































 

 Epidemiology and Society Health Review| ESHR 
Vol. 7, No. 1, 2025, pp. 34-56 ISSN 2656-6052 (online) | 2656-1107 (print) 
      http://journal2.uad.ac.id/index.php/eshr/index                                                   eshr@ikm.uad.ac.id 

 

 

      10.26555/eshr.v7i1.12457  

 
 

34 

 
 

  

 
Review Article  
 
From Wealth to Waste: The Environmental Toll of Gold 
Mining in Ghana 
 
Baba Imoro Musah1* 

1 CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical 
Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 666316 Menglun, Yunnan Province, China 

 
* Correspondence: babamusah94@yahoo.com. Phone: +233534266544  
 
Received 30 December 2024; Accepted 05 March 2025; Published: 05 March 2025 
 
ABSTRACT 

Background: The gold mining industry has been pivotal in driving Ghana's economic 
expansion and development. This sector has substantially influenced the national economy, 
generating significant revenue and employment opportunities. Furthermore, the financial 
resources accrued have enabled investments in critical domains, fostering national 
progress. This review provides a nuanced examination of the socioeconomic implications 
of gold mining in Ghana, offering insights to inform policymaking and promote sustainable 
practices. 
Method: Extensive literature reviews were conducted across a wide range of leading 
academic databases, including ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, JSTOR, Web of 
Science, EMBASE, and Scopus, to thoroughly investigate the relevant research on this 
topic. 
Results: The gold mining industry generates substantial revenue and employment, yet the 
perceived benefits inadequate compared to its economic output. The sector has failed to 
consistently improve local livelihoods, with communities reporting a lack of corresponding 
enhancements in their standard of living. Significant concerns persist regarding 
environmental degradation, displacement of residents, and inequitable profit distribution. 
This analysis underscores the urgent need for stronger enforcement of environmental 
regulations and greater accountability and equity within the sector. Furthermore, there is a 
stark disconnect between the wealth generated by gold mining and the adverse effects on 
mining communities, which face grave health and socio-economic challenges due to 
environmental degradation. 
Conclusion: This review emphasizes the pressing necessity for implementing sustainable 
gold mining practices in Ghana to mitigate environmental degradation. Fostering effective 
collaboration among all stakeholders is pivotal to achieving sustainable mining operations 
and the equitable distribution of mineral wealth. 

Keywords: Illegal mining; Galamsey; Water pollution; Deforestation; Land degradation; Gold 

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INTRODUCTION 

The global gold industry is an important sector in the world economy. Small-scale gold mining 
contributes significantly to global gold production, accounting for around 12% of the total yearly 
supply. It is estimated that this sector employs around five million people across 13 major gold-
producing countries, which is about eight times the number employed in large-scale gold 
mines. Ghana, a country with an extensive history of gold mining, has experienced the industry 
as a major contributor to its economy, offering employment opportunities and generating 
foreign exchange revenue.1 Evidence suggests that Ghana's renowned gold mining industry 
has flourished in recent years, now surpassing the country's longstanding cocoa sector as the 
predominant driver of economic activity.2 The revitalization of the gold mining sector can be 
attributed to the adoption of World Bank policy recommendations, which were incorporated 
into a new national mineral policy and the 1986 Minerals and Mining Law aimed at 
reinvigorating the industry.3,4 The policy reforms included measures to attract foreign 
investment, modernize mining practices, and streamline regulatory frameworks.5 
Consequently, gold production volumes and revenues have risen significantly over the past 
decade, with the industry now playing a pivotal role in Ghana's economy, contributing to GDP 
growth, government revenues, and employment generation.5 The gold subsector's 
contribution to the GDP of the minerals industry expanded from 4.3% in 2021 to 7.5% in 2022.6  
Ghana's long history of gold mining has made the industry a significant contributor to the 
country's economy, providing employment and foreign exchange earnings.1 Ghana's gold 
mining has economically benefited the country, yet the industry's environmental and health 
effects are increasingly problematic.1 Gold mining has expanded rapidly in Ghana, sparking 
debates over whether it is a blessing or a curse. Many see the industry failing to contribute 
enough to public funds, jobs, skills, and local economies.7 Surface mining destroys forests, 
clears land, and digs up the earth, causing significant local environmental damage.1 

The gold sector is often viewed as an isolated enclave disconnected from the wider economy.8 
However, evidence shows that gold mining is no longer an isolated industry but is deeply 
integrated into Ghana's economy after major investment and growth.7 The mining industry in 
Ghana has forged a variety of economic connections, particularly backward linkages, which 
could be further bolstered through suitable policy measures. Ghana's favorable investment 
climate and abundant mineral resources have enticed more than 250 local and international 
companies to participate in large-scale mineral exploration. Presently, 16 major mining 
corporations are extracting gold, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese within the country.9 In 
addition, small-scale mining of precious minerals continues to be a vital source of foreign 
currency for Ghana. Currently, over 3,000 registered small-scale mining cooperatives and 90 
mining support firms operate in the country. All diamond production now originates from small-
scale mining activities,9 highlighting the significant role of the mining sector. These backward 
linkages encompass the procurement of goods and services from local suppliers, the 
development of infrastructure that benefits proximate communities, and the generation of 
skilled and semi-skilled employment opportunities in mining-related activities.10   

Ghana's mining industry is dominated by gold extraction, which has been the primary focus 
for many years. For instance, in 1996, gold mining made up the main activity in the mining 
sector and accounted for 41% of the country's total national export revenue.4 Ghana's 
economy has diversified beyond the mining sector, reducing its reliance on extractive 

