































 
 Epidemiology and Society Health Review| ESHR 
Vol. 7, No. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33 ISSN 2656-6052 (online) | 2656-1107 (print) 
      http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eshr/index                                                   eshr@ikm.uad.ac.id 

 

 

      10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565  

 
 

25 

 
 

  

 
Review Article 
 
Exclusive Breastfeeding as a Risk Factor for Stunting 
Among Under-Fives in Urban and Rural Indonesia: A 
Systematic Review 
 
Rena Anjeli Wibowo1, Asep Rustiawan1* 
1 Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 
 
* Correspondence: asep.rustiawan@ikm.uad.ac.id. Phone: +6285743847969  
 
Received 12 January 2025; Accepted 27 January 2025; Published 2 February 2025 

ABSTRACT 

Background: Previous research found that children in rural areas have a 1.3 times greater 
risk of stunting than children in urban areas. Exclusive breastfeeding is one of the risk 
factors for stunting. The 2017 Indonesian Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS) showed 
that the percentage of exclusive breastfeeding in urban areas was 37.8%, while in rural 
areas, it was 46.9%. The purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude of the risk 
of stunting in toddlers who are not exclusively breastfed in rural and urban areas. 
Method: This research used a Meta-Analysis Systematic Review by searching articles in 
PubMed, Google Scholar, and Garuda that were in Indonesian or English and published 
between 2019 and 2024. Keywords included stunting, risk factors, exclusive breastfeeding, 
children under five, rural, and urban. The article search used the PICO framework, while the 
article quality assessment used the Joanna Bright Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal 
Instrument. The data collected was presented in a PRISMA diagram and analyzed based 
on Forest Plot graphs using RevMan 5.4.1. 
Results: A total of 3,269 articles were identified, and 11 met the criteria. The analysis 
showed that toddlers not exclusively breastfed had a 3.84 times greater risk of stunting in 
rural areas and 2.38 times greater for urban regions than exclusively breastfed toddlers. 
Conclusion: Children who are not exclusively breastfed in rural areas are at greater risk of 
stunting than those in urban areas.    

Keywords: Stunting; Risk Factors; Exclusive Breastfeeding 

INTRODUCTION 

Toddlers have a double burden of nutritional problems, including obesity, stunting, anemia, 
thinness, and malnutrition.1 Stunting is a chronic nutritional problem with a lower height or 
length than the established standard. A child is said to be stunted if the height or length 
according to age has a Z-score value <-2SD.2 The prevalence of stunting in children under 

http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eshr/index
mailto:eshr@ikm.uad.ac.id
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

26 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

the age of five globally in 2022 is estimated to reach 22.3%. This means that around 148.1 
million children worldwide are stunted.3 

The 2023 Indonesian Health Survey (HIS) results found that 1 out of 5 toddlers in Indonesia, 
or 21.5%, experienced stunting.4 This figure shows a decrease of 0.1% compared to the 
prevalence in 2022 at 21.6%. Despite the decrease, this progress has not been able to meet 
the target of the 2020-2024 National Medium-Term Development Plan (NMTDP), which 
targets the stunting of 14% in 2024. 

Rural and urban areas show different patterns in stunting incidence. Globally, the prevalence 
of stunting in rural areas is almost twice as high as in urban areas. Based on data from the 
Food Agriculture Organization, the prevalence of stunting is 1.6 times higher in rural areas 
than in urban areas.5 The 2018 Basic Health Research (BHS) results in Indonesia showed 
that the prevalence of stunting in rural areas reached 21.5%, while in urban areas, it was 
17.4%.6 The 2023 SKI report showed the same results, that the prevalence of stunting in rural 
areas was higher at 13.9% and in urban areas at 12.3%.7 

