ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 10, Issue 1, December 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 235 LOANWORDS IN BARACK OBAMA'S INAUGURAL SPEECH Muziatun Department of English Education, Universitas Negeri Gorontalo, Indonesia Email: muziatun@ung.ac.id Muzdalifah Mahmud Department of English Education, Universitas Negeri Gorontalo, Indonesia Email: muzdalifah.mahmud@ung.ac.id Fatia Hanapi Department of English Education, Universitas Negeri Gorontalo, Indonesia Email: fatiahanapi5@gmail.com APA Citation: Muziatun, Mahmud, M. & Hanapi, F. (2021). Loanwords in Barack Obama's inaugural speech. English Review: Journal of English Education, 10(1), 235-244. doi: https://doi.org/10.25134/erjee.v10i1.5383 Received: 03-07-2021 Accepted: 23-09-2021 Published: 31-12-2021 Abstract: The purpose of this research is to examine the types of loanwords used in Obama's inaugural speech. The loanword theory of Haugen (loanword, loan blend, and loan shift) and Yule's theory of word creation were adopted in this research. It used a qualitative approach to describe the before-after borrow pattern, the types of loanwords, and the process of word formation. The data indicates that sixteen words are part of loan blend; nine words are part of loan shift; and one word is a loanword. While based on word formation, it is revealed that the borrowing word formation process includes twenty-six words and the derivation word formation process involves sixteen words. Keywords: loanword, word-formation; morphological process; speech INTRODUCTION Loanwords are words that have been borrowed from another language and introduced into our language (Kunert, 2020; Luikham & Singh, 2017; Ma'nawi & Hadi, 2021; Xiao, 2020; Yunusova, 2021). In addition, another concept, linguistic borrowing, describes similar situation, which is the adaptation of a linguistic expression from one language into another (Ciobanu & Dinu, 2020; Koliopoulou, 2020; Marello, 2020; Muziatun, 2017). Loanwords are constructed to fill in the gaps in vocabulary development and enrichment, allowing people to maintain up with the rapid advancement of technology, information, and communication. However, due to the fact that people learn other languages and incorporate them into their own, many people believe that all foreign words are loanwords, which is not the case. This is also true in the English language. Not all English terms have their origins in the English language. It has been said by Luikham and Singh (2017) that in today's world of globalization, borrowing has become a need for effective communication. When people need to name a certain object, idea or concept, or process that does not currently exist in our native languages, they are faced with a lexical difficulty. Consequently, that problem might be solved by borrowing a word from another language where they have the potential to be used in actual situations. This borrowing word might be continuously used by the majority of people and perhaps be adapted as the standardization of native language in a country. Moreover, a language that has been borrowed from another language might provide names to objects that do not exist in the language it has been borrowed from (Muziatun, 2017). As a nutshell, this process of borrowing a word may occur when two or more languages come into regular contact with one another. Morphology is the branch of Linguistics that studies loanwords and how they are formed. Morphology has often been defined as the study of form and the process of word formation (Arkadiev, 2020; Gardani, 2021; Ralli, 2020; Rzepiela, 2020; Waqar & Hussain, 2021; Xu, Kodner, Marcus, & Yang, 2020). The loanwords could be found in both spoken and written language. Loanwords are utilized in various types of broadcast media such as radio, television, and advertising (Chaa, 2021; Kitanina & Trukhanova, 2020; Muziatun, 2017; Tran & Tanemura, 2020; Yaniar & Masrokhah, 2021). Furthermore, because of the broadcast media and the cultural mailto:muziatun@ung.ac.id mailto:muzdalifah.mahmud@ung.ac.id mailto:fatiahanapi5@gmail.com Muziatun, Muzdalifah Mahmud, & Fatia Hanapi Loanwords in Barack Obama's inaugural speech 236 interaction that exists between people from diverse language backgrounds, the phenomena of borrowing and re-borrowing words is quite plausible. The present research will provide an insight at oral/spoken language. The speech made by Barack Obama during his first inauguration will be the subject of the investigation. It will concentrate on Obama's speech since his ability to communicate effectively is one of his greatest assets (Hill, 2020; O'Donnell, 2021; Rahayu, Susilo, & Sunardi, 2018). The majority of the reasons for Obama's decisive win may be attributed to his eloquent speech. Furthermore, there are many words in the speech that have been borrowed from another language, and it is possible that the majority of people are unaware of the origins of the words used. The term "lexical borrowing" or "borrowing" is commonly used to describe a loanword (Al- Athwary, 2021; Anggraeni, 2021; Anggraeni, 2016; Geller & Gajek, 2020; Muziatun, 2017). It has been defined as a word that entered a language's lexicon by borrowing (or transfer, or copying) at some time in its history. The term "loanword" has been described by Campbell (2004) as a "lexical thing" that is borrowed from a source language but does not become