis, metropolitan, cosmopolitan, Tripoli) via Old French policie, from Latin politia, from Greek politeia 'the state, civil administration', from polites 'city, citizen', from polis 'city; the state, citizens', from Arabic balad, balda(t) 'village, city, town'; /d (& t)/ turned or merged into /s/ (Jassem 2015e-f). See metro. Port (deport, porter, report; purport) via Middle French, from Latin portus 'port, harbour; lit., entrance, passage', porta 'gate, door', Greek poros 'passage, journey, way', from Arabic bu'ra(t) 'opening', boor(at) 'uncultivated land', or barr(at) 'outside; the wild' via lexical shift; bawaba(t), from baab 'gate, door' via /r/-insertion; rabwat/rabiat 'water-surrounded, raised ground' via reordering; or rabD 'to stay, park, ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE station' via lexical shift, reordering, and passing /T/ into /t/. Quarter (quart, quartet, quadrant, quadri-, quarantine, square, carat, headquarters) via French quatre, Latin quattuor, and Greek tessares or tettares 'originally, fourth of something or something cut', from Arabic qeeraT, qarareeT (pl.) 'a quarter, a measurement unit', qaraT (v) 'cut', qarTat (n) 'a cutting' via reordering (and turning /q/ into /t/ in Greek) (see Jassem 2012a, 2014g). See head & square. Railway (railroad, regulation) via Old French reille 'bolt, bar', from Latin regal/regula 'straight stick', regere (v) 'straighten, guide', straight from Arabic rijl 'foot, leg' via lexical shift and /l & j/-merger (see Jassem 2015e-g). See way & road. Realty (estate realty, reality, realtor, real esate) via Old French, from Latin realitatem, realitas, from realis 'real, actual', from res 'matter, thing', from Arabic 'arD 'earth, land' via lexical shift and replacing /D/ by /s (l)/; or ra'i, al-ra'i, al-ru'ia(t) 'seeing' via lexical shift and reordering. See estate. Remain (remnant; mansion) via Old French, from Latin remanere 'remain, stay behind; abide, last', from (i) re- 'back', from Arabic rai3 'back' via /3/-loss (Jassem 2013a, 2014f) and (ii) manere 'stay, remain', straight from Arabic naam 'sleep' via lexical shift and reversal. See mansion. Reside (residence, resident) via Old French, from Latin residere 'reside, dwell', straight from Arabic raqad 'stay, reside' or raSad 'to sit-observe'; /q (S)/ became /s/. Riverside (residence, resident) via Old French (i) riviere 'river, river bank', from Latin riparia 'river, riverbank, seashore', straight from Arabic nahar 'river' where /n & h/ evolved into /r & v/ and (ii) side below. Road (ride, raid) via Old English rad 'riding expedition, journey, hostile incursion', direct from Arabic rawd 'road'. Roof via Old English hrof 'roof, ceiling, top; heaven, sky', Middle Dutch roof/rouf 'cover, roof', and Middle High German rof 'penthouse', straight from Arabic raff, rufoof (pl.) 'shelf, roof' or rafee3 'high' via /3/-loss and lexical shift. Room (rural, rustic) via Old English and High German rum 'space (extent, time); scope, opportunity; roomy, wide, long, spacious', German Raum 'space', Latin rus 'open land, country', from Arabic maraa2 'a space for resting or going to' or mar3a 'grazing place, moorland' via reversal and /2 (3)/-loss. See rural. Round (roundabout, around) via Old French roond, German runde, from Latin rotundus 'round, circular', related to rota 'wheel', straight from Arabic raddat(un), dawrat(un), dawaran 'turning' via reordering. Rural (rustic) via Old French rural, from Latin ruralis 'of the countryside', from rus (genitive ruris) 'open land, country', from Arabic rass 'a well' via lexical shift; rawD 'garden' by turning /D/ into /s (r)/; reef 'countryside; rural', passing /f/ into /s (r)/; or ra3i 'grazing, shepherding' via lexical shift and /3/-loss or mutation into /s (r)/. Saloon (salon) via French salon 'reception room', from Italian salone, sala 'large hall, hall', from Old High German sal (German Saal) 'hall, house', Russian selo 'village', direct from Arabic qal3a(tun) 'castle' via lexical shift and turning /q & 3/ into /s & Ø/; 2illa(tun) 'house, stay' via lexical shift and turning /2/ into /s/; or Saala(t), Saalon 'dry earth; hall' where /S/ became /s/. Sedentary (sit, session) via Middle French, from Latin sedentarius 'sitting, remaining in one place', from sedentem/sedens, sedere (v) 'to sit, remain; be fixed', Greek ezesthai 'to sit', Sanskrit a-sadat 'sat down', sidati 'sits', Old English sittan 'sit', from Arabic qa3ad 'sit', turning /q & 3/ into /s & Ø/; sada2 'sit, set' via /2/-loss; or jatha 'sit', turning /j & th/ into /s & d/. Shelf via Middle Low German schelf 'shelf' or