Stunting resulted from a complex interaction between direct causal and contextual factors. 
The WHO conceptual framework on stunting in children illustrates that a country and its society 
play a role in stunting children in that country. External factors include culture, education, 
health services, economic conditions, politics, agricultural conditions and food systems, water 
conditions, sanitation, and the environment. Meanwhile, internal factors in the child's home 
also influential such as adequate childcare, exclusive breastfeeding (EB) and optimal 
complementary foods (CF), maternal conditions, home conditions, food quality, food and water 
safety, and infection factors.8 This reflects that stunting is caused by household, 
environmental, socio-economic, and cultural factors.9 

Exclusive breastfeeding is one of the risk factors for stunting. Exclusive breastfeeding is the 
best source of nutrients for infants, which can reduce the prevalence of child morbidity and 
mortality.10 Despite the fact that breast milk is the best food for infants, not all infants receive 
exclusive breastfeeding.11 Based on the Indonesian Nutritional Status Study (INSS) results, 
as many as 48.2% of infants in Indonesia received exclusive breastfeeding in 2021, which 
decreased to 14.6% in 2022. This shows that the coverage of exclusive breastfeeding in 
Indonesia is still low.12 

Various studies in both rural and urban areas have shown that the inconsistency of exclusive 
breastfeeding can be a significant risk factor for stunting. Studies located in rural areas have 
shown that non-exclusive breastfeeding has an impact on the incidence of stunting.13 Several 
studies located in urban areas have also shown a relationship between exclusive 
breastfeeding and the incidence of stunting.14,15,16,17 In this case, it is interesting to know 
whether the risk of stunting in toddlers who do not receive exclusive breastfeeding in rural 
areas is the same as in urban areas. This information is essential to formulate a more effective 
strategy to reduce stunting rates in Indonesia. Based on this description, this study intended 
to determine the magnitude of the risk of stunting in toddlers who do not receive exclusive 
breastfeeding in rural and urban areas. 

 

 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

27 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

METHOD 

This research used a Meta-Analysis Systematic Review based on article search results in the 
electronic databases PubMed, Google Scholar, and Garuda. Articles were collected from 
August 2024 to September 2024. Keywords included stunting, risk factors, exclusive 
breastfeeding, children under five, rural, and urban, combined using Boolean Operators (AND, 
OR). The article searches flow used the PICO framework (Population, Intervention, 
Comparison and Context). Population explains the characteristics of the population to be 
observed, in this case, children under 5 years old (toddlers); Intervention explains the 
intervention or exposure being studied, namely toddlers who do not receive exclusive 
breastfeeding; Comparison informs the comparison group, namely toddlers who receive 
exclusive breastfeeding; and Outcome explains the results of previous studies that are 
consistent with the research topic, namely the incidence of stunting—article quality 
assessment using the Joanna Bright Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal instrument. The collected 
data were presented in a PRISMA diagram following the identification, screening, eligibility, 
and inclusion selection stages. Data analysis based on the results of the Forest Plot graph 
using RevMan 5.4.1. 

This study set the inclusion criteria of the article as follows: scientific articles published in 2019-
2024; the study population was children under five years old (toddlers); the study examines 
risk factors for stunting; the location of the study was conducted in rural and urban areas in 
Indonesia according to the criteria of the Central Statistics Agency (CSA); the analytical 
observational study design includes Cohort, Case-Control, and Cross-Sectional; provides 
Odds Ratio (OR), Risk Ratio (RR), and Prevalence Ratio (PR); and the article was available 
in full text. The exclusion criteria applied were articles that were not primary research and 
articles in languages other than Indonesian and English. This study examines the findings of 
previously existing research using a Meta-analysis design of secondary data that has been 
published and does not involve human subjects directly, so it does not require Ethical 
Approval. 

RESULTS 

Figure 1 shows the research process; in the initial search process on various databases, 
article results were sourced from Google Scholar (2,855 articles), PubMed (167 articles), and 
Garuda (247 articles), so a total of 3,269 articles were obtained. After removing duplicate 
articles, the results were 2,264 articles. From this number, a systematic analysis was then 
carried out so that the final number of articles that met the criteria was 11, as presented in 
Table 1. Among the 11 selected articles, there are 6 research articles in rural areas and 5 
research articles in urban areas. Furthermore, the Forest Plot analysis results are presented 
in Figure 2. 