part of the beneficiary language's lexicon. Therefore, loanwords can be said as words that have been borrowed and adopted to a certain language and treated as if their own. The present research is focused on the types of loanwords offered by Haugen's (1950) theory, which was developed in the 1970s. It is widely acknowledged that Haugen's theory is one of the most dependable theories in the field of linguistic borrowing. Principally, he classified loanwords into three types: the loanword type, the loan blend type, and the loan shift type. The first type is loanword that demonstrates morphemic importation but does not demonstrate substitution. It is frequently a combination of copying both the word's form and its meaning. The next type of loan is a loan blend. As the name suggests, a loan blend is often created by blending the word of the foreign language with the words of a native language. The last category is loan shift, which refers to a word that undergoes morphemic substitution without being imported. As a result, this implies that only its meaning is borrowed. In addition to Haugen's (1950) theory of loanword classification, this research will offer Yule's (2016) theory of word creation to simply investigate the process of word formation. According to Yule, there are 10 distinct processes through which a word is formed. They are coinage, borrowing, compunding, blending, clipping, back-formation, conversion, acronym, derivation, and multiple process. METHOD The qualitative method was used in the undertaking of this research. Using a qualitative method was necessary for this research since it revealed in detail to the readers how language performs in a wide range of personal, social, and environmental contexts. In accordance with Silverman (2020), qualitative research is defined as studies in which descriptive data in the form of verbal and other non-numerical data is utilized as the foundation for analysis and problem solving. For the purposes of this research, the non- numerical data consists of the utterances of Barack Obama throughout his address, which makes this type of method particularly appropriate for the data presented in this research. As previously indicated, the loanwords used in the speech provided the basis for this present investigation's data. This data has been examined in accordance with certain criteria. Firstly, the Merriam Webster dictionary was utilized to acquire a definition of the word identified. Second, this study was limited to the noun form of the word. This decision was supported by earlier works (Ali, Hassan, Karamat, & Aleem, 2021; Matiki, 2016; Meakins, Pensalfini, Zipf, & Hamilton-Hollaway, 2020; Muziatun, 2017; Schreur, 2021), which shown that nouns are more easily borrowed than other lexical elements. As a result, it is not unexpected given the abundance of evidence in the literature that nouns are more often borrowed than the other parts of speech. Third, just the pure noun would be taken into account (there are no changes in word classes). Fourth, this current research concentrated on Old English (French, Germanic, and Latinic languages), as suggested by the Merriam Webster dictionary. It was due to the fact that the Old English (French, German, and Latin) had a higher proportion of indicated loanwords than the other languages. According to Zhou (2016), the China National Knowledge Infrastructure revealed that 29 percent French, 29 percent German, and 6 percent Latin are the most often utilized languages in teaching English loanwords. Fifth, this current research only looked at the 12th and 13th centuries. It is because, according to the history of English, the period in which English borrowed more words from Old English began in ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 10, Issue 1, December 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 237 the 12th century and ended in the 13th century (Finegan, 2014), the period in which English borrowed more words from Old English ended in the 13th century (Thu, 2018). Loanwords are examined in various stages: checking, selection, exclusion, categorization, and explanation. The word was checked at the stage of checking using the Merriam Webster dictionary since this study was limited to words that included a noun. Then, in the selecting step, the word classified as a noun was chosen. This is because the research's constraint is a noun. Then, in a different color and meaning, highlight the noun identified. There are three separate categories for each of the three colors. The red color represents a word that is not a pure noun since it becomes another component of speech (adjective, verb, pronoun, etc). The green color represents a noun, typically attributive, and its function is to explain other nouns in the same way that an adjective does. The blue color denotes the pure noun. The next stage is exclusion; only a pure noun or the color blue was taken. After excluding them, they are classified into Old English (French, German, and Latin) and the 12th as well as 13th centuries. The meaning of the word, its original pattern before borrowing, the forms of loanwords it contains (loanword, loan blend, and loan shift), and the process by which the word was formed were all then described in straightforward detail. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The data for this research was gathered from Barack Obama's first inauguration speech, which took place on January 20, 2009. This President Obama's speech has 2408 words (including the repetitions). As a result, his whole speech included just 809 words. After identifying 809 words, they were examined toward the Merriam Webster dictionary to determine if they were classified as a noun. Table 1. Types of nouns Types of nouns Total numbers Non-pure nouns 352 words Attributive nouns 33 words Pure nouns 153 words Total nouns 538 words There were 538 words in all that were classified as nouns. Only 153 of the 538 nouns were considered pure nouns, which will serve as the basis for the majority of the data in this study. These 153 pure nouns were then classified according to their Old English (French, German, and Latin) origins, as well as those from the 12th and 13th centuries. The final selection revealed that this category of data had just 26 words. As a result of this large datasets, it can be determined that Barack Obama did not overuse borrowing words of Old English from either the 12th and 13th centuries in his speech. Types of loanwords These twenty-six nouns were classified into three main categories in accordance with Haugen's proposed loanword classification. To begin, loanword identified only one word (deserts); loan blend revealed sixteen words (gift, grace, office, age, measure, riches, fame, places, habits, route, perils, charter, sake, cause, tribe, virtue); and loan shift revealed nine words (skill, choices, rule, forge, heritage, hatreds, duties, price, enemy). Regarding the distribution of the whole data, it can be concluded that Barack Obama used a greater amount of loanwords that fall into the loan blend category in his speech than other categories of loanwords in general. Table 2. Types of loanwords Types of loanwords Result Loanword The word that has been directly borrowed from another language. The pattern that existed before and after the loan remained unchanged. deserts Loan blend The word was a combination of the source language and the recipient language. The pattern adopted the beginning and end of the language as its starting and ending points. gift grace office age measure riches fame places habits route perils charter sake cause tribe virtue Loan shift Only the meaning of the word has been borrowed, and the word's physical form has been completely altered. skill choices rule forge heritage hatreds duties price enemy Deserts The word "deserts" is included in this data since it Muziatun, Muzdalifah Mahmud, & Fatia Hanapi Loanwords in Barack Obama's inaugural speech 238 originates from the Anglo-French and was taken into English in the 13th century, according to Merriam Webster dictionary. "Deserts" is a plural noun with the suffix –s added to the basic word "desert". According to Merriam Webster dictionary, the term "deserts" refers to arid area with often-scant flora. This word is represented in the category of loanword. It shown that the pattern previously borrowed is "desert" and that the pattern in English now is same. This word is borrowed throughout the process of word formation. Gift. The word "gift" was included in the dataset since it was the 12th century borrowing from Old English. According to Merriam Webster dictionary, the word "gift" refers to anything that is given without compensation by one person to another. This word is included in loan blend category of loanwords since the pattern was "giefan" before it was borrowed and modified to "gift." In modern English, the suffix –ft replaces the suffix –efan in Old English. The suffix blended because it adapted to the receiving language's standards. Yule's theory classified this term as referring to the borrowing and derivation processes of word formation. This word was included into the derivation since the process of affixation takes place in this word. Grace The word "grace" is considered as a borrowing due to its origins in Latin in the 12th century. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, "grace" is a divine attribute. The Latin pattern is "gratia," which becomes "grace" in English. It demonstrated that this word was included into the loan blend. This is because of the suffix –tia from Latin evolved into –ce in English. Oftentimes, the suffix of the word blends into the receiving language. This word is a result of borrowing and derivation during the process of word formation. Then, this word was included in the derivation since the process of affixation performed in this word. Office The word "office" is included in the borrowing since it was taken from Latin in the 13th century. According to Merriam Webster dictionary, the word "office" refers to a location where a certain kind of business is conducted or a service is provided. This word is listed in loan blend categories because the pattern before the borrowing is "officium", which becomes "office" in English. In English, the suffix –ium is shortened to –e. Additionally, the form combines the word from the other source language with the word from the receiving language. This word is a product of borrowing and derivation during the process of word formation. Then, this word was included in the derivation since the process of affixation happened in this word. Age In the 13th century, English adopted the word "age" from Anglo-French. According to Merriam Webster dictionary, "age" refers to the stage of life in which a certain quality, power, or ability