Old English scylfe 'shelf, floor' and scylf 'peak, pinnacle', straight from Arabic raSeef 'a pavement, layer' via lexical shift, reordering, and changing /S & r/ into /sh & l/; or Saff, al-Saff 'row, line' via reordering or /l/-insertion and turning /S/ into /sh/. Shire (Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire) via Old English scir 'administrative office, ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach jurisdiction, authority, country, province', from Arabic soor 'wall; walled-in area' via lexical shift and turning /s/ into /sh/; jeera(t)/deera(t) 'neighbourhood, area' where /j (d)/ became /sh/; or sharee3a(t) 'a water-bound area; a jurisdiction' via /3/-loss. Sidewalk via Old English side 'flanks of a person, the long part or aspect of anything', sid (adj.) 'long, broad, spacious', German Seite, direct from Arabic sadd 'side, blockage', judd (jadd, jidd) 'side, road, shore', jida' 'side' where /j/ became /s/, or Sadaf 'side', mutating /S/ into /s/ and merging /d & f/. See countryside, riverside & walk. Square,Trafalgar (quarter, quartet, quadrant, quadri-, quarantine, square, carat, headquarters) via Old French esquire from Latin exquadrare of (i) ex- 'out', from Arabic aqSa 'far' where /q & S/ became /k & s/ (Jassem 2012f, 2014c) and (ii) quadrare 'to make square', quadrus 'a square', from Arabic qeeraaT 'quarter', qaraT (v) 'cut' via /T/-loss and /s/-split from /q/ (see Jassem 2012a, 2014g). See head, quarter,& Trafalgar. Stay via Old French estai/estare, from Latin stare 'to stand (still); be upright; stand firm; remain, tarry', (Italian and Spanish stare/estar 'to stand, to be', from Arabic jatha 'sit', turning /j & th/ into /s & t/; or istanna, ta'anna 'wait' via lexical shift and mutating /n/ into /r (Ø)/. Street via Old English stret 'street, high road', German Straβe, Latin strata 'paved road', sternere (v) 'lay down, spread out, pave', from Arabic siraaT 'road, way' or shareeT 'a narrow road', splitting /sh/ into /st/ and turning /T/ into /t/; or Tareeq(at) 'road' via reversal, /q/-split into /st/, and turning /T/ into /t/. Sojourn via Old French sojorner 'stay for a time', from Latin subdiurnare 'to spend the day', from (i) sub- 'under, until', from Arabic Sawb 'under, toward' and (ii) diurnare 'to last long', from diurnun 'day', from Arabic dahr(un) 'time, day' or Dhuhr(un) 'noon' via lexical shift, /h/-loss, and turning /d (Dh)/ into /j/; or nahar 'day' via reordering, merging /n & r/, and turning /h/ into /j/. However, as a whole, it seems that (i) so- derives from Arabic saa3a(t) 'hour' via /3/-loss and (ii) journ, jour from nahaar 'day, daylight' above: i/e., 'lit., a day's hour'. Stair (stairs, staircase, upstairs, downstairs) via Old English stæger 'stair, staircase, flight of steps', Dutch steiger 'a stair, step', German Steig 'path', straight from Arabic daraj 'steps, stairs; walk' via reordering and changing /d & j/ into /s & t/; or jidar 'wall' via lexical shift and passing /j & D/ into /s & t/. As to down and up in downstairs/upstairs, the former comes from Arabic doon 'below' while the latter from Arabic 3abab 'up' via /3/-loss (Jassem 2014c). Story (storey) via Old French estorie, estoire 'story, chronicle, history', from Latin storia, shortened from historia 'history, account, tale; story, floor of a building; picture', from Arabic 'usToora(t) 'tale, story', Soora(t) 'picture', or Soor/soora(t) 'fence, walled-in enclosure', turning /', S, & T/ into /h, s, & t/. Thus, the different meanings derive from formally similar and semantically different Arabic words, merging into one in English. Structure (structural, construction) via Latin structura 'a fitting together; a building; fig., order', from struere (v.) 'to pile, place together, build, assemble, arrange', from Arabic Sar2 'a high building' and related Sar2at ' a land' via reordering and turning /2/ into /k/; saTar, saTra(t) (n) 'to pile, arrange in lines', turning /T/ into /t/; or soor(at), sawwar (v) 'wall; a building' via /t/-split from /s/. Subway via Latin sub (ub) 'under, at the foot of; close, up to, toward, within, during' and Greek hypo 'under', from Arabic Sawb 'falling; towards' via lexical shift and turning /S/ into /s/; ka3b 'lit', ankle; bottom, below' via /k & 3/-merger into /s/; 3ubb 'breast, within, inside, under', turning /3/ into /s (h)/; or shi3b 'branch, gap, sub' via lexical shift and /sh & 3/-merger into /s/ (Jassem 2014c). See way. Tent via Old French tente 'tent, hanging, tapestry', from Latin tenta 'a tent; lit., ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE something stretched', tendere (v.) 