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industries compared to other mineral-rich nations. This diversification mitigates economic risks 
and enhances the overall stability and resilience of Ghana's economic development.10 Most 
mining activities in Ghana are rural based, thus the illegal mining activities greatly affect the 
lives of the rural people because they depend on the lands and other natural resources for 
their well-being.11 The small-scale mining industry continues to thrive, attracting a significant 
portion of the labour force in the mining sector. This burgeoning small-scale mining industry 
has impacted the livelihoods of thousands of individuals, particularly those residing in mining 
communities throughout the country.11 Ghana's gold resources present a complex and 
nuanced issue, as their potential to support sustainable development and equitable 
distribution of benefits is heavily dependent on the government's capacity to manage and 
regulate the mining sector effectively, as well as diversify the economy and strengthen the 
linkages between the mining industry and the broader economic landscape. Illegal artisanal 
and small-scale mining operations, popularly referred to as 'galamsey' in local parlance, pose 
a substantial threat to the long-term sustainability of the mining industry and the well-being of 
local communities.12 These illegal informal mining activities jeopardise the environment, 
undermine the formal mining sector, and deprive the government of critical revenue. 
Furthermore, the miners engaged in these hazardous operations and the surrounding 
communities face serious health risks. The wider public is also impacted by the consequences 
of galamsey, including environmental degradation (e.g loss of biodiversity), loss of productive 
land due to unsustainable mining practices and lack of reclamation activities of lands are 
degraded, and contamination of water sources via mercury poisoning.12  

Despite Ghana's ratification of the Minamata Convention, an international agreement aimed 
at eradicating or substantially decreasing the use of mercury in artisanal and small-scale gold 
mining, the widespread practice of applying mercury continues unabated within the country.13 
As reported by Juliane Kippenberg, the associate director for the Human Rights Watch 
children's division, mercury is readily available for purchase in shops across the country, 
particularly in mining communities 14 Kippenberg further noted that a 12-year-old child, who 
had seemingly withdrawn from school, was observed engaging in the transportation, crushing, 
and washing of ore within a mining community. Additionally, Kippenberg stated that the child 
possessed a flask containing silver-like liquid mercury and provided the following account: “I 
use the hand to spread the mercury. Then I create the amalgam. I burn it on my own wherever 
I get fire, at my mother’s house or anywhere.”14  In the past decade, the Ghanaian government 
has intensified efforts to address challenges in the mining sector. This has involved 
strengthening the regulatory framework and enforcement, as well as promoting sustainable 
mining practices. The long-term impact of Ghana's gold resources on the populace will hinge 
on the nation's capacity to balance the economic benefits of the mining industry with the 
imperative to safeguard the environment, ensure equitable wealth distribution, and foster 
sustainable development. The proliferation of illegal mining activities and environmental 
degradation linked to gold extraction in recent years have given rise to concerns regarding the 
sustainability of the industry and its ramifications for local communities.7,10 

Despite the various efforts by the government to curb illegal mining activities, which continue 
to destroy freshwater resources and cause serious deforestation and severe land degradation 
across the country, especially in the mining communities, the practice continues to escalate 
daily. Although the government has implemented measures to address this issue, illegal 
mining activities have persisted, posing a significant threat to the country's natural resources. 

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This study seeks to synthesize the latest findings relating to illegal mining in the country and 
suggest practical strategies to help mitigate the impact of the consequences of illegal mining, 
particularly on water bodies, forest cover, and land degradation. It is crucial to develop and 
implement comprehensive solutions to tackle this pressing problem, which has far-reaching 
environmental and socio-economic implications for the affected communities and the nation. 

METHOD 

The methodology commences with a systematic exploration of prominent academic 
databases, including ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, JSTOR, Web of Science, 
EMBASE, and Scopus.15 This comprehensive search aims to identify pertinent peer-reviewed 
articles, reports, and case studies that illuminate the environmental ramifications of gold 
mining in Ghana. To ensure a robust yet focused literature collection, specific keywords were 
employed, including "gold mining," "environmental impact," "Ghana," "sustainability," and 
"mining waste." This strategic approach facilitates a nuanced understanding of the complex 
environmental challenges associated with gold mining activities in the region. To refine the 
selection of studies, rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria were established. Only those 
studies that explicitly addressed the environmental consequences of gold mining—such as 
land degradation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss— and were published in English were 
included in the review.16 In contrast, articles that concentrated solely on the economic 
dimensions of mining, neglecting environmental considerations, were systematically excluded. 
This meticulous curation of literature enabled a more focused analysis of the ecological toll 
exacted by the industry. Following the identification of relevant studies, key information was 
meticulously extracted, encompassing the types of environmental impacts reported, the 
methodologies employed, and the geographical areas examined. This data was organized 
thematically, facilitating a comprehensive synthesis of findings. The synthesis unveiled 
recurring themes and patterns regarding the environmental consequences of gold mining, 
underscoring critical issues such as deforestation, soil erosion, and the contamination of water 
sources. Through this rigorous methodology, the review contributes valuable insights into the 
pressing environmental challenges posed by gold mining in Ghana, paving the way for 
informed discussions on sustainability and ecological preservation. The flow chart in Figure 1 
illustrates the literature screening process. 

RESULTS 

Evaluating Ghana's small-scale gold mining industry: challenges and critiques 
The gold mining industry in Ghana encompasses two disparate scales of operations - artisanal 
and small-scale mining, as well as large-scale industrial mining. These two distinct forms of 
gold extraction have co-existed and operated side by side in Ghana for decades.17 Ghana's 
flourishing gold mining sector has yielded substantial economic gains, yet it has also faced 
intense scrutiny and debate. The industry is often perceived as an “enclave” activity, detached 
from the broader economy and offering limited benefits to local communities.18,19 Critics 
contend that despite the marked rise in production and revenues, gold mining has fallen short 
in generating adequate public funds, employment opportunities, skill-building initiatives, and 
localized economic progress.  
 

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Figure 1: The flowchart of papers selected in this study. 