Forest Plot on Figure 2 shows that in rural areas, toddlers who do not receive exclusive 
breastfeeding are at 3.84 times greater risk of experiencing stunting compared to toddlers who 
receive exclusive breastfeeding (OR=3.84; 95% CI=2.47–5.97; p<0.00001). For urban areas, 
toddlers who do not receive exclusive breastfeeding are at 2.38 times greater risk of 
experiencing stunting compared to toddlers who receive exclusive breastfeeding (OR=2.38; 
95% CI=1.03–5.51; p=0.04). The significance value also shows that exclusive breastfeeding 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

28 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

is associated with the risk of stunting in toddlers both in rural (p<0.00001) and urban (p<0.04) 
areas. 

RESULTS 

The results of the article search are presented according to the following systematic flow: 

 

Figure 1. The flowchart of the paper selected in this study 
 

Table 1. List of Articles with Exclusive Breastfeeding Variables to be Analyzed 
 

No Author (Year) Research 
Design 

Setting 
Area 

p-
value 

OR (CI) 

1. Safitri, et al (2023) Case 
Control Rural 0.03 2.09 (0.98-4.61) 

2. Agussalim, et al (2024) Case 
Control Rural 0.03 2.44 (1.24-4.29) 

3. Fithria, et al (2024) Case-
Control Rural 0.00 4.56 (2.25-9.23) 

4. Wicaksono, et. al (2021) Case-
Control Rural <0.01 3.64 (2.01-6.61) 

5. Wahyuni, et al (2019) Case 
Control Rural 0.00 5.67 (1.97- 15.51) 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

29 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

No Author (Year) Research 
Design 

Setting 
Area 

p-
value 

OR (CI) 

6. Modjo, et al (2023) Case-
Control Rural 0.00 14.06 (4.27-46.23) 

7. Widayati, et al (2021) Case 
Control Urban 0.36 1.56 (0.71-3.39) 

8. Al-Ayubi, et al (2021) Case 
Control Urban 0.62 1.33 (0.59 – 3.01) 

9. Yuniarti, et al (2019) Case 
Control Urban 0.00 19.5 (5.56 - 68.36) 

10. Maulana, et al (2023) Case 
Control Urban 0.02 3.47 (1.17-10.32) 

11. Wahyuningrum, et al (2023) Case 
Control Urban 0.50 1.02 (0.63- 1.65) 

 
 

 

Figure 2. Forest Plot of the Relationship between Exclusive Breastfeeding and Stunting in 
Rural and Urban Areas 

DISCUSSION 

This study is a systematic review and combines quantitative estimation results (Meta-analysis) 
from several previous studies that answer the same research problem and can be combined. 
The study was conducted on exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting in toddlers 
in rural and urban areas in Indonesia. The results of the study showed that toddlers who did 
not receive exclusive breastfeeding in rural areas were at greater risk of suffering from stunting 
compared to toddlers who did not receive exclusive breastfeeding in urban areas. 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

30 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) 
recommend that babies only be given breast milk for at least six months. Exclusive 
breastfeeding is recommended in the first six months of a baby's life because pure breast milk 
is not contaminated and contains many nutrients needed by babies at that age.18 In line with 
WHO, the Minister of Health, through the Regulation of the Minister of Health (RMH) No. 15 
of 2014, also stipulates the provision of exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months, without adding 
and/or replacing it with other foods or drinks.19 

Breast milk is a fat emulsion in a solution of protein, lactose, and inorganic salts released by 
the mother's breasts, which is useful as a nutritional intake for babies. Breast milk is a white 
liquid produced by the mother's mammary glands during breastfeeding. Breast milk is a food 
that has been prepared for babies since the mother is pregnant.20 Breast milk is the perfect 
food source with nutritional content that matches the body's needs and B12-binding protein, 
an essential amino acid that plays a vital role in increasing the number of baby brain cells and 
is related to the baby's intelligence.21 