'stretch', direct from Arabic tamdeed, from madda(t) 'stretching, mattress', turning /m & d/ into /n & t/; thania(t) 'a fold, something bent', thana (v.) 'bend, fold' via lexical shift and passing /th/ into /t/; or Tawia(tun) 'a fold', Tawa (v) via lexical shift, reordering, and turning /T/ into /t/. Toilet (toiletry) via Middle French toilette 'a cloth, bag for clothes', diminutive of toile 'cloth, net', from Arabic taali, tuwali (pl.) 'of clothes, tails or rags'; Tuwala(t) 'lengthening (of a dress)', Tawila(t) 'table', or dhail 'tail (of dress)' via lexical shift and changing /T (dh)/ into /t/ (cf. toil from Old French toellier 'pull at, drag about; later struggle, hard work', from Arabic talla 'pull'). Tower (turret) via Old English torr 'tower, watchtower', from Old French tor (Modern tur), Spanish and Italian torre, from Latin turris 'a tower, citadel, high structure', direct from Arabic daar, door (pl.) 'house; world; abode' via lexical shift and passing /d/ into /t/; or Toor 'mountain' via lexical shift and turning /T/ into /t/. Town (townsman, town centre) via Old English tun 'enclosure, garden, field, yard; farm, manor; homestead, mansion; group of houses', Old High German zun (Modern Zaun) 'fence, hedge', from Arabic Teen, 'aTyan 'village; farming area; mud; mud houses', passing /T/ into /t/; or Siwan 'a walled-in enclosure' via lexical shift and turning /S/ into /t (z)/. Track (trek) via Old French trac 'trac of horses, trace', possibly form Middle Low German treck 'drawing, pulling', direct from Arabic Tareeq 'road'; /T & q/ turned into /t & k/. TrafalgarSquare commemorates a British 1805 naval victory over the French, from Arabic Taraf al aghar 'lit., side/end (of) the spotted (white, glorious)', or Taraf al agharb 'side/end (of) the west (in Gibraltar)', turning /gh & b/ into /g & Ø/ (Harper 2015). See square. Tube (tubular) via Middle French, Latin tubus 'tube, pipe', direct from Arabic qaDeeb 'stick', or qaSab 'reed', merging /q & D (S)/ into /t/; or bawaba(t) 'gate, doorway' via reordering and lexical shift. Underground Railroad (grind) via (i) Old English under 'under, among', Latin infra, and Sanskrit adnah 'under', from Arabic 'adna 'lower', comparative of doon 'below, down' via reordering and /r/-insertion; or 'in2idar 'going down' via /2/-loss (see infrastructure) and (ii) grund 'bottom, foundation, surface of the earth; abyss, hell; sea bottom', German Grund 'ground, soil, bottom', from Arabic jurd(un) 'unplanted land' via reordering and passing /j/ into /g/. Urban (urbanity, urbanize, urbane, conurbation) via Latin urbanus 'lit., of a city; refined, courteous', from urbs 'city, walled town', from Arabic bina', bunian 'building; built areas' via reordering and passing /n/ into /r/; rab3 'a home and its occupants; residential area; a group of people', turning /3/ into /s (Ø)/; 3arab 'Arabs; city dwellers; villagers' and related 3arab(at) 'village; a current', 3areeb 'soft land; a person' via /3/-loss and passing /t/ into /s/; bars, barnusa' 'people; a group of trees; village' via reordering; ribs 'brave, courageous; beating with hands; go; fill up with water' via lexical shift and related ribsa(t) 'ugly, dirty; mixture', rabeez/rabees 'nice, good, polite; big; full' via lexical shift, reordering, and passing /z (s)/ into /n/; buSr, buSra, baSr 'good red earth; good stony mud; white limestone; side' via reordering and passing /S/ into /s (n)/. U-turn (tour, detour) via Old English turnian 'rotate', from Old French, from Latin tornare 'to round off, turn on a lathe; polish', tornus (n) 'lathe', from Greek tornos 'lathe, a tool for drawing circles', from Arabic dawaraan 'turning round'; /d/ became /t/. Vault (evolve, revolve, Volvo) via Old French voute 'arch, vaulting', from Latin volta, contraction of volvita, from volotus, from volvere (v) 'to turn, roll', direct from Arabic laffa, laflaf (repetitive), laffa(t) (n) 'to turn' or lawa, lawia(t) (n) 'to turn' via reordering and passing /w/ into /v/; or 2awTa, 2a'iT, al-2a'iT 'wall, the-wall', turning /2 & T/ ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach into /v & t/. Villa (villain, villain, village) via Italian, from Latin villa 'country house, farm', related to vicus 'village, group of houses, direct from Arabic fila2a(t) 'farming', fala2 (v) 'to farm' via /2/-loss and lexical shift. Village (villa, village, Ville) via Old French vilage 'houses in a group', from Latin villaticum 'farmstead', from villa above, where /2/ became /ge/. Villain (villainy, village, villa) via Old French vilain 'farmer, commoner', from