Some existing scholarly work has challenged the "enclave" theory, providing evidence that 
gold mining in Ghana is now more extensively integrated into the broader economy through 
various economic connections, especially backward linkages.7,20 Nonetheless, the industry's 
impact on mining communities remains a multifaceted and intricate matter. There may be 
significant untapped potential for gold mining to boost Ghana's economic and social 
development if the right strategies are implemented. Sustainability and environmental issues 
are major challenges for Ghana's gold mining industry. Although artisanal and small-scale 
mining is essential for maintaining local economies, mining communities heavily depend on 
the success of their mining operations.17 However, this industry significantly pollutes many 
nearby freshwater sources. The small-scale and traditional nature of these mining activities 
also makes them a vital source of employment and income, particularly for the impoverished 
and marginalized populations in developing nations.21 The environmental and health impacts 
of small-scale gold mining in Ghana have been severe. Many mining communities lack access 
to basic infrastructure and resources, such as healthcare and clean water.12 Recently, some 
Ghanaian citizens, including health professionals, have called for a complete halt to all mining 
activities. This would allow the government and stakeholders to review Ghana's mining and 
mineral policies thoroughly, ensuring the responsible and sustainable use of the country's 
mineral resources, especially gold 22,23. Addressing these environmental concerns will be 
crucial to ensure the long-term viability and sustainability of Ghana's gold resources.  

Impact of small-scale mining activities on freshwater resources in Ghana 
Freshwater resources are continually decreasing in quality and quantity due to factors such 
as overexploitation, pollution, and climate change. Approximately only 1% of the world's total 
freshwater supply is readily accessible in lakes, river channels, and underground aquifers for 
domestic, agricultural, and industrial use.24 The remainder is locked up in glaciers, ice caps, 

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and deep groundwater reservoirs, making it difficult to access and utilize. This limited 
availability of freshwater resources poses significant challenges to meeting the growing global 
demand for clean water.25 Ghana's aquatic ecosystems, which include rivers, lakes, and 
coastal areas, play a vital and multifaceted role in the country's socio-economic development. 
These diverse water bodies provide essential resources and services, such as supporting 
fisheries, supplying water for agriculture and domestic use, facilitating transportation, and 
sustaining biodiversity.26 However, these aquatic ecosystems face significant challenges due 
to various anthropogenic activities, particularly illegal artisanal and small-scale mining and 
unsustainable resource extraction 27. The Water Resources Commission reported that illegal 
mining activities have led to the pollution of approximately 60% of Ghana's freshwater 
resources, particularly in the southwestern regions, with many water bodies in a dire state 28. 
The degradation of these freshwater bodies has significantly undermined the subsistence and 
economic activities of local populations who depend on them for drinking, irrigation, and other 
household purposes 29. In 2022, the Ghana Water Company Limited was forced to discontinue 
the operation of its water purification facility situated in Kyebi because “the Birim River from 
which water is pumped for treatment to the township and its environs has been heavily polluted 
due to the operations of illegal miners”.30 The Pra River, which originates in the Kwahu Plateau 
near the town of Mpraeso and flows approximately 240 kilometres southward before emptying 
into the Atlantic Ocean,31 is a vital source of drinking water for many communities in the Central 
Region of Ghana, including the cities of Cape Coast and Elmina and their surrounding areas. 
According to recent findings from the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), the Pra River 
has been heavily contaminated due to the activities of unlawful mining operations along its 
banks. This has led to a significant increase in the water's turbidity, with average readings 
rising from 2000 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU) to an alarming 14000 NTU, representing 
a 600% change.32,33 as depicted in Figures 2 and 3.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. The current condition of the Pra River in Ghana, influenced by the ongoing illegal 
mining operations along its riverbanks 

Source: Myjoyonline | Baba Adam Media Facebook Page 

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Figure 3. Koforidua Water Works highlights the pollution of River Densu due to illegal 
mining, which affects the Weija Dam, the primary source of drinking water for Accra 

Source: Gary Al-Smith|Facebook|October 2024 
 

The pollution levels are far above the recommended threshold of 4 Nephelometric Turbidity 
Units set by the World Health Organization for drinking water, indicating severely 
compromised water quality that poses significant health risks for local communities relying on 
these water sources.34 Illegal mining activities have adversely affected the water quality of the 
Bonsa River in the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipal Assembly, Ghana, leading to mean turbidity 
levels of 155.75, 135.0, and 207.0 NTU for the downstream, midstream, and upstream 
sections of the river, respectively.29 These pollution levels exceed the 4 NTU threshold 
recommended by the World Health Organization for potable water standards.34 The Ghana 
Water Company Ltd further revealed that 60% of its reservoirs located in the Central Region 
are obstructed by silt, resulting in many of its treatment facilities operating at only 25% of their 
capacity. Furthermore, national water production has declined to 40%, a significant reduction 
from 70% in 2022, indicating the once highly improbable scenario of Ghana requiring importing 
water is now becoming a realistic possibility.32 The President of the Society, Samuel Kow 
Donkoh, recently stated, “The activities of illegal Mining have devastated our water bodies. 
Making it expensive for pharmaceutical companies to treat water for production purposes. If 
this environmental degradation continues, we may soon import water to support our local 
manufacturing industry”.35 A recent study investigated the presence of heavy metals, including 
mercury, lead, arsenic, and cadmium, in two rivers located within the Asante Akim Central 
Municipality of Ghana. The water samples exhibited concentrations ranging from 0.8 to 9.5 
μg/L for Hg, 0.6 to 3.5 μg/L for Pb, 0.02 to 51 μg/L for As, and 0.2 to 5.2 μg/L for Cd. Similarly, 
the sediment samples contained concentrations of 7 to 89 mg/kg for Hg, 0.06 to 9.2 mg/kg for 
Pb, 10 to 998 mg/kg for As, and 0.1 to 42 mg/kg for Cd. The levels of these heavy metals in 
both the water samples and sediments were found to exceed the standards set by the World 
Health Organization.36 Illicit gold mining activities have significantly polluted numerous rivers 
in the country, particularly in areas with active mining operations. The rivers affected include 
the Enu River, River Offin, Afram River, River Prah, Gyimi River, Subin River, Agogo River, 
Oda River, River Owabi, and River Fum, all located within the Ashanti region.37 Additionally, 