develops or ceases to exist. This word is listed in loan blend classifications because the pattern before the borrowing is "aage", which becomes "age" in English. In English, the prefix a- has been omitted. This word is categorized into a borrowing and derivation during the process of word formation. “Age” was included in the derivation since the process of affixation occurred in this word. Measure The word "measure" is included in borrowing since it was taken from Latin in the 13th century by the English language. In the Merriam Webster dictionary, the word "measure" is defined as the dimensions, capacity, or quantity of anything, and it is included in the loan blend forms of loanword. There has been a shift in the pattern of the word "measure" from "mensra" to "measure." The infix –n changed to become –a, and the suffix –a changed to become –e in English, as can be seen from the shifting pattern given above. In most cases, the suffix of the word blends into the recipient's native language. The word "measure" is included in the borrowing and derivation processes that occur throughout the word- formation process since the process of affixation performed in this word. Riches The word "riches" is classified as a borrowing word since it originates in Anglo-French and was first used in English in the 13th century. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, the definition of this word is the things that make one wealthy. "Riches" is derived from the word "rich" with the suffix –es added as a plural identifier. The word "riches" is included in the loanword blend category, since the pattern in the past was "richesce," which was then blended into "riches" ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 10, Issue 1, December 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 239 when borrowed in English. The suffix –ce was dropped from Anglo-French in English. Affixation took place in the word-formation process, making this a borrowing word derivation. Fame This word "fame" is included in borrowing since English took this word from Latin in the 13th century. In the Merriam Webster dictionary, "famous" is defined as "public acclaim". While "famma" was the original Latin word, "fame" became the English equivalent. It was evident that this word was part of the borrowing blend. For reasons that have to do with the standardizing of the receiving language, Latin's suffixes –ma have evolved into English's -e. In the process of word formation, the word "fame" has been included in derivation since the affixation procedure took place. Places English borrowed the word "places" from Latin in the 13th century. The Merriam Webster dictionary defines "places" as the physical environment in which an event happens. This word demonstrates a plural noun by including the suffix –s, whereas the underlying word is "place". The English word "places" is derived from the Latin word "platea". This word is included in the loan blend because the suffix –tea merged with –ce in English to represent an example of borrowing in which the source and recipient languages are generally merged. Since the process of affixation occurred in this word, it is included in a borrowing derivation during the word-formation process. Habits This word "habits" is included since English inherited it from Latin in the 13th century. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, this term refers to a customary method of behaving. The word "habits" is a plural noun involves the addition of the suffix –s, but the root word is "habit". This word is included in the loan blend because the original Latin form is "habitus", and when English took it, the suffix –us was eliminated, resulting in the term "habit". It demonstrated that this word was accepted as a result of the receiving language's standardization. Due to the affixation process, this word is included in a borrowing derivation during the word-formation process. Route According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the term "route" refers to a channel of communication. This term was first used in the 13th century and came from Anglo-French. According to Haugen, this term is included in the loan blend types of loanword. It demonstrated that the pattern previously borrowed is spelled "rute", but in English it is spelled "route". After the term was borrowed into English, the infix –o- was removed from it. This word is included in the borrowing derivation since the process of affixation took place in this particular term. Perils "Perils", according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, are things that are dangerous. This term was first used in the 13th century and was derived from Latin. This term is a plural noun due to the inclusion of the suffix –s in the word, despite the fact that the root of the word is "peril." The pattern that was previously borrowed was "perculum," which in English is rendered as "peril." After being borrowed into English, the suffix –culum was eliminated and merged with the suffix -l to get the final form. This word is categorized as borrowing derivation. Inclusion of this word in the borrowing derivation is based on the fact that the process of affixation took place in this word. Charter According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "charter" is a gift or reward letter comprising a written declaration of an official character. In the 13th