The results of the Meta-analysis conducted in this study strengthen the evidence that non-
exclusive breastfeeding consistently increases the risk of stunting, both in rural and urban 
areas. In rural areas, toddlers who do not receive exclusive breastfeeding are at 3.84 times 
greater risk of stunting compared to toddlers who receive exclusive breastfeeding (OR=3.84; 
95% CI=2.47–5.97; p<0.00001). For urban areas, toddlers who do not receive exclusive 
breastfeeding are at 2.38 times greater risk of stunting compared to toddlers who receive 
exclusive breastfeeding (OR=2.38; 95% CI=1.03–5.51; p=0.04). This means that toddlers who 
do not receive exclusive breastfeeding in rural areas have a greater risk of stunting compared 
to toddlers who do not receive exclusive breastfeeding in urban areas. The high risk of stunting 
in toddlers in rural areas is because rural areas have limited resources compared to urban 
areas, such as socio-economic levels, parental education and knowledge, and access to 
health services.22,23,24,24,26 

The socio-economic level greatly influences families in meeting the nutritional needs of 
toddlers. The more excellent the opportunity to earn income, the healthier the choice of 
additional food and lifestyle habits. Low family income levels will cause stunting in children 
due to decreased purchasing power for quality food.27 If access to food in the family is 
disrupted due to poverty, stunting in toddlers will occur.28 

Parents, especially mothers with low education, will find it difficult to absorb information, which 
can put their toddlers at risk of stunting. Mothers with higher education will find obtaining 
information about the nutrition their children need easier.29 Mothers must know how to meet 
nutritional needs to prepare for pregnancy, during pregnancy, and after birth to increase breast 
milk production. Efforts that can be made to overcome stunting include providing exclusive 
breastfeeding for 6 months, early breastfeeding when the baby is born, ensuring that food is 
available in reasonable quantity and quality, and receiving good and proper care.30  

Access to health services that are too far and difficult to reach can be an obstacle for pregnant 
women to check their fetal health (antenatal). As a result, pregnant women lack information 
related to nutrition during pregnancy, even though stunting prevention can be done starting 
from the age of 0 days. Checking children's health through health services can help mothers 
monitor their children's growth and development to avoid malnutrition and disease infections.31 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

31 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

CONCLUSION 

Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that toddlers in rural and urban areas 
who do not receive exclusive breastfeeding have a greater risk of experiencing stunting than 
toddlers who receive exclusive breastfeeding. However, toddlers who do not receive exclusive 
breastfeeding in rural areas are at greater risk of suffering from stunting compared to toddlers 
who do not receive exclusive breastfeeding in urban areas. This situation is influenced by 
complex factors such as socio-demographics, economics, and health services. Policy 
recommendations to address this problem include poverty reduction, education, and quality of 
health services, including antenatal checks. A holistic solution involving all stakeholders is 
needed to reduce the disparity between rural and urban areas. 

Acknowledgement 

The researchers would like to thank the research database providers from PubMed, Google 
Scholar, and Garuda. 

Declarations 

Authors' contribution 

RAW was responsible for the research design and data collection; AR provided data 
analysis and reviewed the manuscript. 

Funding statement 

This research has not received external funding. 

Conflict of interest 

There is no conflict of interest in this research. 

REFERENCES  

1. Agustina SA& Rahmadhena MP. Analysis of Determinants of Toddler Nutritional 
Problems. Journal of Health. 2020;7(2):353–60. https://doi.org/10.35730/jk.v11i1.685 /  

2. WHO. World Health Organization (WHO). Nutrition Landscape Information System 
(NLIS).2021.  

3. UNICEF, WHO, WORLD BANK. Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition. 2023:4. 
4. Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia. Stunting in Indonesia and Determinant 

Factors. In: SKI Thematic Report 2023. 2023. 
5. FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WEP, WHO. Urbanization, Agrifood Systems Transformation and 

Healthy Diets Across the Rural-Urban Continuum. In: The State of Food Security and 
Nutrition in the World 2023. Rome. 2023:1–316. 