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rivers in the Western region, such as the Daboase River, River Ankobra, and River Pra, as 
well as the Birim River and Asuboni River in the Eastern region, and the Tano River in the 
Bono East region, have also been affected by illegal gold mining.37 A recent study 
comprehensively assessed the environmental sustainability of groundwater resources in the 
Jacobu water system. The findings indicated that while illegal gold mining activities are present 
in the region, they have not yet significantly impacted the quality and availability of the 
groundwater supply, with an environmental sustainability index value of 0.845, indicating an 
excellent level.38 A recent study investigated heavy metal pollution and its ecological risks in 
riverine sediments from gold mining areas such as AngloGold Ashanti, Tarkwa-Bonsa, and 
Kenyasi, as well as pristine locations, including Kalakpa Forest Reserve, Mole Park, Kakum 
Forest Reserve, Oda River reserve, Ankasa Forest reserve, Bosomkese reserve, and Atiwa 
range.27  The results revealed that while some heavy metal concentrations remained below 
recommended guidelines in both mining and pristine sites, levels of chromium, arsenic, 
copper, and mercury exceeded established thresholds, particularly in the mining regions.27 
The concentration of Chromium in 134.13±3.61, 134.02±10.95, and 119.62±9.73 mg/kg for 
River Subri, Birim River, and River Bonsa and the pristine areas the levels were 170.80±2.21, 
2224.95±3.62, and 74.22±4.42 mg/kg for Mole River, Kalakpa River and Atiwa River 
respectively. Similarly, the levels of nickel and cobalt were 570.49±0.76 and 167.11±1.08 
mg/kg from the Kalakpa River.27 A recent study investigated surface water quality in the Pra 
River Basin. The study highlighted the negative effects of illegal mining and improper use of 
agrochemicals. It involved interviews with 344 local farmers and a physicochemical analysis 
of 33 water samples from 25 rivers in the basin. The findings showed that over 80% of sampled 
sites exceeded the WHO-recommended levels for pH, iron and phosphorous. In contrast, the 
concentrations of copper, mercury, arsenic, and iron were found to exceed acceptable levels 
for irrigation purposes, particularly in areas near mining operations, and lead concentrations 
from 30% of the sites exceeded the threshold.39  Evidence showed that between 1986 and 
2020, substantial land degradation, water contamination, and a significant loss of 27,333 
hectares of forest cover.40 The analysis predicts that the continuation of current mining 
practices will likely lead to further ecological deterioration,40 underscoring the urgent need for 
effective management strategies to mitigate prospective environmental impacts. In contrast, 
a study in the Wassa East district examined heavy metal contamination in drinking water from 
two mining districts in Ghana, Wassa East and Asutifi North. It assessed levels of iron, 
manganese, arsenic, and mercury in various water sources, including boreholes, wells, piped 
water, public standpipes, rainwater, sachet water, and surface water. The results showed that 
iron and manganese concentrations were consistently higher than those of arsenic and 
mercury.41 Notably, arsenic and mercury levels in drinking water from households and 
institutions were higher in Wassa East than in Asutifi North, although water point levels were 
similar in both districts. Surface water in Wassa East had higher iron levels compared to Asutifi 
North, while Asutifi North had elevated manganese levels compared to Wassa East. Except 
for iron, all metals were within WHO-recommended limits. In contrast, wells and surface water 
in both districts were deemed very poor and unfit for consumption.41 A recent study conducted 
in five small-scale gold mining communities located in the Amansie West District of Ghana's 
Ashanti Region revealed that the mercury concentrations in these areas surpassed the 
FAO/WHO permissible limit of 0.3 mg/kg. The observed concentrations were 0.68 mg/kg, 1.07 
mg/kg, 1.26 mg/kg, 1.28 mg/kg, and 17.03 mg/kg, indicating levels that were 2.3 to 56.8 times 
higher than the FAO/WHO-recommended threshold.42 Analysis of twenty-four water samples 

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from the Obeng ne Obeng, Abuakwaa, and Odaso communities along the Oda River revealed 
that turbidity and total suspended solids exceeded FAO recommendations attributable to 
illegal mining.43 While pH, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids were within 
acceptable limits, iron exceeded FAO guidelines, and Escherichia coli levels were higher in 
the Abuakwaa and Odaso communities.43 These findings underscore the adverse impacts of 
unregulated mining activities, which pose significant risks to essential water resources needed 
for irrigation, public health, food safety, ecosystems, and local livelihood. The assessment of 
groundwater quality in the southeastern region of Ghana's West Region revealed several 
issues. A significant portion of the samples (16.7%) exceeded WHO guidelines for total 
dissolved solids and turbidity, and most water samples had a mildly acidic pH.44 Additionally, 
most of the samples (91.7%) were contaminated with total coliform, and a quarter were 
contaminated with E. coli. While groundwater in the North exhibited good quality, Water 
Quality Index (WQI) of 96, the South had poor water quality (WQI=144.6). Overall, the 
groundwater requires treatment before it can be safely consumed, despite being suitable for 
domestic purposes.44 The assessment of water quality parameters in the Pra Basin of Ghana, 
which encompassed eight sampling sites from upstream to downstream, revealed that the 
levels of turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and biological oxygen demand (BOD) 
exceeded the permissible limits across all sites.45 Among the eight sites investigated, only 
Barekese did not exceed the permissible levels of potentially toxic metals. Arsenic (As) 
concentrations were found to exceed the permissible limit in all sites except Barekese. 
Similarly, Mn concentrations were above the permissible level in all sites except for Barekese 
and Brenase. Furthermore, Pb concentrations were recorded to be above the permissible level 
in all sites, excluding Shamaa and Barekese.45 A study analysed 56 borehole water samples 
from 19 mining communities in the Amansie West District, Ghana. The results showed that 
while some samples met WHO standards, others had increased health risks due to color, 
turbidity, acidity, and high as levels.46 The study further observed elevated health risks in some 
communities from mining-related contamination by heavy metals and particulate matter. 
Without urgent mining waste regulations, the authors warned of potential water scarcity and 
heightened health concerns.46 Yeboah et al. recently examined the link between water and 
public health, focusing on waterborne disease risk factors and water pollution drivers for 
residents near Ghana's Tano River Basin. The key findings were that inadequate sanitation, 
poor hygiene, and illegal mining contamination were the main contributors to waterborne 
diseases, while floods and improper waste management also significantly impacted 
outbreaks. The analysis further showed that 21.2% of the basin's southern region was highly 
prone to flooding.47 The unfavourable impacts of anthropogenic disturbances in major river 
basins, leading to significant variations in the ecosystem, have prompted this research within 
the Pra River Basin in Ghana.48 The results showed a sustained increase in cropland, 
settlements, and mining activities at the expense of forested areas from 1986 to 2016, a trend 
expected to continue through 2025. The changes in land use and land cover have increased 
surface runoff by 124.51% and water yield by 40.13%, accompanied by a reduction in base 
flow by 30.08 and evapotranspiration by 13.248%.48 A study of land use and land cover 
changes in the Ankobra River basin, a hub for large-scale and small-scale mining, showed a 
substantial decrease in closed forest areas. In 1991, closed forests covered 40.4% of the total 
basin, but this percentage dropped significantly to 22.8% by 2016. The main land changes in 
the basin were from closed forests to open forests, as well as open forests were converted to 
farmland, settlements, bare land, and mining areas. Mining, especially illegal mining, was the 