century, the term "charter" was taken from Latin. Originally called "chartula," the pattern is now known as "charter" in the English language. It is because the suffix – ula in Latin has been changed to –er in English to keep up with the language norm. The affixation process took place in this word, therefore it is included in the borrowing derivation. Sake “Sake” is defined as a benefit or advantage for some entity in the Merriam-Webster dictionary. Old High German was the source of this term, which was first used in the 13th century. The word "sake" is included in the loan blend because the pattern before borrowed was "sahha", but in English it is "sake". When translating from Old High German, the suffix –hha became –ke in the English language. This word is included in borrowing derivation in the word-formation process because of the affixation process that happened in this word. Muziatun, Muzdalifah Mahmud, & Fatia Hanapi Loanwords in Barack Obama's inaugural speech 240 Causes According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, the term "cause" refers to anything that has a direct influence on something else. It was taken from Latin in the 13th century. This term is part of a loanword blend, since the Latin suffix –a became –e in English via blending with the suffix –e. The Latin word "causa" was used before it was changed to "cause" in English. This word is included in the borrowing derivation since the process of affixation took place in this word. Tribe According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, a "tribe" is a social group made up of a large number of families, clans, or generations who live in close proximity to one another. It was first used in the 13th century and was derived from Latin. The pattern that was previously borrowed was "tribus", but in English it is referred to as "tribe". Due to the fact that the suffix –us in the Latin pattern blended becomes -e after being borrowed into English, it is apparent that this word is included in the loan blend types of loanwords category. Inclusion of this word in the borrowing derivation is based on the fact that the process of affixation took place in this word. Virtue “Virtue”, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is defined as a quality of moral perfection that is distinct from others. This term was first used in the 13th century and was derived from Latin. The pattern that was previously borrowed was "virtut", but in English it is represented as "virtue". It demonstrates how the suffix –t in "virtut" was mixed to get the suffix –e in "virtue". It was determined from the description of the word that this word is included in the loan blend kinds of loanword because the word was blended at the conclusion of it. Inclusion of this word in the borrowing derivation is based on the fact that the process of affixation took place in this word. Skill According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the definition of the word "skill" is the capacity to employ one's knowledge effectively and quickly in the execution of a task. This word was first used in the 13th century and was derived from Old English. This word is included in the loan shift since only the meaning of the word borrowed and the pattern are completely different. It demonstrated that the term "scille" had been previously borrowed and had been completely modified to conform to the English standard, and had become "skill". Yule incorporates this term into the borrowing of the word-formation process. Choices Merriam-Webster dictionary defines "choices" as the process of making a decision. The word "choice" is the root of this word and the suffix -s indicates a plural version for this word. In the 13th century, it was taken from Old High German. This word is included in the loan shift since it is simply the meaning of the word borrowed that has changed, and the pattern as a whole has changed. It shown that the word "kiosan" was before borrowed in English, but that the word "choice" was afterwards imported in English. It demonstrates that the general pattern changes as a result of the borrowing. Yule incorporates this word into the process of word development via borrowing. Rule Generally speaking, "rule" refers to laws or regulations established by the leader and enforced by the members. According to the Merriam- Webster dictionary, the term "rule" was first used in English in the 13th century after being adopted from Latin. This term is one of the loanword types that are included in the loanshift category. This is due to the fact that the pattern that was previously borrowed was "regula", while in English it became "rule". It demonstrates how the pattern changes totally when translated into English. Yule includes this word in the borrowing derivation of the word-formation process since the process of affixation took place in this word. Forge According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, a “forge” is a workplace where wrought iron is created or where iron is rendered malleable. This term was first used in the 13th century and was derived from Latin. The design that was previously borrowed is called "fabrica", whereas the English word for it is "forge". It demonstrated that the pattern is entirely different in English. In conclusion, this term is included in the loan shift types of loanword due to the fact that just the meaning of the word has been