6. Basic Health Research (BHR). Balitbangkes Publishing Institute. 2018:1–627. 
7. Indonesia Ministry of Health. Indonesian Health Survey (SKI) in Figures. Ministry of Health 

of the Republic of Indonesia. Central Jakarta. 2023:1–964. 
8. WHO. Childhood Stunting: Context, Causes and Consequences WHO Conceptual 

framework. 2013. 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://ejurnal.stikesprimanusantara.ac.id/index.php/JKPN/article/view/685


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

32 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

9. WHO. Childhood Stunting: Context, Causes, and Consequences. World Health 
Organization (WHO). 2019:4. 

10. Savita R& Amelia F. The relationship of maternal employment, gender, and exclusive 
breastfeeding with the incidence of stunting in toddlers aged 6-59 months in South Bangka. 
Journal of Health Polytechnic of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia 
Pangkalpinang. 2020;8(1):1. https://doi.org/10.32922/jkp.v8i1.92 

11. Pratama FI, Mayulu N, & Kawengian SES. The Relationship between Exclusive Breast 
Milk (ASI) and Stunting Incidence in Toddlers in Manado City. e-Biomedic Journal (eBm). 
2019;7(2):156–60. https://doi.org/10.35790/ebm.v7i2.26873  

12. Indonesia Ministry of Health. The 2022 Indonesian Nutritional Status Survey (SSGI). In: 
Ministry of Health. 2022:1–150. 

13. Pratama MR & Irwandi S. The Relationship Between Exclusive Breastfeeding and Stunting 
at Hinai Kiri Health Center, Secanggang District, Langkat Regency. STM Medical Journal 
(Science and Medical Technology). 2021;4(1):17–25. https://doi.org/10.30743/stm.v4i1.65  

14. Suryani L. The Relationship between Exclusive Breastfeeding and the Incidence of 
Stunting in Toddlers in the Limapuluh Kota Pekanbaru Health Center Work Area. Midwifery 
Update Journal (MU). 2021;3(2):126. https://doi.org/10.32807/jmu.v3i2.120   

15. Suwartini I, Hati FS, & Paramashanti BA. History of Exclusive Breastfeeding and Stunting 
in Children Aged 24-59 Months in Pajangan and Pleret Districts, Bantul Regency. Journal 
of Food Nutrition Media. 2020;27(2):37–43. https://doi.org/10.32382/mgp.v27i2.1642  

16. Lestari ED, Hasanah F,& Nugroho NA. Correlation between non-exclusive breastfeeding 
and low birth weight to stunting in children. Paediatrica Indonesiana. 2018;58(3):123–7. 

17. Ministry of Village Regional Development Disadvantaged and Transmigration. Village 
pocketbook in handling stunting. 2017:42. https://doi.org/10.14238/pi58.3.2018.123-7  

18. WHO. World Health Organization (WHO). Mums Need More Breastfeeding Support During 
Critical Newborn Period.2024. 

19. Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia (Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia). 
Regulation of the Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia Number 15 of 2014. 
2014:1–13. 

20. Hajifah T, Kesumadewi T, Kunci K, Hangat K, & Tubuh S. Implementation of Health 
Education on Exclusive Breastfeeding to Improve Knowledge of Breastfeeding Mothers at 
Purwosari Health Center. Jurnal Cendikia Muda. 2022;2(September):423–8. 