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main cause of deforestation in the Ankobra Basin between 2008 and 2016, as mining 
operations greatly increased during this period.49  

Impact of small-scale mining on environmental quality, forest cover and biodiversity 
The accelerated depletion of natural resources and the alarming degradation of ecosystems 
have emerged as pressing global concerns, posing considerable threats to the overall well-
being of the planet and its inhabitants.50,51 The complex ecological systems on Earth, 
encompassing both human and non-human organisms, are increasingly strained by the 
unsustainable activities of contemporary civilization.52 The primary drivers of environmental 
degradation are human-induced activities, including the excessive exploitation of natural 
resources, the release of greenhouse gases, and the pervasive contamination of air, water, 
and soil.52 Mineral extraction activities, both artisanal and industrial, are extensive across 
numerous regions in Ghana, resulting in substantial heavy metal contamination in the 
surrounding environment.41 A study on the impact of small-scale artisanal mining, focusing on 
alluvial and chamfi extraction, found that illegal gold mining in three towns in Ghana's western 
region adversely affected soil microbes.53 Soil tests four years later showed significant 
problems, including increased acidity, reduced levels of essential nutrients like magnesium, 
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and nitrogen, as well as changes in microbial communities,53 
underscoring the ecological ramifications of these mining practices. Heavy metals in 
contaminated soils have varying availability, affected by the soil's physical structure, chemical 
conditions, and biological processes. These include the soil's structure and ability to be 
penetrated, redox potential, pH, release of substances, and interactions with mycorrhizal 
fungi.54 The primary pathway for human exposure to Pb, apart from drinking water, is 
consuming agricultural produce grown in Pb-contaminated soils.55  

Tropical and subtropical dry woodlands support diverse ecosystems and store substantial 
carbon. Yet, these valuable habitats face severe deforestation risks and lack strong 
safeguards.56 Global tropical primary forest loss amounted to 3.7 million hectares, equating to 
the destruction of nearly 10 football fields of forest per minute in 2023. Although this figure 
represents a 9% decline from 2022, the deforestation rate in 2023 was comparable to that of 
2019 and 2021. This extensive forest loss resulted in the emission of 2.4 gigatons of carbon 
dioxide in 2023, approximating nearly half of the United States' annual fossil fuel emissions.57 
The situation in Ghana is not completely different from the global perspective, as illegal and 
unregulated mining activities continue to threaten the country's precious forest cover and 
endanger numerous wildlife species across the region.  

According to the Ghana Forest Watch, the country has experienced a staggering 24% loss of 
its tree cover, equivalent to 1.46 million hectares, over the past two decades.32 The regions 
where illegal artisanal gold mining is most prevalent, such as Western, Ashanti, Eastern, 
Central, and Brong Ahafo, have been the hardest hit by this deforestation. Disturbingly, these 
same areas are also grappling with the most severe water shortages.32 The loss of forest cover 
has multifaceted implications including carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions beyond the impact on 
the national economy.58 The loss of tropical forests threatens biodiversity and vital ecosystem 
services like climate regulation, biomass production, water supply, pollination, and habitat.59 
Tropical forests cover a small portion of the Earth's land but are crucial for providing ecosystem 
services worldwide. Deforestation and degradation have greatly reduced tropical forest areas 
and disrupted these vital services, making billions of people more vulnerable.60,61 According 

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to John Allotey, the director of Ghana's Forestry Commission, illegal mining activities have 
impacted seven of the country's 16 regions.62 Furthermore, unauthorised gold mining has 
affected 34 of Ghana's 288 forest reserves, destroying approximately 4,726 hectares of land.62  

In 2023, Ghana's Forestry Commission arrested 8 illegal miners, including 4 foreigners. It 
burned 10 earth-moving machines at the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve, a biodiversity hotspot 
as shown in Figure 4.  
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

Figure 4. Eight illegal gold miners, comprising four locals and four foreign nationals, were 
arrested at Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve, a biodiversity hotspot designated as a Globally 

Significant Biodiversity Area. 
Source: Forestry Commission Ghana, 2023 

 