Latin villa 'country house, farm', direct from Arabic falla2(in) 'farmer', fala2 (v) 'to farm' via /2/-loss and lexical shift. See villa. Walk via Old English wealcan 'to toss, roll, move round', from Arabic walaq 'walk'; /q/ became /k/. See side. Way (away; always, anyway; deviate, deviation, deviance) via Old English 'road; room, space; freedom of movement', Old High German weg (Weg) 'way', from Latin via 'way, road, channel, course', from Arabic wajh, wijha(t) 'face, way, direction', merging /j & h/ into /y/. See highway, motorway, alleyway. Wild (wilderness) via Old English wilde 'in the natural state, uncultivated, uncontrolled, undomesticated', German wild', direct from Arabic falaat 'the wild; grazing land; being out of control'; /f & t/ became /w & d/. Window (wind, eye) via Old Norse vindaya 'lit., wind eye', from vindr 'wind', from Arabic nada, nadwa 'wetness, dew' via reordering and/or changing /a/ to /w/ and (ii) auge 'eye', from Arabic 2ijaj 'eye bone' via lexical shift and /j/-mutation into /y/; alternatively, from Arabic 3ain Daw' 'lit., eye (for) light', turning /3 & D/ into /w & d/. Yard (garden) via Old English geard 'fenced enclosure, garden, court; residence, house', Old High German garto (German Garten) 'garden', Gothic gards 'enclosure; house', direct from Arabic jidar, judran (pl.) 'wall; garden' via reordering and passing /j/ into /g/; or 2ujrat 'room, (stone) house', merging /2 & j/ into /y (g)/ and passing /t/ into /d/. See garden. As 'a measurement unit', it comes from Old English gerd/gierd 'rod, staff, stick, measure of length', from Arabic qarTa(t) 'rod; a cut', turning /q & T/ into /g & d/. Zigzag via French, perhaps from German Zickzack 'tooth, prong; military siege', direct from Arabic 3awaj, i3wijaj 'bent, bending' or siaj 'siege, fence'; /3 (s) & j/ passed into /z & g/. ZoologicalGardens (zoology, zoo) via Greek zoion 'animal', direct from Arabic 2aiwan 'animal', passing /2/ into /z/ and deleting /n/. See garden. In short, the total number of urban terms in this study amounted to 130, all of which have true Arabic cognates: i.e., 100%. The results show clearly that urban terms in Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and all Indo-European languages are true cognates for sharing identical or similar forms and meanings, with their differences, however, being all due to natural and plausible causes and different routes of phonetic, morphological, grammatical, and semantic change. Since the percentage of shared urban words between Arabic, English, Latin or Greek, for example, amounted to 100%, this indicates their membership to the same language- i.e., dialects, for which a much lower 60-80% ratio is usually set according to Cowley's (1997: 172-173) 100-word list-based classification. Therefore, the results are in full agreement with the findings of previous studies (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, 2015a-g) in which English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit and Arabic were all found to be not only members of the same family but also rather dialects of the same language. More precisely, they lend further support to the radical linguistic (or lexical root) theory on all levels of analysis. Theoretically, the main principle which states that Arabic, ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE English, German, French, and the so-called Indo-European languages are not only genetically related but also are dialects of the same language is, therefore, verifiably sound and empirically true. Thus they make up a larger language family, which has been termed Eurabian or Urban as a blend of European and Arabian languages (Jassem 2015c: 41, 2015d). Furthermore, this implies by necessity that all the above languages descended from an earlier, perfect, suddenly-emerged language, called radical (world) language from which all human languages initially came and which has incessantly and variably survived into today's languages, though getting simpler and simpler over time. In other words, the radical language could never have died out beyond recognition. With proper methodology, it can be easily recovered as shown in this work. As this work demostrated, it seems that its closest or most conservative and productive descendant is Arabic for having preserved almost all its features (Jassem 2014h-k, 2015a-d). In fact, all Indo-European languages descended directly from Arabic for reasons outlined earlier (Jassem 2015a-b, 2015d: 131-132; 2014a-b, 2014e). The exact time and place of the split-up between Arabic and the so-called Indo-European