borrowed, but the pattern has not been. Yule incorporates this term into the borrowing of the word-formation process. Heritage ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 10, Issue 1, December 2021 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 241 According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the term "heritage" refers to a piece of property that is passed down to a descendant. This term was first used in the 13th century and was derived from Latin. The pattern that was previously borrowed was "hērēditāre", which in English becomes "heritage". The term changes once it has been borrowed from the English language. It shown that this term is included in the loan shift since the pattern is different and only the meaning was borrowed. Yule incorporates this term into the borrowing of the word-formation process. Hatreds According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, "hatreds" is a strong detest or disgust. As a plural noun, "hatreds" includes the noun with the suffix –s in the word; the basic word is "hatred". When this term was first used in the 13th century, it was acquired from Old English. According to Haugen, this term is a loan shift type of loanword. This word “hatred” in English is derived from the Old English word "rǣden", which was the pattern before it was borrowed. Borrowing completely rearranged the structure of the design. Borrowing is a step in the word-formation process that includes this term. Duties The word "duties" refers to a plural noun with the suffix –s added to the end of the word, but the original word is "duty". The definition of duty is the required responsibilities, behavior, service, or functions that emerge from one's position and which must be performed without fail. This term was first used in the 13th century and came from Anglo-French. The "duty" is included in the loan shift types of loanwords. It shown that the pattern previously borrowed is "deueté", yet the pattern in the English term is completely different. This word is included in the borrowing sequence of the word-formation process. Price The word "price" refers to the sum of money offered or established as compensation for the sale of a certain item. In the 13th century, the word "price" was acquired from Latin. The pattern was previously borrowed as "pretium", which became "price" in English. It demonstrates that the term completely changes after borrowing and concludes that this is a loanword that shifts loanword types since only the meaning is borrowed. This term is borrowed throughout the process of word creation. Enemy An "enemy" as defined by Merriam-Webster dictionary is someone who opposes another. Merriam-Webster dictionary also defines "enemy" as a Latin term from the 13th century, which is when it was first used in English. The word "enemy" is included in the loan shift. The word "inimicus" was the pattern before it was borrowed, whereas "enemy" is the translation in English. Only the meaning of the term borrowed may be deduced, however the pattern cannot. Furthermore, depending on the pattern, it is shown that the pattern entirely changes once it is borrowed. This term is involved in the process of word development as a result of borrowing. Following the completion of the aforementioned research, it is reasonable to conclude that the great majority of the borrowing words identified in the data were subjected to form modifications. Put another way, the bulk of them preserved the meaning that they had when they were brought into the English. Among the borrowing words used by Obama in this data set, the majority are derived from Latin and old English, with a few words from other languages thrown in for good measure. As a result of their inclusion in the Merriam Webster dictionary, it is reasonable to assume that they have been previously investigated as a manifestation of the development of the English through time. CONCLUSION The purpose of this research is to identify three different kinds of loanwords that appeared in Barack Obama's first inaugural address. The theory of Haugen states that there are three types of loanwords: loanwords that have no phonetic replacement (loanwords), loanwords that have a partial phonetic substitution (loan blends), and loanwords that have a full phonetic substitution (loan shift). The total number of words in all of the data results is twenty-six. The researcher discovered that loanword is made up of sixteen words in the loan blend types, nine words in the loan shift types, and one word in the loanword itself. Then, according to Yule's hypothesis (2006), twenty-six words were discovered to be involved in the borrowing word- formation process, and sixteen words were found to be involved in the derivation word-formation process. Conclusively, the data demonstrate how rapidly English has developed as a consequence Muziatun, Muzdalifah Mahmud, & Fatia Hanapi Loanwords in Barack Obama's inaugural speech 242 of the borrowing process, making it one of the fastest-growing languages in the world. However, since the concept of language is always evolving and responding to new discoveries, it is essential that this research be carried out today more than ever before. The reason for this is because it is crucial to assess the extent to which language evolves as a consequence of technological advancement. 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