This reserve has been recognized as a Globally Significant Biodiversity Area due to its 
exceptional ecological value, emphasizing the need for strong conservation efforts.63 Similarly, 
a recent study of the Atewa Range Forest in Ghana, a globally recognized biodiversity hotspot 
and important bird area, found a 243.7% rise in bare or developed land from 1990 to 2021. 
Additionally, the reserve is home to 102 tree species from 33 families, with approximately 12% 
of these species considered vulnerable or near threatened based on the International Union 
for Conservation of Nature Red List.64 The Ghanaian cocoa industry has not escaped the 
severe effects of illegal gold mining. This vital economic sector of the country has faced major 
challenges due to illegal mining activities encroaching on cocoa farms.65 In 2020, the Ghana 
Cocoa Board reported that a substantial area of 20,000 hectares of cocoa farmlands, 
approximately 77.2 square miles, were lost due to illegal small-scale gold mining operations.32 
The Mankrom Cocoa Cooperative Farmers Association recently reported that illegal small-

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scale gold mining has severely damaged over 100,000 acres of cocoa farms in the Mankrom 
community. Illegal miners searching for gold have encroached upon and exploited agricultural 
lands.66 The loss of cocoa-growing land harms Ghanaian farmers and the country's vital cocoa 
industry and causes environmental destruction as shown in Figure 5.  
 

 
 
Figure 5. The effects of illegal gold mining on cocoa farms in the Mankrom Community, Ghana 

Source: ModernGhana.com 

Mining has become the main competitor to farming across many Ghanaian communities, 
including Asutifi-North District. The fast growth of mining has converted large areas of 
farmland, transforming land use in these affected regions. Individuals who joined land-use 
conversion earned $31.68 more per year than others. But their incomes were unsustainable, 
driving them to illegal mining. This had major social, economic, and environmental impacts on 
local people, especially in mining areas.5 

DISCUSSION  

The Historical Trajectory of Gold Production in Ghana 
The Ancient Kingdom of Ghana, the former Gold Coast Colony, and present-day Ghana have 
been major producers of the world's gold for over a millennium. Shortly after the establishment 
of the British Gold Coast Colony in 1874, the region witnessed the formation of its initial gold 
mining enterprises. This was followed by two consecutive gold rushes in the early 20th century, 
leading to the proliferation of gold prospecting and extraction activities across the country. 
Nonetheless, the industry subsequently entered a phase of diminished production, 
commencing at the time of the nation's independence in 1957 and concluding shortly after the 
implementation of the country's Economic Recovery Plan in 1983. Over the period from 1938 
to 2002, Ghana's gold mining sector witnessed a striking revival, with production levels rising 
by approximately 700%.67 Presently, the gold mining sector contributes a substantial portion 
of the country's mineral export earnings. In 2019 and 2020, the total mineral export values 
were US dollars 6,778,746,098 and US dollars 7,245,150,698, respectively. Out of this, the 

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gold export value constituted US dollars 6,326,729,457 and US dollars 7,055,419,805 for 2019 
and 2020, representing 93.3% and 97.4% of the total mineral export value for those respective 
years.68 This reflects the significant and integral role that the gold mining industry plays in 
Ghana's overall economic performance and development. In 2023, Ghana continued to be the 
leading gold producer in Africa, with artisanal and small-scale miners compensating for the 
modest decrease in output from the large-scale mining sector. Consequently, Ghana's gold 
production rose to 114.5 tonnes in 2023, up from 105.7 tonnes in 2022, representing a 7.7% 
increase. The gold output from the large-scale mining segment decreased by 6.5%, falling 
from 3.1 million ounces in 2022 to 2.9 million ounces in 2023. In contrast, the gold production 
of the small-scale mining segment increased by 66.7%, rising from 0.66 million ounces to 1.1 
million ounces over the same period.69 The total volume of gold production declined from 4.577 
million ounces in 2019 to 4.023 million ounces in 2020, representing a 12 per cent decrease. 
This reduction in gold output can be attributed to various factors, such as the impact of the 
COVID-19 pandemic on mining operations and global supply chain disruptions. Mineral 
exports accounted for 48.4 per cent of the country's total merchandise export revenue in 2020, 
while crude oil and cocoa contributed 20.1 per cent and 16.1 per cent, respectively, in the 
same year. This highlights the importance of the mining industry to the Ghanaian economy. 
Mineral export proceeds increased from US$ 6.678 billion in 2019 to US$ 7.228 billion in 2020, 
as indicated in Table 1 and Fig. 6. This growth can be attributed to higher commodity prices 
and continued investments in the sector. Regarding employment, the total number of persons 
employed by large-scale mines as of 2020 was 34,363, comprising 8,760 direct employees 
and 25,603 contractors. The proportion of Ghanaians in the workforce was 98.7 per cent, 
demonstrating the significant participation of the local population in the mining industry.68 The 
extractive resource sector is anticipated to serve as a crucial driver of industrialization in the 
developing country, particularly through its mining operations, within the context of a post-
industrial global landscape.70 

Small-scale mining, which predates large-scale operations, remains a significant economic 
activity, particularly in remote and impoverished regions of the country.71 Artisanal and small-
scale gold mining operations currently comprise approximately 35% of the country's total gold 
output.72 The environmental impacts of these small-scale mining activities vary based on the 
methods employed and the scale of operations, with economic, technical, legal, and 
operational factors contributing to the worsening of these environmental impacts. Key 
environmental and social consequences include air and water pollution, land degradation, and 
the displacement of traditional livelihoods.73 

  The Ghanaian government's response to galamsey, or illegal small-scale gold mining, was 
prompted by public pressure. This pressure stemmed from a vigorous media campaign and 
the involvement of various civil society organisations, including OccupyGhana, who used the 
hashtag #Stopgalamseynow to voice their opposition to the practice.74  In response to public 
pressure spearheaded by a robust media campaign and involvement of civil society groups 
like OccupyGhana under the #Stopgalamseynow hashtag, the Ghanaian government initiated 
a crackdown on illegal mining operations. This involved deploying the military and police to 
enforce measures such as Operation Vanguard and the establishment of Galamsey Courts. 
These interventions led to the seizure of equipment, arrests and prosecution of illegal miners, 
closure of unlawful mining sites, land reclamation efforts, and programs to resettle the 
displaced galamsey operators. 