languages is immaterial (for details, see Jassem 2015e-f). As a consequence, reconstructing an old world language is needless; rather that proto-language, called radical language here, is still very much alive, having variably survived into today's languages, with Arabic being its closest descendant as the above data clearly shows (for detail, see Jassem 2014h: 254-256, 2014i: 116-117; 2014k, 2015a-b). Thus the quest should focus on relating those languages to it instead of reconstructing hypothetical, fictitious languages. As to the analytical plane, the procedures of the theory all operated neatly and smoothly on all levels. Phonetically, the whole changes were natural and plausible, cyclic and multi-directional, including processes like substitution, deletion, reversal, merger, split, reordering, reduction, and so on. Morphologically, the affixes, whether inflectional or derivational, had true Arabic cognates as well. For example, the commonest affixes –n (-an, -en, -ene, in-, -ine, -ing, -ness, -ar), -t (-ate, -ette, -ite, -ity; ad-, de-, -ed; -s, -ess, -ous), -tion, and –al (-eal, -ile, -elle) are true, identical cognates in Arabic and English as well as all Indo-European languages as shown above (for detail, see Jassem 2012f, 2013a-b, 2013l, 2015d). Semantically, lexical stability was the common pattern where most urban terms preserved their basic meanings across the languages, e.g., abide, live, reside, home, house, mansion, court, palace. The recurrence of lexical convergence in the data was due to formal and semantic similarity between Arabic words, on the one hand, and their English, German, French, Latin, and Greek cognates, on the other. For instance, abide, alley, architecture, design,move, pen, reside, stay, urban might each derive from several Arabic words, all formally and semantically similar (see 3 above). Although only one cognate might be the ultimate source in the end, no need is presently felt to specify which one it might be; the reader may judge. Likewise, semantic multiplicity (polysemy) was recurrent, where some English words had more than one meaning, which might just as well have more than one likely Arabic cognate; for example, abide, ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach cultivate, dwell, live, mount, story have different meanings, every one of which derives from formally and semantically similar Arabic words (see 3 above). As a matter of fact, almost all Arabic words are polysemous in nature. Lexical shift occurred frequently as in apartment, avenue, bed, booth, park, path, village, the last of which, e.g., moved from its original or radical meaning 'farm' to 'village' currently. Lexical divergence is rare, which took place in gang and infra from Arabic naafir 'bulging, protruding' (see 3. above). Lexical split affected bridge, burgh, borough, resulting from Arabic burj 'tower; a high structure'; track and trek split from Arabic Tareeq 'road, way'; pen, banana, combine, compound, bone all split from Arabic bana 'to build' and related derivatives. Lexical change affected villain, which originally meant 'farmer'. Finally, lexical variability recurred in the data, whether at the level of the different forms of the same words within the same language such as English city or across the languages like English city, German Stadt, French cite/citet, Spanish ciudad, Latin civis (citatem/civitas), and Arabic jiddat (jaddat, juddat) 'city; river side' (see 3 above). Arabic, in particular, is replete with linguistic variability of all types such as jiddat and haih 'far' which has over sixty variants (Ibn Manzoor 2013). Finally, a word on methodology is in order. Although tracing the Arabic origins of English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit words works well by, actually cannot be carried out without, following the routes outlined in their etymologies such as Harper (2015), yet there are countless instances of uncertain or unknown etymologies and implausible, complicated, unnecessarily lengthy, and/or erroneous derivations. In many cases like abide, alley, castle, county, dwell, farm, head, house, mansion, office, pen, road, dining room, street, track, etc. a direct derivation from Arabic is not only shorter but also more logical, which, at the same time, preserves both the form and meaning of cognate words. CONCLUSION The main findings can be recapitulated as follows: i) The 130 urban terms in Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit are true cognates, whose differences are due to natural and plausible causes and different routes of linguistic