21. Astriana W & Afriani B. Weight Gain in Infants Aged 0-6 Months Reviewed from 
Breastfeeding. Jurnal 'Aisyiyah Medika. 2022:128–36. 
https://doi.org/10.0.143.121/jam.v7i2.860  

22. Akram, R., Sultana, M., Ali, N., Sheikh, N., & Sarker, AR. Prevalence and Determinants 
of Stunting Among Preschool Children and Its Urban-Rural Disparities in Bangladesh. 
Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 2018;39(4):521–535. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0379572118794770  

23. Kalinda, C., Phiri, M., Simona, S.J., Banda, A., Wong, R., Qambayot, MA, Ishimwe, SMC, 
Amberbir, A., Abebe, B., Gebremariam, A., & Nyerere, JO. Understanding factors 
associated with rural-urban disparities of stunting among under-five children in Rwanda: A 
decomposition analysis approach. Maternal and Child Nutrition. 2023;19(3). 
https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13511 

24. Tadesse, SE, Mekonnen, TC, Dewau, R., Zerga, AA, Kebede, N., Feleke, YW, & Muche, 
A. Urban-rural disparities in stunting among Ethiopian children aged 6–59 months old: A 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://jurnal.poltekkespangkalpinang.ac.id/index.php/jkp/article/view/92/pdf_1
https://ejournal.unsrat.ac.id/v3/index.php/ebiomedik/article/view/26873
https://doi.org/10.30743/stm.v4i1.65
https://doi.org/10.32807/jmu.v3i2.120
https://journal.poltekkes-mks.ac.id/ojs2/index.php/mediagizi/article/view/1642/pdf
https://doi.org/10.14238/pi58.3.2018.123-7
https://jurnal.stikes-aisyiyah-palembang.ac.id/index.php/JAM/article/view/860/599
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30157677/
https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13511


 
Wibowo et al. (Exclusive breastfeeding as a risk factor for stunting among under-fives in urban and rural Indonesia) 

 

33 
Vol. 7, no. 1, 2025, pp. 25-33    10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12565 

  

multivariate decomposition analysis of 2019 Mini-EDHS. PLOS ONE. 2023;18(4 April):1–
10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284382  

25. Grind, VGT, Uy, J., & Casas, LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the 
Philippines? A decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutrition. 2022; 25(11):2995–3007. 
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X  

26. Widyaningsih, V., Mulyaningsih, T., Rahmawati, FN, & Adhitya, D. Determinants of Socio-
Economic and rural-urban disparities in stunting: evidence from Indonesia. Rural Remote 
Health. 2022; 22(1):7082. https://doi.org/10.22605/RRH7082  

27. Palupi FH, Renowening Y, & Mahmudah H. Mother's Knowledge About Nutrition Is Related 
to the Incidence of Stunting in Toddlers Aged 24-36 Months. Mahardika Health Journal. 
2023;10(1):1–6. https://doi.org/10.54867/jkm.v10i1.145  

28. Wahyuni D. Socio-economic influences on stunting incidence in Kulau Mining Village, 
Kampar. Preportif: Journal of Public Health. 2020;4(1):25. 
https://doi.org/10.31004/prepotif.v4i1.539  

29. Tebi, Dahlia, Wello EA, Safei I, Rahmawati & Juniarty S. Literature Review of Factors 
Affecting Stunting in Toddlers. Fakumi Medical Journal: Journal of Medical Students. 
2022;1(3):234–40. 

30. Noorhasanah E & Tauhidah NI. The Relationship between Mother's Parenting Patterns 
and the Incidence of Stunting in Children Aged 12-59 Months. Journal of Pediatric 
Nursing. 2021;4(1):37–42. https://doi.org/10.32584/jika.v4i1.959 

31. Solikhah LS, Huraera WR, & Imansari A. The Relationship between Mother's 
Characteristics, Services and Facilities of Integrated Health Posts (Posyandu) with the 
Participation of Toddler Mothers to Integrated Health Posts (Posyandu) in the Working 
Area of Kinovaro Health Center. Ghidza: Journal of Nutrition and Health. 2023;7(2):216–
226. https://doi.org/10.22487/ghidza.v7i2.1000 

https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.26555/eshr.v3i1.3629
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284382
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X
https://doi.org/10.22605/RRH7082
https://doi.org/10.54867/jkm.v10i1.145
https://doi.org/10.32584/jika.v4i1.959
https://doi.org/10.22487/ghidza.v7i2.1000