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Table 1. Ghana’s gold production, export and value for 2019 to 2022. 

Source:  GHEiTi Mining Sector Report 2020 
 

 

Figure 6. Ghana’s gold from 2019 to 2022 (A) total gold production and (B) total value of 
gold export. 

However, the efficacy of these actions has been limited, as the challenge of galamsey mining 
has persisted in Ghana.75,76  Earlier efforts by the Ghanaian government to address the 
galamsey issue, including the enactment of the Small-Scale Gold Mining Law in 1989 and the 
military intervention 'Fight Against Illegal Mining' or 'Operation Flush Out' in 2006, were also 
ineffective in resolving the problem.75 Despite the military's crackdown on illegal mining, the 
problem in Ghana remains deeply entrenched in the country's socioeconomic fabric. The long-
term sustainability of Ghana's mining industry depends on the nation's ability to balance 
economic progress, environmental protection, and equitable benefit distribution. The 
government's actions seem to undermine efforts to combat illegal mining, as exemplified by 
the passage of Legislative Instrument 2462 in 2022. Despite these measures, the illegal 
mining challenge persists, underscoring the need for a more comprehensive and sustained 
approach. Addressing these challenges will be crucial in determining whether Ghana's gold 
resources become a blessing or a curse for the people. 

Year Gold production, export, and 
value Large-Scale Mining  

Small-Scale Mining  

2019 
Total value of export (US $) 4,612,511,218 2,207,967,255 
Total production (oz) 2,989,444 1,587,888 

2020 
Total value of export (US $) 5,184,383,830 2,044,530,645 
Total production (oz) 2,847,183 1,175,318 

2021 
Total production (oz) 2,708,792 108,788 
Total export (oz) 2,663,438.52 100,947.48 
Total value of export (US $) 4,772,545,362 182,515,308.00 

2022 
Total production (oz) 2,171,593 523,551 
Total export (oz) 2,123,147.29 484,672.71 
Total value of export (US $) 3,899,019,038.02 873,049,270.98 

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Citizens' advocacy against illegal mining activities in Ghana 
Illegal artisanal and small-scale gold mining, known as "galamsey", continues to be a major 
issue in rural Ghana despite government efforts to regulate the sector. In 2017, Citi FM Ghana 
launched a media campaign to urge action on the devastating environmental impacts of illegal 
mining, which have harmed the country's water, forests, and biodiversity.77 Citi FM's 
#StopGalamsey campaign, civil society organisations, and pressure groups have played a 
significant role in calling on the government to act.78 The government instituted several 
measures, including the establishment of an inter-ministerial committee on illegal mining 
(IMCIM) in early 2017,79,80 Operation Vanguard and the establishment of Galamsey Courts. 
The authorities seized equipment, burned some of it, arrested and prosecuted illegal miners, 
closed illegal mines, and reclaimed the land.74,78 However, the government's actions to combat 
illegal gold mining, such as utilising the military and police and framing it as a "fight" against a 
"menace", have been criticized.81 The government's initial anti-illegal mining efforts, involving 
a military and police task force, generated some short-term positive outcomes, including 
improvements in the turbidity levels of select polluted rivers across the country.76 However, in 
February 2019, Ghanaian investigative journalist Anas Aremeyaw presented damning 
documentary evidence that implicated certain government officials and committee members 
in acts of bribery and corruption 82,83. Subsequently, in 2021, the government dissolved the 
inter-ministerial committee it had previously established to address the issue of illegal 
mining.84 Despite some interventions, the root socioeconomic and demographic drivers of 
illegal gold mining in Ghana remain unaddressed. Illegal gold mining persists due to factors 
like the profits from gold, lack of other income options, involvement of powerful political, 
foreign, and business interests, and challenges enforcing regulations in remote areas.81,85  

Recently, the Ghanaian public and civil groups have pressured the government to ban small-
scale mining in affected areas due to severe water, forest, and land damage from illegal gold 
mining.86,87. The Trade Union Congress, Ghana Federation of Labor, and other labor unions 
jointly asked the government to declare a state of emergency in areas where illegal mining is 
occurring.30 Healthcare workers advocated for the government to ban small-scale mining in 
Ghana. This call spotlights the major public health threats tied to mining, like polluted water, 
deforestation, and air pollution.22  The health professionals say there is “the rise in cases of 
respiratory illnesses, skin infections, and waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea 
in these communities is a direct consequence of the unchecked mining activities. We are 
witnessing an ecological disaster with direct implications for human health, and this must be 
addressed with urgency”.22 While organized labor had initially threatened nationwide strike 
action if the government failed to act by October 10, 2024, their subsequent meeting with 
government representatives resulted in the shelving of their earlier plans to strike.88 The 
University Teachers Association of Ghana has officially initiated a nationwide indefinite strike 
in response to the government's failure to declare a state of emergency, implement a freeze 
on small-scale mining activities across the country, and take measures to revoke Legislative 
Instrument (L.I. 2462) which grants the President the executive authority to approve mining 
leases within the country's forest reserves.89–91 The use of hazardous substances by illegal 
miners, such as mercury and cyanide, is a significant concern, as these toxins contaminate 
water sources and threaten human and wildlife well-being.92 The public and civil society 
groups have been crucial in tackling the illegal gold mining problem in Ghana. Campaigns like 
Citi FM's #StopGalamsey have raised awareness and rallied support, while civil society has 
held the government accountable and pushed for better solutions. These efforts have kept the 

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issue on the national agenda and led to the government's renewed efforts. However, a more 
complete and collaborative approach is needed to address the root causes of illegal gold 
mining. The new government under President Mahama is expected to take immediate steps 
to repeal the controversial L.I 2462 and implement some reform measures within the mining 
sector particularly the small-scale mining subsector to address the numerous bottlenecks. 