change. ii) The radical linguistic (or lexical root) theory has been adequate for genetically relating urban terms in the above languages to one another, according to which they are all dialects of the same language and which comprise one large language family that may be called Eurabian or Urban, for short. Phonetically, the main changes included substitution, reversal, reordering, deletion, split, and merger; morphologically, the changes centered around –t, –n, and –al which behave in similar ways in all; lexically, the recurrent patterns were stability, convergence, multiplicity, shift, split, and variability. iii) The Radical or Root Language, or early prehistoric language, was real and perfect, which has variably survived into today's languages. As Arabic is phonetically, morphologically, and lexically the most complex of all, it can be safely said that it has inherited almost all the Radical Language features, thereby showing its incessant permanence as the most conservative of all. iv) Finally, the current work supports ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE earlier calls for further research into all language levels, especially lexis (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, 2015a-h); it also calls for similar research in other world languages or their families (Jassem 2014h-i, 2015h); also the application of such findings to language teaching, lexicology and lexicography, translation (Jassem 2014d, 2015a), cultural (including anthropological, historical, social, religious) awareness, understanding, and heritage is badly needed to promote cross-cultural understanding and cooperation in all aspects of human life. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere thanks are warmly extended to everyone who contributed to this research in any way worldwide. I'd like to thank Fahrus Zaman Fadhly, Editor-in-Chief of ENGLISH REVIEW, for the timely and kind invitation to contribute to their esteemed Journal. For my supportive and inspiring wife, Amanie M. Ibrahim, I remain indebted as ever. REFERENCES Albabidi, A. M. A. (2011). Mu3jam asma' alashia' (allaTa'if fi allughat). Ed. Awad, Ahmad Abd-ul-tawab. Cairo: Dar AlfaDeelat. Retrieved http://www.waqfeya.com (May 1, 2015). Algeo, J. (2010). The origins and development of the English language. (6th edn.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Altha3aalibi, A. M. (2011). Fiqhu allughat wa asraar al3arabiyyat. Ed. by Alayoobi, Dr. Yaseen. Beirut and Saida: Al-Maktabat Al-3aSriyyat. Bergs, A. and Brinton, L. (eds). (2012). Handbook of English historical linguistics. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Campbell, L. (2006). Historical linguistics: An introduction. (2nd edn). 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International Journal of English language, literature, and Translation 1 (1): 1-14. Retrieved URL: http://www.ijels.com (May 1, 2015). Jassem, Z. A. (2014k). I buy, Ich kaufe, & J'achéte as Arabic Dialectal Variants: A radical linguistic theory approach. International Journal of language and linguistics 2 (5): 317-27. Retrieved URL: http://www.sciencepublishinggroup. com/ijll. Doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20140205.15 (May 1, 2015). Jassem, Z. A. (2014l). Radical translation and translating names: A lexical root theory approach. Paper to be presented at ASELS International Conference 2014, Abdel Malek Essadi University, Tangier, Morocco, 25-27 November 2014. Jassem, Z. A. (2015a). The Arabic origins of English and Indo-European "life and death terms": A radical linguistic theory approach. International Journal of English and Education 4/1: 322-345. Retrieved URL: http://www.ijee.org (May 1, 2015). Jassem, Z. A. (2015b). 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(2015h). allugha alarabia wa http://www.journalofelt.in/ http://www.arcjournals.org/ijsell http://www.ijee.org/ http://www.jellonline.com/ http://www.ijels.com/ http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/ijll http://www.ijee.org/ http://www.ijee.org/ http://www.joell./ http://www.languageinindia.com/ http://www.joell./ http://www.languageinindia.com/ http://www.languageinindia.com/ ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE allugha al3alamia aljadhria alwaritha al2afiDha: asmaa' alishara fi lughat al3alam qadiman wa2adithan min manDhoor 3ilm allugha aljadhri (In Arabic, Arabic as the conservative radical world language: A radical linguistic theory approach to demonstratives in old and modern world languages). 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