Poor enforcement of mining policies and treaties 
International treaties such as the Minamata Convention on Mercury seek to eliminate or 
drastically reduce the use of mercury in artisanal and small-scale gold mining, which is a 
particularly salient issue for Ghana. The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global 
agreement that seeks to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects 
of mercury.93 Notably, Ghana signed and ratified this treaty on September 24, 2014, and 
March 23, 2017, respectively.94 Ghana, as a signatory to a treaty, conducted an assessment 
to evaluate its institutional and legal frameworks for mercury management. The assessment 
aimed to identify mercury release sources, recognize existing gaps and determine necessary 
actions for effective Convention implementation. Key sources of mercury release in Ghana 
include artisanal and small-scale gold mining, the use and disposal of mercury-containing 
products, and waste incineration and open burning. The report indicated that most mercury 
emissions occur in the air, followed by water and soil. Furthermore, the assessment identified 
the most vulnerable groups to mercury exposure as communities near water bodies and 
mining sites, patients and healthcare workers near facilities using mercury-containing 
products, and people living near open dumpsites and waste incinerators.95 A recent study 
examined the policy coherence across sectors impacted by artisanal and small-scale gold 
mining activities. The findings indicated that the legal framework governing the ASGM sector 
lacks sufficient detail in crucial areas like gold sourcing and has complex licensing processes. 
Additionally, the study revealed ineffective enforcement of existing laws and regulations, 
partial alignment between mining policies and those of related sectors such as agriculture, 
water, land, environment, and development, as well as weak inter-sectoral coordination, all of 
which hinder the adoption of sustainable practices throughout the ASGM value chain.72 

Previous research suggested that Ghana's mining policy reforms were beneficial, but recent 
studies challenge this view. The revised framework established a more favorable licensing 
and fiscal system for mining companies, allowing them to keep some export earnings 
abroad.96 The policy changes enabled the mining industry to attract substantial foreign direct 
investment. Furthermore, the policy underscored the necessity of developing local content and 
supply chain linkages within the mining sector. However, the degree to which this objective 
has been realized remains a subject of ongoing discussion.97 Conversely, while the policy 
reforms have helped revive private investment in the mining industry in Ghana, the extent to 
which the benefits have translated to broad-based improvements in the social welfare of the 
citizenry, particularly people in the mining areas, remains a source of debate. The current 
'small-scale' mining licensing system is overly simplistic. It fails to sufficiently account for the 
diverse environmental implications, safety issues, and economic consequences associated 
with the various artisanal and small-scale mining activities.98  

The challenges in implementing policies to improve social welfare in Ghana's mining sector 
are multifaceted. Key factors include incentive problems within institutions involved in mining 
governance, an excessively centralized policy-making process, the power of the executive 

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president, strong party loyalty, a system of political patronage, a lack of transparency, and 
weak institutional capacity at the political and regulatory levels.99. Illegal mining activities in 
Ghana have led to widespread mercury contamination of water, soil, and crops. Despite 
various approaches, the issue has persisted, underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive 
policy reforms and clean-up strategies to address mercury and heavy metal pollution.13 The 
available evidence indicates that the government's ban on small-scale mining operations in 
the country during 2017-2018 resulted in improved water quality in most rivers, particularly 
those previously polluted by illegal mining activities.100 This highlights the fact that if illegal 
mining activities are curbed, the river waters will improve again through the implementation of 
sustainable strategies to protect and restore the ecosystem. While policy reforms are essential 
in directly addressing the scourge of illegal mining in the country, another crucial aspect that 
must not be neglected is the issue of bribery and corruption permeating the illegal mining 
industry. Influential individuals have engaged in various illicit manoeuvres to exploit mineral-
rich communities, with detrimental consequences for the communities, the environment, water 
resources, and government revenues.101 Numerous organisations within the nation, such as 
the Ghana Journalists Association, Civil Society Organizations, and Organized Labour, have 
urgently called for the government to revoke LI2462, a recent legislative instrument 
implemented to govern mining activities in Ghana. These entities have also demanded the 
immediate cancellation of any licenses issued for prospecting and mining operations in forests, 
protected areas, and near water sources.30 The recently enacted legislation, LI 2462, passed 
by parliament in November 2022, has significantly eased the regulatory framework governing 
the exploitation of forest reserves for mining activities, eliciting grave concerns regarding the 
appropriateness and legality of this new policy measure. One of the encroached forest 
reserves is the Draw River Forest Reserve. It encompasses a diverse array of ecosystems, 
such as wetland, and riverine habitats, established to preserve and maintain the ecological 
equilibrium of the country.102,103 

CONCLUSION 

Ghana's gold mining industry faces a complex balance between economic growth and 
environmental/social consequences. While mineral wealth has driven development, studies 
showed devastating environmental impacts, challenging effective policy implementation due 
to obstacles like inadequate community engagement and lack of political will. The nuanced 
reality includes poverty, limited opportunities, and the promise of profits motivating illegal 
mining amid complex political and social dynamics. Regulatory efforts have failed to address 
factors promoting unauthorized mining, threatening the environment and revenue. There is a 
pressing need to reevaluate gold mining's role in Ghana's development strategy, prioritizing 
long-term national well-being through diverse stakeholder engagement. Implementing 
international treaties like the Minamata Convention is crucial given the high mercury use in 
small-scale mining, which persists due to a lack of alternatives and inadequate support. The 
prevalence of illegal mining underscores the need to examine socioeconomic and political 
drivers, alongside prioritizing alternative mercury-free technologies to ensure environmental 
sustainability and productivity in small-scale mining. A comprehensive review of Ghana's 
mineral policy, incorporating stakeholder inputs, is urgently required. A holistic, collaborative 
approach can turn Ghana's golden treasure into a boon rather than a bane for the nation and 
its people. 

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Acknowledgment 

I appreciate Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, for 
the postdoctoral opportunity. 

Declarations 

Authors' contribution 

B.I.M was solely responsible for the conceptualisation, literature search, materials evaluation, 
original drafting, review, and editing of this manuscript. 

Funding statement 

This research received no specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or 
not-for-profit sectors. 

Conflict of interest 

There is no conflict of interest in this research.  

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